L. Richard's ... Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies ... translated into English, revised and enlarged

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LIBRARY
ANNEX

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CHARLES WILLIAM WASON

COLLECTION

CHINA AND THE CHINESE

THE GIFT OF
CHARLES WILLIAM WASON
GLASS OF 1876
1918

__ Cornell University Library

DS 706.R51

*■■ "■ii.'l^If!,'.?.,.',- Comprehensive geograph'

3 1924 023 165 370

Cornell University
Library

The original of tiiis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023165370

L. RICHARD'S

COMPEBHENSIVE GEOGRAPHY

OF THE

CHINESE EMPIRE

AND

DEPENDENCIES

^ m i^ M

m>

Translated into English, revised and enlarged by

M. KENNELLY, S. J.

SHANGHAI

T'USEWEI PRESS

1908

All rights reserved.

TO

ALL THOSE

WHO TAKE INTEREST

IN THE PROGRESS, WELFARE AND PROSPERITY

OF CHINA

THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

PEEFACE.

Origin of this Work. — Richard's "Geogmphie de V Empire
de. Chine" published in 1905, by the T'usewei Press, Shanghai,
was so appreciated in the East and at home, that an English
Edition of the w^ork M^as immediately requested. The Chinese
Legation in London, Officials, Railway-prospectors, Merchants,
Travellers, Missionaries, and all who take a special interest
in China and Things Chinese, have at various times urged
the necessity of the work, and augured that it would be of
valuable service to the Public. The Translation, undertaken
and carried out amidst the drudgery of class-work w^ith Chinese
pupils, remote from English surroundings, and w^ithout the
assistance of the valuable home libraries, w^as unavoidably
slow. As the w^ork proceeded, it w^as remarked that the
various reforms adopted by China, the new status of the Maur
churian Provinces, and the progress of events in the Far East
w^ould require some recasting of the original. The ne-w part
has not been throw^n into the shape of additional notes, but
has been w^elded into the old paragraphs, w^ith as little distur-
bance as possible of the order of the original. The present
English Edition is thus enlarged and revised, bringing all infor-
mation, administrative, statistical and economic, thoroughly
up to-date.

Plan of the Work. — This Work given a Physical and
Political description of China and Dependencies. The Physical
part groups all facts around the 3 natural Regions or Great
Basins of China: 1°. the Northern, around the Yellow^ River;
2°. the Central, around the Yangtze-kiang; and 3*. the Southern,
around the Si-kiang or West River. A general outline of each
region precedes the description of the Provinces. Each Province
is the object of a particular study, in which its area, population
and boundaries, its aspect and characteristics, its mountains
and rivers, its geology, its fauna and flora, its climate, its
agricultured and mineral resources, its people, race and language,
its principal towns, its industry and commerce, its land-routes
and w^aterways are minutely and methodically exposed.

77ic Coast-line, -which extends along 6 Provinces of the
Empire : Chihli, Shantung, Kiangsu, Ch^kiang, Fokien and
Kwangtiing, is treated in a special chapter. This has the
advantage of combining in a general study important notions

II PREFACE.

bearing on winds, currents and tides, which could not be easily
connected with the study of each individual Province. The
description of the coast-line proceeds from North to South,
and follows the above mentioned order of the Provinces. For
fuller details, the Reader is referred to the Index at the end
of this work.

The Political part describes the Government and Adminis-
tration, the various Religions, the Army and Navy, the
Educational system, Agriculture, Industry and Mining, the
Railway, Postal and Telegraph departments. In view of the
grow^ing intercourse with other countries, and the expansion of
Foreign Trade, the chapter on this subject will be found specially
useful, and no pains have been spared to enhance its value by
full statistical tables. Appendix II (at the close of the volume)
embodies the latest Returns for the year 1906.

A brief account of the Rise and Progress of the Empire,
and of its International Relations, is appended to this part. It is
not a dry story of kings and wars, but is intended to shovv^ the
development of the Nation, in its manifestations good as well as
evil. It will also afford a deep insight into the national mind
and life, so essential for the proper understanding of Things
Chinese. The collection of dates cannot fail to be of service to
all Readers, a-nd must be correlated with events and facts described
in. the Physical part of the w^ork.

Each chapter is foUow^ed by a library of references, and
a list of standard Authors (French, English, German), many of
whom are household words in connection with Chinese history,
literature and scholarly attainments. To all, the Translator is
much indebted for valuable information, and begs hereby to
tender acknowledgement.

A full list of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports, in the 18
Provinces and outlying Dependencies, complete the virork. Every
proper name, romanised in English, is followed by its equivalent
Chinese pictograph, a novel and valuable improvement which
will help to avoid confusion in words so similar in sound.

The Index has been carefully prepared with the twofold
purpose of securing completeness, and rendering research expe-
ditious. The names of Authors and the titles of books are
printed in italics, while figures in heavy type indicate the parti-
cular place where a subject is principal^ treated.

China is at present making every eifort to take her place
in the comity of Nations. Her Administration and Army are
being re-organized, Schools are multiplied, Railways are opened,
Postal work is improved, the opium evil is to be suppressed,
and a Constitutional Government is promised to the Country in
the near future. Other improvements, in Finance, in Law,
in National unity, will follow in due time. This awakening and

PREFACE.

re-shaping of the country cannot but interest the Great Nations
of the "world. Richard's Comprehensive Geogranhy will help
much to make China and the Chinese people better known.
Should it also promote mutual friendship between East and
West, it \vill have fulfilled a great need, and we hope be
■wrelcomed by all classes of Readers.

Corrections and suggestions will be thankfully received
by the Translator, who expresses his many obligations to his
friends for their valuable assistance and encouragement in the
completion of this "work.

M. Kennelly, S.J.

Sicawei College, Shanghai
18 December, 1907.

SYSTEM OF OBTHOG-EAPHY.

In the tranaliteration of Chinese praper names, the JVan-
king kwamikwa or Nan kwanhwa, '^ 1^ f^ (Southern mandarin
dialect) has been adopted preferably to the Pekingese, spoken
only at the Capital and in a small portion of Chihli and Ho-
nan Provinces. The Nankingese discriminates between the
initials si and hsi (as in jg sin, a letter, a note; and ^
hsing, to go), tsi and hi (as in ^ tsi, to aid; and fg ki, to re-
member), which are so bewilderlngly confused in the Pekingese.
The Nankingese is spoken by two-thirds of the whole population
of the Empire, and is everywhere understood. Its syllabary is
richer than the Pekingese, its pronunciation purer (j£ -^ chfing
yin, correct or standard pronunciation, as the Chinese say) and
better, and being now largely adopted by the Postal and Tele-
graph Administrations of China, it is most likely to outlive its
competitors.

In the working out of details, familiar spellings are main-
tained, as Peking, Foochow, Amoy, Canton, Chefoo, Soochow,
Fokien, Kansu etc. The vowels have their Italian or fixed
sounds. The aspirates, a most essential element of the Chinese
language, are indicated by an inverted comma (thus '), and the
short abrupt final vowels by the addition of h (as in ^ teh, to
attain). In all instances, the same sound is ever represented by
the same phonetical equivalents. The initials si and hsi, ts, tsi,
h and ch, six and hsiX have been carefully distinguished. The
compound consonants : hw, hw, Iw, sw, shw, sz, ts and tz,
recently adopted by the Postal Service, have been admitted and
followed. The initial nasal ng, followed by a or e, is maintained,
as its omission is considered unscientific and based on mere
convention-. The final nasals an and en; ang and eng, ung and
Sng, uan and iXen, so generally confounded by English writers
have been represented by more exact phonetic equivalents. In

SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

the alphabetical list, the aspirated characters follow immediately
the unasp4rated, and these latter are followed in turn by those
of the short abrupt final vowel sounds. Throughout the work,
every proper name, romanised in English, has beside it its
equivalent Chinese character or pictograph, a valuable improve-
ment, which will help to avoid confusion especially in words
which are similar in sound.

i

It is thus hoped that this system, which embodies the best
elements of Morrison, Williams, Wade, Giles and of the recent
Postal List, will meet with the approval of all competent Sino-
logues, and go far in solving the yet unsettled question of uni-
formity, at least so far as the English language is concerned.
M'' H. B. Morse, the learned Statistical Secretary of the Imperial
Maritime Customs, to whom the work has been communicated
as the sheets left the press, appreciated its system of ortho-
graphy in the following terms : "as scientific romanisalion, I
fully approve of your system, and I have serious fault only with
your ngan." (Letter to th« Author, 13 August, 19"07).

\1

Values of vowels, consonants, diphthongs, aspirates and nasals,
adopted in this Work.

The Mandarin dialect lacks the initial letters b, d, g, q, r, v, x and z ; and all
words end by a vowel, semi- vowel, n or ng.

Vowels and diphthongs.

a.

ai.

ao.

eh.

eul. —

as in father.

as in aye.

(final) as ow in how, but

prolonged,
as in men, yet-
as the vowel sound in

earth.
short and abrupt,
as in height, or i in sigh
(many English writers
confound ai and ei).
as ou in souse (some

write it ou or ow).
as II in hull or skull,
with an approxima-
tion to rl, as in hurl.
(English and American
writers have trans-
literated this sound
in the most bewilder-
ing manner, thus :
urh (Morrison).
'rh (Williams).
Srh (Wade, Giles).
dr (Jenkings).
rh (Edkins).
ri (Ballard).

I.

ia.

iao.

le.

ieh.
ih.

ing.

io.

ioh.

iu.

o.

oh.

ow.

u.

U.

uh.

ui.

as in pin.

as ya in yard.

i and ao sounded, but

slightly coalescing

into one sound,
as in the Italian word

siesfa.
shorter than ie.
short and abrupt, as the

vowel sound in chich.
as the vowel sound in

chin, pin.
as in king, sing,
i as y in yawn.
short and abrupt,
as ew, in pew, yew.
as 0 in long.
short and abrupt,
as ow in how (see eu).
as 00 in too, fool.
as u in abuse,
short and abrupt,
u as in too; i as in

height, both slightly

coalescing into one.

Consonants, aspirates and nasals.

The aspirate is about the same sound as initial h in English, but often somewhat
stronger. In English, the aspirate after a surd is a neglected sound, while in Chinese
it is a substitute for the lack of the sonants b, d, g hard and g soft. The Mandarin
dialect has 9 aspirates : the initial simple consonants k, p and t, and the compound
consonants oh, chw, kw, shw, ts and tz.

A nasal sound is performed by closing the lips and causing the voice to pass
into the nose.

ch. —

ch'. —
chw. —

f- —
h. —
hs. —

hw. —

k. —
k'. —

I.

m.

n.

P-

V-

(always initial) as in
church, chair.

the same sound aspirated

as in chew.

as in fat, find.

as in hang.

(always initial), a sibil-
ant sound as sh in
shin, she.

as wh in what, which.

as in tlie French jaune,
jamais.

as in king.

the same sound aspir-
ated (in some places
softened).

as in lamp, land.

as in man.

as in not.

as in pot.

the same sound aspir-
ated.

s. — as in sand.

sh. — as in shall, shut.

sz. — a peculiar sibilant, as
if followed by a quies-
cent vowel.

sze. — an imperfect vowel so-
und; e final as in table
(Wade renders this
sound by ssH, Wil-
liams by sz').

t. — as in top.

t' . — the same sound aspir-
ated.

ts. — as in wits.

ts' . — the same sound aspir-
ated.

tze. — an imperfect vowel so-
und; e final as in table
(Wade and Giles ren-
der this sound by tzu;
Williams by tsz').

w. — as in went, winter.

=*Se««!

CONTENTS.

INTROD-UCTION, 1-6.

Geography. Formation of the Earth. Modifications of the crust of the
Earth. Formation of new lands, 1. — Igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Formation of the soil of China, 2. — China in the various geological
periods. Formation of coal and sandstone. Modifications wrought on the
surface, ^'olcanic action and eruptions. Present geological action. Pre-
dominant rocks of the Chinese soli. New modifications wrought on the
surface of China, 3. — Flora and Fauna of the first ages. Primitive origin
of the Chinese. Pre-Chinese races. First Chinese Settlers, 4. — Actual
China. Situation. Divisions. Boundaries. Area and Population. Reasons
of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. Difficulty of a collective view.
Study of the 18 Provinces, 5. — References, 6.

BOOK 1.

CHINA PROPER

or
The Eighteen Provinces.

Genera) Notions, 7-20.

Names applied to the Country and People. Situation. Boundaries, 7. —
Shape. Area and Population, 8. — Geological constitution. Orography or
Mountain Systems, 10. — Historical or Sacred Mountains. Plains, 13. —
Climate, 14. — Hydrography, 15. — Lakes. Coast-line. Fauna and Flora,
16. — Diffusion of the Population, 18. — Present Division of China. The
Three Regions or Basins, 19. — References, 20.

SECTION I. — THE NORTHERN REGION, 21-89.
CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Peh-ho and of Uie Hwaiiff-ho, 21-30.

Characteristics of this Region, 21. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological
constitution. Loess or Yellow lands, 22. — Alluvial lands. Orography.
Climate. Hydrography, 23. — The Hwang-ho, 24. — X'ariations in its
Course, 27. — Flow, 28. — The Great Wall, 29. — A few other particulars
concerning the Northern Region, 29. — References, 30.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Hwang-ho (Kansu and Shensi), 31-46.

Kansu and Shensi Provinces, 31. — 1". Kansu: Area. Population. Name.
Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 32. —Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution. Orography, 33. — Climate. Hydrography, 35. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People).

CONTENTS. IX

Language, 36. — Cities and Principal Centres, 37. — Industry and Com-
merce. Highways of communication, 38. — 2". Sheiisi : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Charac-
teristics, 39. — Geological constilTition. Orography, 40. — Climate.
Hydrography, 41. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral VV^ealth.
Population (People). Language, 42. — Cities and Principal Centres, 43.

— Industry and Commerce, 44. — Highways of communication, 45. —
References, 46-.

CHAPTER III.

Reg'ion of the Jliddte Hwaug-ho (Shansi and Honan), 47-04.

Sha'nsi and Shensi Provinces, 47. — 1°. Shausi: Area. Population. Name.
Boundaries, Capital. Other Prefectures, 48. — Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution. -Orography, 50. — Climate. Hydrography, 51. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People).
Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 52. — Industry and Commerce.
Highways of communication, 54. — 2°, Houaii : Area. Population. Xame.
Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, Aspect and Characteristics, 56. —
Gealogical constitution. Orography, 57. — Hydrography, 59. — Faujia and
Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth. Population (People). Laagaoiage .
Cities and Principal Centres, 61. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of
communication, 62. — References, 63.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of the Lower Hwang--ho and of the Peh-ho (ehiWi
and Shantung), 65-89.

Chihli and Shantung Pfovinces, 65. — 1°. Chihii : Area. Population. Name.
Boundaries. Capitals. Other Prefectures, 66. — Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution. Orography, 67. — Climate. Hydrography, 69. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 70. — Population
(People). Cities and Principal Centres, 71. — Industry and Commerce.
Highways of communication. Open Ports, 78. — 2°. Shantung : Area.
Population. Xame. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 79. — Aspect
and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 80. — Climate.
Hydrography, 82. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral \Vealth.
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 83. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 86. — Open Ports. Notes, 87.

— References, 8»-89-.

SECTION II. —THE CENTRAL REGION, 90-166.

CHAPTER I.

Valleys of the Yangtze and of the Hwai-ho, 90-103.

Characteristics of this Region, 90. — Provinces comprised in it. Geological
constitution, 91. — Orography, 92. — Climate. Hyd'rography . The Yang-
tze River (name, course, changes of, distance of Ports on from sea-
coast. Navigation of, Steamboat Companies trading on), 93. — Further
particulars regarding this Central Region, 101, — References, 102-103.

CHAPTER II.

Region of (lie Ippei' Yangtze (Szechw'an), 104-H9.

Szechw'an Pro\ince, 104. — Area. Population. Name. Boundaries.
Capital. Other Prefectures, 105. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological

X CONTENTS.

constitution, 106. — Orography, 107. — Climate. Hydrography, 109. —
Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 111. — Population
{People, Races). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 112. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 116. — Open Ports. Notes,
117. — References, 118.

CHAPTER III.

Resion of the Middle Yangtze (Hupeh and Hunan), 120-138.

Hupeh and Hunan Provinces, 120. — 1°. Hupeh : Area, Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics,
121. — Geological constitution. Orography, 122. — Climate. Hydrography,
123. — Lakes. Fauna and Flora, Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 124. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 125. —
Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 129. — Open Ports.
130. — 2°. Hmian : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 131. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 132. — Hydrography, 133. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural
and Mineral Wealth, 134. — Population (People). Language. Cities and
Principal Centres, 135. — Industry and Commerce, 136. — Highways of
communication. Open Ports', 137. — References, 138.

CHAPTER IV.

Region of the Lower Yangtze (Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu), 139-166.

Kiangsi, Nganhwei and Kiangsu Provinces, 139. — 1°. Kiangsi : Area.
Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 140. — Aspect
and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 141. — Hydro-
graphy, 142. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 142. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 143. — Industry
and Commerce, 145. — Highways of communication. Open Ports. Note.
References, 145. — 2°. Nganhwei : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries.
Capital. Other Prefectures. Aspect and Characteristics, 146. — Geological
constitution. Orography. Climate, 147. — Hydrography. Lakes, 148. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 149. — Population (People).
Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 150. — Industry and Commerce.
Highways of communication, 151. — Open Ports, 152. — 3". Kiangsu :
Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 153. —
Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 154. —
Hydrography, 155. — Fauna and Flora, 156. — Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth. Population (People). Language. 157. — Cities and Principal
Centres, 158. — Industry and Commerce, Highways of communication, 163.

— Open Ports. Notes, 164. — References, 165-166.

SECTION III. — THE SOUTHERN REGION, 167-237.

CHAPTER I.

Tlie Si-kiang Valley and the Coast-rivers of Fokien and Ch6kiang, 167-173.

Characteristics of this Region, 167. — Provinces comprised in it.
Geological constitution. Orography, 168. — Climate. Hydrography, 170.

— References, 173.

CHAPTER II.

Region of the Upper Si-kiang (Yiinnan and Kweiehow), 174-193.

Yiinnan and Kweiehow Provinces, 174. — 1°. YUnnan : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 175. — Aspect and Charac-

CONTENTS. XI

teristics. Geological constitution, 177, — Orography. Climate. Hydrography,
178. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 180. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal centres, 181. —
Industry and Commerce, 182. — Open Ports. Note, 183. — 2°. Kweichow :
Area. Population. Xame. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 184. —
Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution. Orography, 185. —
Climate. Hydrography, 187. — .Vgricultural and Mineral Wealth, 187. —
Population (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 188. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 190. — Note. References, 191-
193.

CHAPTER III.

Roaion of the Middle and Lowei' Si-kiang- (Kwangsi

and Kwangtung), 194-216.

Kwangsi and Kwangtung Provinces, 194. — 1°. Kwangsi : Area. Popula-
tion. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 195. — Aspect and
Characteristics. Geological constitution. CJrography. Climate. Hydrography,
196. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 198. — Popula-
tion (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 199. — Industry and
Commerce. Highways of communication. Open Ports, 200. — Note, 201. —
2°. Kwangtung : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 202. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 203. — Climate. Hydrography, 204. — Fauna and Flora.
Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 206. — Population (People). Language.
Towns and Principal Centres, 207. — Note (Hongkong, Macao, Kwang-
chow-wan). Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication, 211. —
Open Ports, 212. — References, 213-216.

CHAPTER IV.

The Coast Region (Fokien and Chekiang), 217-237.

Fokien and Chekiang Provinces, 217. — 1°, Fokien : Area. Population.
Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other Prefectures, 218. — Aspect and Charac-
teristics. Geological constitution. Orography. Climate, 219. — Hydrography,
220. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral ^Vealth, 221. — Popu-
lation (People). Language. Cities and Principal Centres, 222. — Industry
and Commerce. Highways of communication, 225. — Open Ports. Note,
226. — 2°. Chekiang : Area. Population. Name. Boundaries. Capital. Other
Prefectures, 227. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological constitution.
Orography, 228. — Climate'. Hydrography, 229. — Fauna and Flora. Agri-
cultural and Mineral Wealth, 231. — Population (People). Language. Cities
and Principal Centres, 232. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of
communication. Open Ports. Note, 235. — References, 236-237.

SECTION IV. —THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA, 238-294.

Preliminary observation, 238. — 1°. (General Notions: Extent of the coast-
line. Its configuration. Seas, 239. — General remarks on the seas of China
(the Yellow Sea, Eastern China Sea, South-China Sea), 241. — Nature of
the coast, 242. — Coast winds. Winter and Summer Monsoons, 243. —
Cyclones. Continental landstorms. Typhoons, 245. — Fogs. Lighthouses,
buoys and beacons, 246. — Tides, 249. — 2". The Coast of Chihli : The
Poh-hai. Gulfs. Islands. Ice, 251, — Winds. Nature of the Coast. Ports,
252. — 3°. The Coast of Shantung: A. The N. W. Coast, B. The Miao-tao
Islands, 253. — C. The Coast of the Shantung Promontory. Bays. Capes,
254. — Islands. Ice. Wind. I'ide. Nature of Coast. Lighthouses, 255. —
Coast-towns (Chefoo, Weihaiwci, Ts'ingtao), 256. — 4°. Tlie Coast of Kiang-
su : A. The Coast to the N. of the Yangtze. 15. The mouth of the Yangtze

III

XII CONTENTS.

and the Port of Shanghai, 261. — Islands and sand-banks. Channels, 262.

— Lighthouses. Tides, 263. — Woosung Inner and Outer Bars, 264. —
Height of water on Woosung Bars, 265. — Shanghai (Historical sketch.
Population. Industries and Manufactures. Trade, Shipping and Tonnage.
Table of Shipping. Inland Navigation), 266. — C. The Coast to the S. of the
Yangtze, 271. — 5°. The Coast of Chekiang- : 1°. Bay of Hangchow and its
barrier of Islands, 272. — Lighthouses. 2°. Coast of Chekiang, S. of Hang-
chow Bay, 273. — Bays, 274. — Islands. Lighthouses. Coast-towns, 275.

— 6°. The Coast, ol' Fokien : Bays. Islands, 276. — Lighthouses. Coast-towns,
278. — 7°. The CoasI of Kwangtung-: Bays. Islands, 281. — Tides. Currents.
Lighthouses, 283. — Sea-ports (Hongkong, Canton, Macao, Kwangchow-

" wan), 284. — Time-zones on the Coast of China. Note, 292. — References,
293-294.

SECTION v. — POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY,

295-485.

CHAPTER I.

Government and Administration. — Revenue and Expenditure. — Imperial
Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy, 295-338.

1°. Government and Administration: The Emperor, 295. — The Empress.
Manchu Administration, 296. — Central Government, 297. — Provincial
Administration, 301. — Provinces of China and their Capitals, 304. —
Territorial Sub-divisions of the Provinces, 306. — Number of territorial
divisions in the 18 Provinces, 312. — General appellation of Officials.
The Yamen, 313. — Rank and degrees of Officials. Hereditary reward
for Merit, 314. — 2°. Revenue and Expenditure : Chinese Currency, 316.
Cash. Sycee. Various kinds of Taels, 317. — Gold equivalent of Haikwan
Tael (1870-1906), 319. — Necessity of uniform Currency. 320. — Revenue
of the Empire. Taxes (land-tax, salt-tax, likin, native Custom dues, opium-tax,
miscellaneous), 321. — Expenditure of the Empire. Foreign Debt, 324. —
3°. Imperial Maritime Customs: Origin and development. Organization, 325.

— Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326. — Revenue collected by
I. M. Customs, 327. — Apportionment of Revenue between Foreign and
Home Trade. Ports where trade is most important, 328. — 4°. Army and
Navy: Manchu or Imperial Army (The Eight Banners), 329. — Provincial
Forces or Army of the Green Standard, 330. — Irregulars or Braves. The
New Chinese Army scheme, 331. — Reorganization of the Army, 332. —
Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904. Navy, 333, — Arsenals and
dockyards. Ports, 334. — References, 335-338. "

CHAPTER II.

Population (People). — Lang'uages. — Kelig'ions. — Education, 339-392.

1°. Population (People), 339. — Physical and moral characteristics of the Chi-
nese Race, 340. — Aboriginal tribes and remnants of formerRaces; Lolos,342.

— Miaotze, Ikias, Hakkas, 343. — Hoklos. Yao or Yu tribe. Sai, Si or Li
tribe, 344. — Mosus (Musus), Lisus. Minkias. Sifans. Distribution of the
Population, 345. — Foreign (Commercial) Population in China, 346. —
2°. Languag-es : The Chinese Language, 347. — Mandarin. \"arieties of
Mandarin. Dialects (number of persons conversing in each), 348. — Charac-
teristics of the Chinese Language. Chinese writing, 349. — Dialects and writing
of the Aborigines. Chinese Literature, 350. — 3°. Uelig-ions: Confucianism.
Taoism, 351. — Buddhism, 352. — Ancestor worship. Shamanism, 353. —
Catholicism. Catholic Missions in China, 354. — Protestantism, 358. — Pro-
testant Missions to China, 359. — Mahomedanism, 362. — Judaism, 363. —

CONTENTS. XIII

4°. Education: Old System of Education, 364. — Competitive examinations
and degrees, 365. — Modern System of Education, 367. — Grades of Schools
and Degrees in new System, 368. — Normal and Special Schools. Admi-
nistration of the Schools. Private and Mission Schools, 369. — Old Style
military examinations. References, 370-392.

CHAPTER III.

Agriculture, 393-401.

Chinese Agriculture, 393. — Methods. Distribution of Crops. Various
agricultural products, 394. — Plants cultivated for food, utilized in industry,
395. — Tea. The Poppy-plant, 39G. — The sugar-cane. The cotton plant.
Useful trees, 397. — The Bamboo. Fruit-trees. Domestic animals.
Pisciculture and fishing, 398. — References, 399-401.

CHAPTER IV.

Mining' and Industry, 402-406.

Jlining- : Coalmines. Iron ore. Copper, 402. — Zinc. Tin. Quicksilver.
Gold. Silver. Argentiferous lead mines. Kerosene. Salt. Mining regulations.
Industry: 403. — Porcelain. Silk. Silk-filatures. Cotton-spinning and wea-
ving mills. Sugar refineries. Arsenals. Mints. Printing establishments,
404. — References, 405-406.

CHAPTER V.

Trade and Commerce, 407-424.

Home Trade, 407. — Trade with the outlying Dependencies. Foreign
Trade. Its Importance, 408. — Annual value of China's Foreign Trade
(1891-1905). Principal Foreign Countries with which China trades. Annual
value of the Direct Trade with each country (1903-1905), 409. — Principal
Imports from Foreign Countries, 411. — Principal Exports to Foreign
Countries, 412. — Principal Re-exports. Value and Importance of the
principal articles of Trade (cotton piece-goods and yarn), 413. — Sorts of
Opium imported. Xet Importation into the Principal Ports, 414. — Principal
Exports from China : Silk and Tea. Sorts of silk exported. Total Export
of silk for the past 10 years, 415. — Sorts of Tea exported. Total Export
of Tea for the last 10 years, 416. — Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign
Countries. Principal Marts for export of Tea, 417. — Share taken by each
Foreign Country in China's Trade. Shipping. Carrying trade between the
Treaty Ports, 418. — Trade of Shanghai (1903-1905), 419. — Traders and
Trading Houses in China. Trade and population of the Open Ports (1903-
1905), 420. — References, 422-424.

CHAPTER VI.

Means of Communication, 425-442.

Roads and Bridges, 425. — Government Courier Roads, 426. — Modes
of conveyance and travel. Waterways, 427. — Canals. The Grand Canal,
428. — Railways, 430. — Railway lines completed and working (1907),
431. — Under construction, 433. — Projected, 434. — Postal Service, 435.
— Present Tariff : Imperial Post Office, 436. — Postal Sections and Work,
437. — Telegraphs, 438. — Steamship Companies trading to and from China,
439. — References, 441-442.

CHAPTER VII.

Rise and Prosyress of tlie Cliinese Empire. — Foreig'n Relations. —
Cliinese Emigration, 443-485.

1°. Rise and Progress of the Chinese Empire. /". The Mythical Period,
443. — 11°. The Ancient or Legendary Period : 1°. The Five Sovereigns.

XIV CONTENTS.

2°. The Three great Emperors (Yao, Shun, Yu),445. — III". The SS Dy-
nasties : i". The Primitive Dynasties, 445. — The Chinese Imperial Dy-
nasties, Table of, 446. — The Hsia dynasty. The Shang or Yin dynasty,
448. — The Chow dynasty, 449. — 2°. The Ancient Dynasties : The Ts'in
dynasty, 450. — The Han dynasty, 451. — The Minor Han. The Tsin
dynasty, 453. — The Liusung dynasty. The Three Short-lived dynasties,
454.-3°. The Mediseval dynasties, 455. — The T'ang dynasty, 456.— The
Five Ephemeral dynasties. The Sung dyna.sty, 457. — The Yilen or Mongol
dynasty, 459, — 4°. The Modern dynasties : The Ming dynasty, 460. —
The Tats'ing dynasty, 461-471. — IP. Foroig-n Relations, 471. — Famous
Travellers to and from China, 472, — Intercourse of "Western Powers with
China from the XVI'i' century to 1842, p. 473. — Relations of China with
Foreign Powers from 1842 (Treaty of Nanking), 475. — III". Emigration
(Chinese abroad), 478. — References, 479-485.

BOOK II.

OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTER I.

Manchuria or the Manclui Country, 486-508.

Note. Area. Population. Name, 486. — Boundaries, Capital. Provinces
and Prefectural divisions, 487. — Aspect and Characteristics. Geological
constitution, 488. — Orography. Climate. Hydrography, 489. — Lakes.
Coast-line, 491. — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral "Wealth,
492. — Population (People), 493. — Language. Religion. Towns and
Principal Centres, 494. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of commu-
nication, 501. — Railways in Manchuria, 503. — The Palisade. Adminis-
tration, 504. — Open Ports, 505. — Historical sketch, 506. — References
507-508.

CHAPTER II.

Mong'olia or the Mongku Country, 500-522.

Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 509. — Aspect and Characteristics.
Geological constitution, 510. — Orography and Hydrography. Region of
Kobdo and Urga, 511. — Region of the Mongolian Desert or Gobi, 512. —
Region of the Great Khingan (Hsingnan). Ordos Plateau Region, 513.
— Alashan Region. Climate, 514, — Fauna and Flora. Agricultural and
Mineral Wealth. Population (People), 515. — Religion. Language, 516. —
Towns and Principal Centres, 517. — Industry and Commerce. Highways
of communication, 519. — Postal sei-vice (Russian overland). Administra-
tion, 519. — Army. References, 520-522.

CHAPTER III.

Cliinese Tiirkeslan or tlie T^e.w Dominion, also called Sinkian^, 52.'{-537.

Area. Population. Name, Boundaries, 523. — Prefectural divisions.
Aspect and Characteristics, 524. — Geological constitution. Orography,
525. — Depressions. Passes. Climate, 526. — Hydrography, 527. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 528. — The different Regions
and their Towns, 529. — Population (People). Religion. Language. Admi-
nistration, 533. — Industry and Commerce. Highways of communication
534. — Historical Note. References, 535-537,

CONTENTS . XY

CHAPTER IV.

Tibet or Sitsang-, 538-557.

Area. Population. Name. Boundaries, 538. — Aspect. Geological consti-
tution. Orography, 539. — Climate, 541. — Hydrography, 542. — Fauna
and Flora. Agricultural and Mineral Wealth, 545. — Government and
Administrative divisions: Kingdom of Tibet, 545.— Kuku-Nor. Population
(People and Races). Religion, 547. — Language, 548. — Taxation, tribute
and currency. Army. Towns and Principal Centres, 549. — Industry and
Commerce. Highways of communication, 553. — Postal communication.
Open Trade-marts. Historical Note. Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan. British Expe-
dition to Lhasa, 554. — References, 555-557.

List of the Prefectures and Sub-prefectures (Departments aud Districts)
in the 18 Provinces, arranged under their respective Provinces and supple-
mented by the Indendancies administered by a Taot'ai), 558-581.

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures of Manchuria and Chinese Turkestan,
582-585.

Alphabetical List of the Cities, Towns and Open Ports of China and
Dependencies, 586-639.

Appendix I. Signification of the Principal Chinese Geographical Terms,
640.

II. China's Foreign Trade in 1906, p. 645.

III. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China for the year ending,

1905, p. 657.
,, I\'. The "Woosung Bar, Hwaagp'u Conservancy and Approaches

to Shanghai, 659.
,, y. Work and Progi-ess of the Imperial Post Office in 1906, p

661.
Index (alphabetically arranged), 663.
Corrigenda, 712.

LIST OF MAPS, DIAGRAMS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

In Text.

Fig. Po-ge

1. Sketch-plan illustrating Formation of the Soil of China 2

2. Geological Map of Northern China according to Richthofen,

Pumpelly and A. David 9

3. Rough sketch-plan of the Upper Hwang-ho 24

4. Sketch-plan showing changes in the course of the Hwang-ho. ... 28

5. Section of the Richthofen M" at their Southernmost Pass. ... 34
G. Loess Plateau of Shansi according to Richthofen 49

7. Section of the Mountains of Western Honan, proceeding from

Hwaik'ing Fu to Nanyang Fu, 58

8. Map of Northern Chihli and Approaches to Peking 68

9. Plan of Peking, with Index 72

10. Sketch-map of T'ientsin 76

11. Geological Map of Shantung according to Richthofen 81

12. Sketch-plan, Port of Ts'ingtao •. 85

13. Section of the Mountains from Tatsienlu to the Min River Plain. 108

14. Sketch-plan of Ch'ungk'ing 115

15. Wuch'ang, Hanyang and Hank'ow 126

16. Sketch-plan of Shanghai, with Inset of P'ootung 161

17. Geological sketch-map of the Chinese Provinces bordering on

Tongking, by M. A. Leclere 169

18. Approaches to Canton 171

19. Section of Yunnan and Kwangsi Plateaux 176

20. Sketch-plan of Canton and the Pearl River 208

21. Sketch-plan of Koochow and the Min River 220

22. Sketch-plan of .\moy Harbour 224

23. Section of the PaciBc Ocean along the 20"' parallel, N. Lat. ... 240

24. Diagram illustrating the Winter and Summer Monsoons. ... 244

25. Lighthouses on the N. Coast of China 247

26. Lighthouses on the S. Coast of China. ... , 248

27. Sketch-plan of the Lower Peh-ho and its Mouth 250

28. Sketch-plan of Chefoo Bay 256

29. Sketch-plan of Weihaiwei Harbour 257

30. Sketch-plan of Kiaochow Bay 259

31. Diagram showing swirl at mouth of Yangtze at flood and ebb

tides 264

32. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 264

33 Diagram showing Height of water on the Outer and Inner

Woosung Bars (1897-1902) 265

34. Sketch-plan of Samsa (Sansha) Bay 277

35. Sketch-plan of Hongkong including Kowloon and New Territory. 284

36. Sketch-plan of Macao with Dependencies of Taipa and Colowan. 288

37. Sketch-plan of Kwangchow-wan 290

38. Railway system of Manchuria 502

39. Section of Asia, following Meridian of Lob-Nor and Turfan. ... 540

40. Sketch-map of Southern Tibet 542

41. Height of Water on the Outer and Inner Woosung Bars (1902-

1906) 659

42. Shanghai and the Hwangp'u River 660

In Pocket.

1. Large Map of the 18 Provinces, in 7 colours (27 x 21 inches).

2. Physical and Political Map of China and Dependencies, in 5 colours

(15 X 10 ii inches).

3. Map of the Hupeh Plain, in 5 colours (9 i x 8 inches).

4. Map of the Lower Yangtze Basin, in 5 colours (9-4x8 inches).

LIST.

OF STATISTICAI, lABLES.

1. Area and Population of the Chinese Empire 5

2. Area and Population of the 18 Provinces 8

3. Distance (nautical miles) of Yangtze Ports from Shanghai. ... 101

4. Hank'ow shipping Table 128

5. Foreign Population of Shanghai 207

6. Gross and Net A'alues of the Shanghai Trade (1900-1905) 269

7. Custom Dues collected at Shanghai (1900-1905) 269

8. Share of Dues contributed by G. Britain, Germany etc 269

9. Shanghai shipping Table (1900-1905) 271

10. Gross and Xet Values of the Canton Trade (1900-1905) 287

11. Total Value of junk trade between Hongkong and Macao (1900-

1905) 289

12. The 10 Ministries or Metropolitan Boards. 299

13. The 8 Viceroyalties 302

14. Provinces of China and their Capitals 304

15. Provincial Government 305

16. Territorial sub-divisions of the Provinces 306

17. Number of territorial divisions in the 18 Provinces 312

18. Insignia of Official Rank 314

19. The 9 Ranks of hereditary reward for Merit 315

20. Table exhibiting the sub-divisions of the Tael 316

21. Gold equivalent of the Haikwan Tael (1870-1906) 319

22. Revenue of the Chinese Empire 321

23. Expenditure of the Chinese Empire 324

24. Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade 326

25. Customs Revenue (1900-1905) 327

26. Share of Duties paid by Foreign and by Home Trades 328

27. Ports where Trade is most important 328

28. Banner Garrisons in the Provinces 329

29. Effectives of the Provincial Army down to 1904 333

30. Table showing increase of Chinese Population 346

31. Foreign Trading Houses and Traders in China 346,420,654

32. Population speaking Dialects of the East and South of China. ... 348

33. Number of Syllables in the various Dialects of China 348

34. Statistics of Catholic Missions in China, 1906 356

35. ,, ,, ,, ,, in Korea and Japan, 1906 358

36. Statistics of Protestant Missions in China 359-360; 657-658

37. M. A. Graduates in each Province, 1903 366

38. L.L.D. Graduates in each Province, 1904 367

39. Grades of Schools (New System) 368

40. Degrees conferred in New System 368

41. Annual A'alue of China's Foreign Trade, 1891-1905-1906. ... 409,645

42. Annual Value of direct trade with each Country, 1903-1905-1906. 409,645

43. Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905-1906. 410,647

44. Principal Net Exports to Foreign Couniries, 1903-1905-1906. 412,648

45. Principal Re-exports, 1904-1905-1906 413,649

46. Importation of Cotton piece-goods and yarn 413,649

47. Importation of Cotton yarn 414,649

48. Opium imported 414,650

49. Silk exported for the past 10 years 415,651

50. Tea exported for the past 10 years 416,651

LIST OF STATISTICAL TABLES.

51.
52.
53.

54.
55.

56.
57.

58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.

Tea : Exportation direct to Foreign Countries, 1905-1906..,. 417,652
Shipping: Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-1905-1906. ... 418,653
Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1904-1905-1906. 418,653

Shanghai, Gross and Xet Value of its Trade, 1903-1905 419

Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Open Port, 1905-

1906 420,654

Governnaent Courier Roads or Postal Highways 426

Railway Lines, completed and working, 1907 431,432

,, ,, under construction, 1907 433

projected, 1907 434

Postal Tariff; Imperial Post Office, 1907 436

Head and Branch Offices, Imperial Post Office, 1901-1905-1906. 437,661

Postal Sections and %Vork, 1904-1905-1906 437,661

Telegraph Cables in China 438

Steamship Companies sailing to or from China 439

Coast and Riverine S. S. Companies 440

Imperial Dynasties of China 446

Emigration Statistics 478

Newchwang : Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906 499

GEOGRAPHY

OF

THE CHINESE EMPIRE.

INTRODUCTION.

Geography. — Geography is nothing else than a description of the earth,

The Geography of China will consist therefore in describing that part of Asia
;h is called China.

Bat the description of the earth cannot be made without some preliminary
)us of geology, that is to say, of the science of the earth, its formation, its cons-
ion and its various modifications. By means of this study we can give a readier
lint of the surface, of the distribution of (the waters, and also of the fauna and
of China.

Fornintion of the earth. — The whole universe has been, in its elements,
bed b;- God, that is to say made from nothing by His Almighty Power.

According to the hypothesis the most generally held among scientists, the
and its planets formed at first a single nebulous body, that is to say, an enormous
roidal mass of gas occupying an immense space.

This mass, animated with a slow movement of rotation, condensed in concentric
!, turning around the common centre in the plane of its equator. Each of the
i broke up. The fragments, forming in their tarn small spheres, continued, while
ensing, to turn around the principal mass. In this way the planets were formed,
earth is one of these planets.

Separated from the sun, the earth, continuing to cool, passed slowly from the
)us to the liquid state. Blocks of solid matter soon began to iloat upon its sur-
as ice does on the surface of ponds, when the temperature has fallen for some
below 32 degrees Fab.. Then these blocks fused together, forming like archipela-
upon the liquid mass, and incnjsted this burning sea, somewhat as in the new egg
hell hardens although the interior remains fluid.

Modifications of tlie crust of the earth. — But this mass continued to
Jown, and its crust, which is none other than the shell of our globe, remained of
t thickness. Hence splits and depressions, and when the compressed interior gases
1 vent through less resisting parts of the crust, violent eruptions took place. These
•ed the crust with volcanic outbursts, or upheaved within it what have been called
ruptive rocks. This action, intense in the first ages of the earth, continues down
5 present day. Certain portions of the earth rise up, others become depressed ;
Is suddenly emerge or disappear; earthquakes shake this or that part of the crust;
noes cast around them fiery or liquid matter, issuing from the bosom of the

Formation of new lands, — Simultaneously with this interior work another
on, and still continues on the exterior of the crust of the earth. As the central

CHINESE EMPIRE.

core of the earth condensed by cooling, there occurred a similar condensation of some
of the constituents of its gaseous envelope. Heavy mists and abundant rains developed
over the crust an immense sheet of water. This mass, consequent on the never-ending
changes wrought on the surface of the crust, withdrew, now in one cavity, now in
another, thus forming mighty seas above which rose continents.

Upon these continents, as in the seas, living beings subsequently appeared;
plants, fish, birds, and quadrupeds. Some of these still exist, others have disappeared,
leaving their traces beneath the soil. Thanks to these marks, we can discover the age
of suoh or such strata of the earth. These strata are, in order of age, and beginning by
the oldest :

The

Azoic

strata (without trace of life) or primitive,

The

Primary

strata,

The

Secondary

strata,

The

Tertiary

strata.

The

Qtiaternary

strata.

Igneous and sedimentary rocks.— In these layers two kinds of rocks are found:
igneous rocks, of which the Azoic strata are formed, and sedimentary or stratified rocks.

The igneous (or Plutonic) rocks are formed by the solidifying of the exterior
layers of the molten matter : gneiss, mica-schist.

The sedimentary (or Neptunian) rocks are formed by the disintegration of the
igneous rooks. These debris deposited at the bottom of lakes and seas, together
with the remains of animals, form, through a process of drying and hardening, new
rocks [clay, sand-stone, limestone] .

This rapid and very incomplete sketch of the formation of the earth will enable
us now to study the formation of the soil of China.

Formation of the soil of China. — China, as we stated in the beginning,
forms a part of Asia, the South-Eastern. From primitive times two portions of Asia
seem to have emerged. In the North, in the region of Irkutsk and extending as far
as Korea, was the continent called Eurasia (formed by Europe and Asia), which soon
continued to the North by Anga-
ra. This continent occupied a
large portion of present Siberia.
In the South, in the present
peninsula of Hindustan, and
extending to Australia, was the
land of Gundwana (so called
from the ancient flora of Gund-
wana, common to its different
parts). Between these two conti-
nents, occupying consequently
nearly the whole space now
forming China, was the central
Mediterranean sea, called some-
times Thetys (the sea). In the
primitive period,therefore,China,
except Manchuria, the Western
border of Mongolia and some
parts of Tibet, was buried be-
neath the water.

Formation of,the soil of China.
(~] Sea. "^

Land,

In the North, Eurasia.
In the South, the land of Gundwana.
Between the two the Central Mediterranean
Sea.

INTRODUCTION. 6

China in the different geological periods. — At the close of the Primary
period, the greatest portion of China emerged, save the South-Western.

Durinfi- the whole of the Primary period and the iirst part of the Secondary
period, China remained under water. It then emerged definitively. Subsequently
came foldings and dislocations, which evolved hollows like that of Sungaria, or emerged
in peaks like those of the Altai' mountains, T'ien-shan, K'nenlun, Nan-shan and Tibet.
Several of these summits, the K'nenlun and Nan-shan for instance, were formerly
very high, but erosion has greatly lessened them. Of the sedimentary coating that
covered the high summits, there remain but fragments in the less elevated parts, as
in the South-Westei-n portion of China.

After the first half of the Secondary period, the geological constitution of China
was nearly completed. No trace is to be found of jura-limestone and chalk formations,
such as were formed elsewhere at the end of the Secondary period.

During the Tertiary and Quaternary period, China, now completely out of water,
underwent but modifications of its surface, and developed no new rocks.

Formation of coal and sand-stone. — At the close of the Primary period,
immense deposits of coal formed along the coasts of Eurasia and Gnndwana, in tho
place now occupied by Yiinnan, Kweichow, Honan, Shensi and Shansi.

Great lakes occupied a portion of Eastern China from the Secondary period.
When these disappeared, they left behind a thick bed of rooks deposited in their depths;
to these rocks has been given the name of sand-stone, so abiindant still in many pla-
ces of China, and particularly in Szechw'an and throughout the whole of Southern
China.

Modifications -n^rought on the snrface. — At the same time the mountain-
tops were attacked by glaciers, winds, frosts and torrents, and the debris borne away;
lakes were filled, the gentler hills became plains, islands like Shantung were joined
together, and there were deposited in the North those thick layers of yellow and
fertile earth, called Icess, which we shall have more than once occasion to speak about.
Volcanic Action and Eruptions. — Volcanic action does not seem to have
been intense. There remain traces of it however in the neighbourhood of Nanking, in
the North of Peking, in some regions of Mongolia and in Tibet.

The eruptive rocks play a more important part. These rocks, the principal of
which are porphyry and granite, were spread over a great part of China. The moun-
tains of Pokien, for instance, are mostly composed of porphyry.

Present geological action. — This work of geological formation still goes on
at the present day, and is more especially to be seen at the mouths of the great rivers
where new lands, called deltas, are continually forming.

Predominant Roclis of the Chinese soil. — From what has been said upon
the geological formation of China, it is easy to account for the rooks that predominate.
For the most part the strata are either Primary or Secondary. The Azoic strata are
scarcely represented, covered over as they are by the others. Coal takes up a large
place, and loess covers a vast portion of Northern China, extending from Kansu to
Shantung and Kiangsu.

A peculiar kind of limestone, known as China limestone, and formed before the
coal-beds, is found all over China. Its thickness is at times 10,000 ft. and sometimes
more. It is the rock the most widely diffused throughout China.

New modifications -wrought on the snrface of China. — It may be said
in general, that the surface of China slopes from West to East, the highest peaks being
found in Tibet and the vast low-lying plains in the East. This slope is moreover

4 CHINESE EMPIRE.

cleai-ly indicated, by the general direction of the great rivers. But it has not always
been thus. Sfany actual mountain-masses ; Tibet, Szeohw'an, Yiinnan, were once great
table-lands, that sloped in course of time to the East. It is thus that the same laj'er
of rooks is found in the sea, on the coasts of Tongking, and at an elevation of 6500 ft. in
Yiinnan and Szeohw'an. Other parts, now immense plains, were formerly mountains,
but the unceasing action of alluvion-charged rivers, and sand-laden winds gi'adiially
filled up the valleys, leaving nothing henceforth emerging but the highest peaks. The
table-lands were also vigourously attacked by the combined action of climate and
water which constantly eroded and disintegrated them. Mighty glaciers, like those
nowadays in Tibet and Eastern Turkestan, dug out deep valleys; long frosts rent the
rooks ; and the water, to find an issue, worked a passage through the least resisting
parts of the strata.

Lakes, encircled b/ a girdle of rocks, deposited there heavy alluvion, and then
filling up, overflowed their low banks. This action of the water gradually wore way
the rooks, rapids dug deep gorges, imtil at last the lakes were drained, and left behind
a fertile soil, which brought prosperity to its possessors.

Flora and fauna of the first ages. — What were the primitive fauna and
flora of China ? This we can learn by studying its rocks. Suffice it to state that copious
vegetation once covered its high peaks; it is this vegetation which, buried in the
depths of the earth, has formed the present coal-fields. Animals, much larger than
these of to-day, among others the mammoth, inhabited the country.

The first inhabitants of China. Their place of orighi. — Who were the
first inhabitants of China ? In the present state of science, an answer to this question
is impossible. Did they come from the S.-W. by Burma ? From the N., by the great
plain of Siberia, or from the N. W. by the valley of the Hwang-ho ? In the absence of
trustworthy documents, we will follow the Chinese traditions, according to which the
hundred families^ the hlach^liaired race, came from the \^'est.

The first Chinese inhabitants (according to their ancient descriptive chara-
cters). — When the race first entered the country, they found it still covered with
swamps, and transformed it little by little into agricultural land. They had also to
dwell temporarily in mountain caves, and wage constant war against wild animals : the
lion, rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, panther, bear, wolf etc... all these being then more
numerous than now. They came likewise into contact with a half-savage population,
frequently hostile, with whom they had at times to dwell together, but were compelled
oftener to fight. Several of these races are still extant in China, in the S. especially :
the Lolos, and the Miao-tze. Others, the I, seem to have been driven Northwards and
thence to have crossed over to America.

What were the life, manners, language, and religion of these first Chinese ?
They were nomads, shepherds and hunters, but settled down gradually and cultivated
the soil. Covered at first with the skins of wild beasts, they learned later on to ma-
nufacture cloth and make garments.

Their food was meat and afterwards grain, when they became tillers of the soil.
They had a knowledge of copper and knew also how to work in wood. Shells, soon
replaced by ingots of copper fulfilled the office of money. They were fond of noise
dancing, and music. To preserve the memory of great events, they made knots on
cords, and later on, notches on sticks. Their writing first consisted of rude outlines.
At their head was a chieftain, whom they considered as the medium between heaven
and earth. Around him gathered several clans. The laws were very harsh and paren-
tal authority reigned supreme in the family.

Their religion recognized and honoured a Supreme Lord. They paid great

INTHODUCTION. 5

attention to natural phenomena, and tried thereby to ascertain the will of heaven; for
this purpose, they also applied fire to the carapace of the tortoise, and tried to discover
the future by the lines that resulted therefrom. They feared the influence of evil genii.
They did not bury their dead, but wrapping them up in bundles of haj', watched over
them until decomposition set in.

Actual China. — Having briefly examined ancient China, how its soil was
formed and shaped, and what were its first inhabitants, it now remains for us to study
what actual China is.

Sitaation. — By the Chinese Emph-e is understood all that part of Asia which
lies between 53° and 10° N. latitude, proceeding from N. to S.,and going from W". to
E., the whole region extending between the 74° and 134° longitude E. from Green.wich.
Divisions. — In this vast Empire, certain parts are governed more or less
immediately by the Emperor of China. Some are merely tributary states. The most
important region is called CHINA TROPER, and comprises the 18 Provinces. It
is this latter which will be the principal theme of the present work. Manchuria,
Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan or the New Territory (Sinkiang) and Tibet will afterwards
be studied, each in turn.

Boundaries. — China is bounded on the
N. and N.W. — By Siberia,
W. — By Russian Turkestan,
S.W. — By Hindustan,

S. and E. — Bj' Tongking and the Pacific Ocean,
N.E. — By Korea.
Area and Population. — The population of the Chinese Empire, according to
the latest official census taken in 1902, is said to amount to 130,000,000 inhabitants.
These are distributed over the 4,278,352 square miles which form the country, as follows :

Population. Square miles.
China Proper (i.e. the 18 Provinces) '110,000,000. 1,532,800.

Manchuria 8,500,000. 863,700.

Mongolia 2,580,000. 1,367,953.

Chinese Turkestan 1,200,000. 550,579.

Tibet 0,430,000. 463,320.

Reasous of the unequal distribution of inhabitants. — The climate, the
mountainous character of the country, the nature of the soil, explain this unequal distri-
bution of inhabitants in the different parts of China, as we shall see further on, when
studying in detail each of its Provinces. Manchuria, cold and hilly, is far from affording
its people the resources which abound throughout the rich and sunny plains of the
18 Provinces. Mongolia and Turkestan, fi'ozen in Winter, excessively hot in Summer,
and swept continually by sand-storms exhibit but few fertile spots, wherein the bare
necessaries of life are found. Tibet, with its snow-capped summits, is a fit abode for man
only in those deep valleys where milder air is to be found.

Difllcnity of a collective view. — It is by examining each of these countries
in detail, that we can study their mountains, plains, table-lands, the distribution
of their waters, their climate, resources, and administration, in a word, everything
which constitutes their geography. Their different features vai'y too much, and
thereby hinder anything like a general view.

Study of the 18 Provinces. — The 18 Provinces forming the most important
part of the Ejipiee will be the object of a more special study.

CHINESE EMPIRE.

Beferences :

S. W. Williams. — The Middle Kingdom.

London, 1883.
Cordier. — Bibliotheca sinica. Paris, 1904,

1905...
Cordier. — Les Etudes chinoises. Leide,

1895, 1898, 1903.
T'oung-pao (from 1890).
Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie fran^aise.
Revue frau9aise d'exploration.
La Gfiographie.
Annales de Geographie.
Geographical Journal.
Richthofen. — China. Berlin, 1877-83.
Boulger. — History of China.
Dn Ilalde, — Description gSographique

de Tempire de la Chine. Paris, 1736.
Memoires ooncernant rhistoire,les sciences,

les arts etc. des Chinois. Paris, 1776.
Grosier. — Description generale de la

Chine. Paris, 1818-1820.
J.F. Davis. ~ The Chinese. London, 1857.
Pauthier. — Chine moderne. Paris, 1853.
Wieger. — Textes historiques. Hokien

fou, 1903 (Introduction).
Mesny. — Chinese Miscell. Sh anghai, 1S95,

98, 99, 1905.
Ball.— Things Chinese, 1905.
Giles. — A glossary of reference.
Pr.Kuropatliin.— The orography of Asia

(Geog. Journal, 1904 p. 176).

For geology :

Richthofen. — China, and also : Letters.

Shanghai, 1873.
Siiess. — La face de la terre. Paris, 1897

et 1900. (2'' part ch. VII, VIII et XII 3"

part, ch. III).
de Lapparent. — Lemons de geographie

physique. Paris, 1896 (22= lejon : Les

terres asiatiques).
Leprince-Riiiguet. — Etude geologique

sur le Nord de la Chiue. Paris, 1901.
I/eol6i'e. — Etude geologique et miniere

des provinces chinoises voisines du Ton-

kin. Paris, 1902.

Pumpelly. — Geological researches in
China.

Tiesseu — China, das Eeiche der achtzehn
Provinzen. Erster TeU. Die allgemeine
geographie des Landes. Berlin, 1902.

On the Ghinese Empire, see also passim :
Echo de Chine, North-China Daily News,
China Review, Journal asiatique,Bulletin
de I'Ecole franfaise d'Extrfime-Orient,
Far Eastern Review, Ost Asia, Chine et
Belgique....

BOOK I.
CHINA PROPER

OR

THE EIGHTEEN PROVINCES

r-h A #]

GENERAL NOTIONS.

Names applied to tbe country and its people. — We

shall call the principal part of this vast Empire China proper
or the 18 provinces, for such is the division that prevails at the
present day. The country is also called China, presumably on
account of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, under which it became better
known to the nations of the West. This name underwent various
tranformations such as : J^in, Chin, Sina, China. The Romans
called it Serica or the silk-producing land. In the Middle-Ages,
it received the name of Cathay. It is also known as the Middle
Kingdom (Chung-kwoh tf' ^), this name being applied by the
Chinese to the central part of their country ; and as the Mowerp
Kingdom (Hwa-kwoh ^^). The Chinese are often called Han-
jen [^ A)i ni6" of Han, this being the name of a celebrated
dynasty.

Situation.— China Proper lies between 18° and 43° North
Latitude, and extends from 98° to 122" longitude East from
Greenwich.

Boundaries. — China proper is bounded on the
N. By Mongolia,

W. By Chinese Turkestan and Tibet,
S.W. By Burma,
8. By Tongking % :^ and the Gulf of Tongking,

8

BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES,

S.E. By the South China Sea,
E. By the Eastern Sea,

N.E. By the Yellow Sea, the Gulf of Chihli |t ^,
and by Manchuria.

Nliape. — China is shaped like a fan, the handle of which
would be N.W. Kansu '^' ^, and the semicircular edge, the
coast-line with two horns standing out at the two extremities.
To the N.E., is the Shantung ]}} ^ Promontory, and to the
S.E., that of Leichow Fu 'g' ^ f^, terminating in the sea by
the island of Hainan f^ ^.

Area and Population. — The area of China Proper is

1,532,800 square miles, and its population 410 000 000 inhabi-
tants, distributed as follows, according to the official census of
1902.

AREA AND POPULATION.

Provinces.

Area in
Square mii,es.

Population.

Persons
Per sq. mii<e.

Chgkiang if U

36 680

II 580 000

310

Chihli it »

115 830

20 930 000

180

Fokien m m

46 332

22 870 000

492

Honan Jof ^

67 954

25 317 820

373

Hunan M W

83 398

22 169 000

265

Hupeh ^ *

71 428

35 280 000

495

Kansu -fr ST

125 483

10 386 000

82

Kiangsi ii W

69498

26 532 000

382

Kiangsu ft M

38 610

23 980 230

620

Kwangsi ^ M

77 220

5 142 000

66

Kwangtung ^ ^
Kweichow ^ ^m

TOO 000
67 182

31 865 200
7 650 000

318
114

Nganhwei* ^ ^

54 826

23 672 300

432

Shansi (Ij W

81 853

12 200 000

149

Shantung [U "^

55 984

38 247 900

683

Shensi m S

75 290

8 450 000

112

Szechw'an H )\\

218 533

68 724 800

314

Yunnan § ^

146 718

12 721 500

86

* Also written "Anlnii" and "Anhwei"

GENERAL NOTIONS.

9

It may be seen from the above tableau that the largest
Provinces are those of Szechw'an and Yunnan, and the smallest
one, that of Chekiang. The Provinces of greatest population are
those of Szechw'an and Shantung. Kwangsi has the least num-
ber of inhabitants. It is in Shantung and Kiangsu that the
population is most dense, while it is thinnest in Kwangsi. Gene-
rally speaking, the N. W. and S. W. Provinces are those in
which the inhabitants are the least numerous. This arises

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NORTHERN CHINA.

According to Richthofen, Pumpelly and A. David.

^

^ ■

Alluvion. Yellow earth, Red alluvion Paleozoic. Metamor-
of A. David, phic.

Volcanic,

Carboni-
ferous,

10 BOOK. I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

principally from the mountainous and less fertile nature of the
country, and also from the various Mahomedan rebellions, which
overran these regions. In regard to mining prospects, as we
shall see subsequently, those latter are the richest in mineral
deposits. Industry, perhaps, will give them a new l^ase of
life and activity, which will place them for wealth in equal
rank whith the others. These abound especially in agricultural
productions.

Oeologlcal constitution. — We have seen above how
the formation of the soil of the Chinese empire was effected.
It is especially in the N. W. and in the W. that China has
undergone the greatest upheaval. In the 8. of the Yangtze-
kiang ^ -f- fH., the vast calcareous table-land developed there,
sloped towards the E. sinking down however towards its centre,
in the portion occupied by the Siang-kiang J|g jj;, a tributary
of the Yangtze-kiang, and by several of the tributaries of the
Si-kiang "gf JX '• the Liu-kiang ^ ^, Yuh-kiang ^ %£, and
Tso-kiang ^ f£.

This calcareous table-land, nowadays much intersected
by the rivers that flow through it, offers the most varied and
fantastic features : table-lands, mountains, peaks, spurs, conical-
shaped hills, pinnacles, and castellated forms. The parts that
have offered the greatest resistance to the work of erosion are
limestone, sand-stone, clay and the eruptive rocks. Those com-
posed of slate, on the contrary, have been deeply indented, and in
places completely eaten away by erosion. In the Western part
of this region are abundant deposits of coal, occupying a qua-
drilateral, whose corners are Laok'ai ^ P^, Yiinnan Fu ^ ]^ jj^,
Tungchw'an Fu y^ )\\ )^ and Kweiyang Fu ;^; |^ ;^.

The coast region of Kwantung ^' ^, Fokien |g ^,
and Chfikiang jj/f Jl presents quite a different geological com-
position and belongs to another period. It is in great part
composed of granite and porphyry, the granite prevailing along
the coasts. Several islands are of volcanic formation.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ Jl, the geological cons-
titution varies. In the N. W. the great upheavals, half covered
with a layer of loess, prevail. They continue Eastwards, sloping
down towards an immense alluvial plain, which partially
encloses Shantung \\] ^, formerly an island, composed of azoic
and primary rocks.

Orograpliy or Mountain Systems. — The massive and
elevated table-land of Tibet forms the centre Qr backbone from
which all the mountains of China branch off throughout the
country.

&ENERAL NOTIONS. 11

To tlte Morth, the Xkistem JSftiettl'un ^ ^ throwing out
numerous chains into Kansu y* ^, and splitting up towards
the E. into 3 principal systems :

1° The AlasJian (Holan-shan ^ ^ ill) range, running
North- Eastwards through the Ordos plateau into the bend of the
Hwangho ^ fpj", then continuing through the Shansi |Jj ^
plateau, the In-shan |^ [ll mountains and Inner Hsingngan ^
^. The Alashan range attains towards the South an elevation
of more than 9800 ft. The Ordos plateau averaging in height
from 4,900 to 5,200 ft., slopes down in its Northward part.

The Shansi plateau, whose average height is from 6,500
to 8,000 feet, attains towards the N. an elevation of 11,500 ft.
The In-shan mountains extend S. E. of Mongolia and separate
it from China. We shall deal with them when describing this
high table-land.

To this system may be attached the Kansu "^^ mountains,
N. of the Ku-ku Nor region, their elevation frequently sur-
passing 16,400 feet. The range here inclines from the N. W.
towards the S. E..

2". The Eastern K'uenlun ^ -^ properly so-called. This
range separates the basin of the Hwang-ho ^ fpf from that of
the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fx., and takes successively, as it runs
from W. to E. the names of the Sik'ingshan 'g j^ [Ij, Ts'inling-
shan ^ ^ lU, Funiu-shan f/J 4^ (Ij and Hwaiyang-shan fH |^
\\i. These mountains have a descending slope from W. to E.
and attain an elevation of 13,000 feet, in several parts of the
Ts'inling, whose average height is about 6,500 feet. They rise
again to the same elevation in the Funiu range, which averages
only 2,600 feet in height. Further on, to the Eastward, they can be
easily crossed in the Hwaiyang range, which attains an average
elevation of 3,200 feet, and has a few peaks double this altitude.
As far as the Hwai-shan range, the K'uenlun mountains form
a strong barrier between the Hwang-ho and Yangtze rivers.
These various chains cannot be crossed except near their extre-
mities, and the passes over them are all very steep.

3* The MiM-ahan ^ |1| and KitOunff -^ f| ranges. The

12 BOOK I. THE, 18 PROVINCES.

former runs along the Northern limit of Szechw'an, the second
separates the Han-ho ^ fpf from the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fX.- The
Min-shan attains an average elevation of 8,200 feet, and rises even
higher as it pdvances Westwards. The Kiulung has an average
height of 11,400 ft. Between these two mountains, there is
but one pass, that which the Kialing-kiang ^ ^ Q! has chosen
and whereby it enters Szechw'an [5| j||.

In the Centre we find tJve hiffh table-land, of Szechu/an,
or rather of Oh'Sngtu j^ ^, composed of red sand-stone, excee-
dingly fertile. It reaches in elevation about 1,640 ft, and is sur-
rounded on the N.,E., and principally on the W., by high moun-
tains. These rise to an elevation of 19,680 ft and incline East-
wards as may be observed by the course of the rivers rising in
their midst. Their passes are difficult. The principal one is
that of Tats'ienlu fl" ^ M' near Pat'ang g, ||.

In the South, the mountains of Eastern Szechw'an gg )\\
run from the N. W. to the S. E. and continue towards the W. of
Yunnan ^ '^, where they expand to the N. and E. into the
immense table-lands of Yunnan, Kweichow ;^ 'J>f| and, Kwangsi
^ 'g. All three slope gradually from W. to E.. The Yiinnan
plateau is the highest, and reaches an average elevation of
7,600 ft. while those of Kweichow and Kwangsi attain only
4200 ft. and 1000 ft. respectively.

These 3 table-lands continue between the Si-kiang "gf ^
and the Yangtze-kiang in the form of hills, the elevation of which
seldom exceeds 6000 ft. We shall call them the Nan-shan f§
ill or Southern mountains, a rather irregular mass, running
at first from N. W. to E., and which finally takes at the E.,
a North-Eastern and South-Western direction. The Nan-shan,
though not a very high range, forms to some extent, a barrier
between the basin of the Yangtze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang.
Three principal passes unite the 2 basins. The Ilrvei-ling g
^ pass, between Kwei-lin ^ j^ and the valley of the Siang-
kiang ffg ^i the Cheh-ling ^ ^ pass, between the basin of
the Siang-kiang and the Pei-kiang 4fc jj, a tributary of

GENERAL NOTIONS. 13

the Si-kiang; the Mei-ling i^^{ pass, between the basin of the
Kiang-si ^ ^ and the Pei-kiang.

OtUer Systems. — Besides the above systems, which cover
nearly the whole of China, there are 2 other important ranges
extending along the coast, one to the South, and the other to
the North, forming the Shantung \\\ y^ promontory.

1° The Tayil-ling :^ j^ -^ covers a great part of Fokien
M ^ ^"d of Chfikiang j^ JJ. The range runs parallel with
the coast, North-East and South-West, and forms the boundary
line between these two Provinces. Its elevation ranges from
6500 ft to 9800 ft. The geological constitution of these moun-
tains is porphyry and granite.

2° The Shantung [Ij ;^ hills are formed by several groups,
whose highest peak, the T'ai-shan ^ [[], attains 5,060 feet in
height. Gneiss and granite abound in them, and their passes
are less steep than those of the Yii-ling. "We shall examine
these mountains more in detail, their structure and their divi-
sion, when describing the Provinces in which they are found.

Historical or Sacred Mountains. — Let us mention,
before concluding the orography of China, its 5 Sacred Mountains,
(Wu Toh i^) famous in the annals of Ihe country. These are
the following : the T'ai-shan ^ llj, in Shantung |lj ^; Hang-
shan "Iglll, in Shansi jljlf ; Sung-shan ;^ Jj, in Honan fp] ^ ;
Hwa-ahan ^ [Jj, in Shensi ^\ ^; Heng-shan ^ |Jj, in Ifunan

Several other mountains are also famous. The principal are :
ihe 3 peaks of Doleerla, near Atuntze, N.W. of Yunnan g ^ ;
J^gomei-sJian |I^ ^ llj) Jfi Western Szechw'an ^ )\\ ; Wut'ai-
shan 3£ J ill, in the N. of Shansi iJj "g.

Plains. — The Great Plain lies to the N. E. of China, and
occupies the greater part of Chihli jj; ^, Honan jpf 'j^, Ngan-
hwei ^ ^, Kiangsu ^ j^ and Shantung ^Ij ^. It is slightly
undulated and is of alluvial or loess formation.

Besides the Great Plain, there are others of lesser impor-
tance, the principal of which are : the Tungt'ing Lake plain f|p) y^,
that of Hank'ow ^ p and of the P'oyang Lake f^ %, all of which

i4 BOOK I. THE 18 PROVINCES.

are situated in the Yangtze ^^p valley. The plains of Hangchow
Fu j^ >}^ ^ and of Canton are much less important.

Climate. — Speaking in general, it may be said that China
enjoys two quite distinct seasons : 1° TTiat produced bp the
North-ivinds. This becomes more i-igourous as one advances
Northwards. The weather is generally dry when dust-storms
prevail over the plains of the North. It lasts from November to
April. 2° That resuZtitig from the Southem-tvinds. The chief
features of this season are its excessive heat, which is moister
and more unhealthy along the coasts, while in the interior, it
is greater, but healthier and less depressing. Rain falls fre-
quently during this season and rivers overflow their banks.

Between these 2 Seasons are a short Spring and Autumn.
The winds change their direction and the temperature is un-
steady. Spring is generally ushered in by spells of increasing
warmth; Autumn, on the contrary, is mild and agreeable, and
lasts from the end of September till the middle of November.

At X'ientsin J^^f^ the thermometer falls in Winter to — 4
Fahrenheit, and rises in Summer to 100 F..

At ShMnffhai Ji^ it reaches in Winter 17°5 or occasionally
10°5 F. and rises in Summer to 96°5, and sometimes to 102° F..

At Canton it rarely falls in Winter below 32° F., while in
Summer the maximum varies from 96°8 to 100°4 F..

Taken on the whole, China enjoys a rather dry climate,
that is, it rains less there than in other climates lying within
the same limits of latitude. Szeohw'an pg ji| and the neigh-
bouring regions : lower Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow -^ jlfl, the
South of Kansu "fl" ^ and of Shensi |^ 'g' are however exce-
ptions, the climate of these Provinces being foggy and rainy.

These features of the climate of China are especially due
to its situation, on the South of the vast and lofty table-land of
Mongolia. Hot air tends by its nature to ascend to the higher
regions of the atmosphere, while cold air, on the contrary, tends
to descend. In Winter, the high table-land of Mongolia, deprived
of the warmth of the sun, pours its cold air upon the regions
of China that are less elevated and whose air is warmer ; there
is then produced a current of air coming from the N., In
Summer, on the contrary, the sands of Mongolia are heated by

GENERAL NOTIONS. 15

the sun. They are thus covered by a -warmer layer of air
than that of China, cooled by its rivers and the sea that bathes
it. A current then sets in from the S.. As the sea changes
its temperature more slowly than the land, the coasts of China
undergo less variation in their climate than the interior.

These two great movements, bear also close relation to
the variations of the atmospheric pressure, and belong in fact to
the great phenomenon of the monsoons, to which the whole
Asiatic continent is subject.

Hydrography. — No country in the world is so well
watered as China. Her river system, like her mountain system,
is intimately connected with Tibet. Her rivers rise there like
her mountains and run in a West to Easterly direction. China
possesses 3 great rivers.

In the North, the Hwang-ho (Yellow River ^ Jpj), which
rises South of the Ku-ku Nor or Ts'ing-hai ^ ^, takes an
extensive Northerly sweep round the Ortos plateau, forms the
Western boundary of the Shansi [Jj ^ plateau, and flows into
the Gulf of Ohihli |t ^. Its total length is about 2,700 miles.
In the Centre, the Tangtee^hiang ^ ^ JH (Yang Kingdom
river), called also the Slue Hiver. The Yangtze rises to the S.
of the Hwang-ho, and runs at first Southward, under the name of
the Kinsha-kiang (Golden sand river ^^^l), then takes a North
Easterly direction, leaving to the North-West the Szechw'an
pgjH plateau, and flows into the Tung-hai '^^ or Eastern Sea,
a little to the North of Shanghai _h^. Its length is 3,200 miles.
Jn the South, the Si-leiang (Western rvver 'g ;^), which
rises in the Yiinnan ^ ^ plateau, and empties itself near Can-
ton into the South China Sea, after a course of 1,250 miles.

Of the mirwr rivers, which water through themselves, or
through their tributaries, the greater part of China, the most,
important are the 3 folloudng :

1° The Pehr-ho (White river ^ ^) rising in Mongolia,
runs through the Chihli ^ ^ Province and flows into the Gulf
of Chihli.

2" The Bwei-ho J^fp[ which drains the Provinces of Honan
fpf •^ and Nganhwei ^ ^ and flows into the Hungtseh lake

mm-

16 BOOK. I. THK 18 PROVINCES.

3° The Min-Jciang f^fz^ which flows through Fokien |g^,
and empties its waters into the China Sea, N. of Formosa.

The Mekong or Lants'ang-hiang }|| -^ ^ and the SaZtveen
or lAirkuing -^ \X.^ ^i'6 also important streams, but they drain
only the lower and less considerable part of Yiinnan § ^.

Of all these rivers, the 'Sang-tze ^ ^ is by far the most
important, being an excellent water highway of communication.
The Si-ltiang 'g^ fx. offers a good network of navigable chan-
nels but of less limited extent. TTie Hwang-ho ^ fpj' is navigable
only in some parts. The waters of all three, rise exceedingly in
Summer when heavy rains fall, and the snows melt on the
mountain sides. The waters of the Yangtze then rise to 30, 45
and even to 80 feet above the ordinary level, transforming
marshes and even simple ponds into immense lakes.

Tiakes. — The principal lakes are found in the Yangtze
valley, and are the following : the Tnngt'ing ^ ^ lake, in
Hunan jj^ ]^ ; the T'oyang % |^ lake, in Kiangsi iX ]® ; the
T'aiftM ;fc j^ in Kiangsu £i: i^.

To the N. of the Yangtze-kiang, the most important is the
Hungtseh ^ ^, which lies partly in Nganhwei ^ ^, partly in
Kiangsu ^ ^. This latter Province is the one that possesses
the greatest number of lakes and water-courses. Let us mention
also the lakes of the tahle-land of Yumnan ^ '^, the two prin-
cipal of which lie, one near the town of Yunnan Fu ^ ]?^ ^,
the other near Tali Fu ;;*: g| j^.

Coast-line. — The coast is low and straight along the
Ohihli ]i; ^ Province, but indented and abrupt along the Shan-
tung [Ij ^ Promontory, while it falls again to a low level and
almost straightens out till it reaches ChSkiang -^ ^. From
Ch^kiang to the Gulf of Tongking "f^ ^, it is very steep,
indented and studded with numerous islets. It is here and along
Shantung, that the finest and deepest bays are foynd, and facilities
afforded for opening well protected and promising ports.

Fanna and Flora. — As the fauna and flora of a
country bear close relation to its climate and soil, we shall finr".
the animals and vegetation of China varying according to. both.

&ENERAL NOTIONS. 17

The lower portions of the Southern region alone possess a
tropical climate, and consequently the fauna and flora of
the tropics. The valley of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iX'
although very warm in Summer, is loo cold in Winter fpr the
animals and plants of the tropical region to live there. Still
less can they live in the region of the Hwang-ho ^^pJ, cpvered
as it is during several Winter months with ice and snow, espe-
cially in the high mountains of the W.. We shall study sega-
rately, the fauna and flora of each of these regions, A few words
only on the principal animals and vegetation of China, and
how they are divided.

Fauna. — Wild animals. Neither the lion, elephant
(except in Southern Yunnan ^ ^) or rhinoceros, are met with
in China. The tiger, panther and bear infest the mountainous
regions. The wild bear, the wolf and the fox abound through-
out the country. Several varieties of monkeys are found in the
regions bordering on Tibet. In the South-Eastern mountains
near Tibet, the yak or grunling-ox exists.

There are also in China several varieties of deer, the camel
and wild-ass (in the regions bordering on Tibet), the hare, the
rat, the gerboa etc.

Domestic animals. China's domestic animals are princi-
pally the horse, ass, mule, camel, cow, zebu or humped ox,
water-buffalo, yak, sheep, goat, dog, cat, pig, rabbit etc...

Birds, There are a great number of birds, perhaps more
than in other countries. About 800 species are indigenous to
the country. The principal are the eagle, vulture, crow, magpie,
and pheasant, and among the tame birds, the duck, goose,
hen and pigeon.

JleptHes. The large and venomous kinds of reptiles are
rarely encountered, except in Kwangsi ^ '^ and Kweichow
* j\\. Various kinds of turtle and the salamander abound in
fresh and salt water.

Fish. Fish of various kinds are very plentiful, both in
the numerous inland lakes and rivers, as well as on the sea-
coast, and furnish excellent food for the people. China has no
lobsters but instead has an abundant supply of shrimps and
fresh-water crabs.

2

18 BOOK I. THE lS

PROVINCES.

Flora. — Jn the Northern region, or that of the Hwang-
ho ^ JpJ, the Winter is generally too severe to allow the
development of perennial tropical vegetation ; however a good
number of annual (living only a year or a season) plants proper
to the tropics are raised, such as cotton, rice and sesamum. The
vegetation of this region is, in general, poor and little diversified.
The principal crops produced are indian-corn, millet, sorghum,
buckwheat, peas and wheat. The trees are few and include the
poplar, willow and pine. (The bamboo is not indigenous to
this region, it being never found growing wild.) Fruit-trees
abound especially in Shantung [Jj ^, and in the Western
Provinces. The principal are the peach, pear, and apple-trees.
The apricot, chestnut, walnut and cherry-trees are also found.
(The persimmon and plum-tree are imported from the South.)

In the Central region, that of the Yangtze ^ ■^, the Winter
being generally milder, more varieties come to maturity.
Perennial tropical plants are however found only exceptionally
in some well shaded parts of Szechw'an pgj|| and Hunan j^ j^.
In this region are found the bamboo, the persimmon or date-plum,
the orange, the tea-plant and the camphor-tree. Rice and cotton
are cultivated throughout all the lowlands. Here also flourish
the gum, tallow, wax and varnish-trees, with the mulberry so
dear to the silk-worm. It has but one=kind of palm-tree which
is indigenous.

In the Southern region, that of the Si-kiang g ^, tropical
vegetation makes its appearance, though it is confined to the
lowlands. Summer rains are more frequent, and vegetation
luxuriant, without being however much diversified. The charac-
teristic plants are the sugar-cane, the banana and palm-trees,
the lichee, pine-apple, ebony, mahogany and teak-wood trees.

Diffinslon of tlie Population. — ■ From what has been
said so far, it is easy to see that the regions, which offer the
most favourable conditions of existence, are the Yangtze ^ ^
valley, the Great North-Eastern plain and the country along
the coast. It is there also that the population is densest. The
North-Western regions: (Kansu fl"^, Shensi |5^|g, and Shansi
lU M)' ®°*^ those of the South-West: (Yiinnan ^ ^, Kweichow
■^ j^\ and Kwangsi ^H), are less populous. The Chinese race

SENERAIi NOTIONS. 19

occupies almost exclusively the Hwang-ho ^ fpj" region and that
of the Yangtze valley. In the valley of the Si-kiang g^, it is
otherwise, and we find there several races mingled together.

Present diTislon of China. — For administrative pur-
poses, modern China is divided into 18 Provinces. In past times,
this number has frequently varied. Some divisions are relatively
recent, for instance that of Kwantung ^ ^ and Kwangsi ^ "g ,
that of Hupeh fj^ ^ and Hunan t^ ^, that of Kiangsu yX i^
and Nganhwei ^ ^.

These six provinces formerly made but three. Kansu "^ "^
is a Province of still more recent formation.

TUe tbree Regions. — To render our plan easier, and
also because it is the natural division of the country, we shall in
this work, divide China into 3 regions or spheres, each of
which we shall study successively : the Northern region, the
Central, and the Southern region. On general lines, these
comprise :

1° The Northern region: the basins of the Hwang-ho ^|^,
and of the Peh-ho ^ jp|".

2" The Central region: the basin of the Yangtze-kiang ^

^ a-

3° The Southern region: the basins of the Si-kiang |5tE;
and of the Min-kiang ^ fC-

To avoid dividing the study of a Province into two, we
shall at times be obliged to encroach upon a neighbouring
region. It is thus that the South of Shensi ^ 'g belongs rather
to the Central region ; in the same way, the North of Kiangsu
^ j^ belongs rather to the Northern region, lower Yiinnan
^ ■^ to the Central region and also the North of Kweichow

To facilitate likewise the work, we shall group in the same
study, those Provinces which are administratively connected. If
at times they have similar characteristics, it may be said that
they are oftener widely divergent. This will have the advantage
of impressing the main features of those Provinces more vividly
on the reader's mind.

Tables exhibiting the administration, ways of communica-
tion, and sources of wealth, will combine in a general view,
various notions scattered over the chapters describing each
Province in particular, and thus help to remember them better.^

20

BOOK 1. THE 18 PROVINCES.

References :

E. Rectus. — Geographie universelle. T.

VII. La Chine. Paris, 1882.
K. et O. Reclus. — L'Bmpire du milieu.

Paris, 1903.
Tiessen. — China, das Keich der achtzehn

Provinzen. Berlin, 1902.
L. Gallois. — La structure de I'Asie ori-
entale (Annales de Geographie. Mai
1905, p. 2-15-259).
Chambre de commerce de Lyon. — La mis-
sion lyonnaise d'exploration. Lyon, 1898.
lieroy-Beaulieu. — La Renovation de

I'Asie. Paris, 1900.
Piiion. — La Cliine qui s'ouvre. Paris, 1900.
Hoc. — L'Empire ohinois. Paris, 1887.
Monnier. — Le tour de I'Asie. L'Bmpire

du mUieu. Paris, 1899.
China. Diplomatic and Consular reports.
Courant. — En Chine. Paris, 1901.
Bretschneider. — Early European resear-
ches into the flora of China. — Shang-
hai, 1881.
Bretschneider. — History of European
botanical discoveries in China. London,
1898.
Bretschneider. — Botanicum sinioum.

London, 1888-92.
Henry (A). — Chinese names of plants.

(E. As. Soc. vol. XXV).
Franchet. — Plantfe ex Sinarum imperio.

Paris, 188-1-1888.
Bureau et Franchet. — Plautes nouvel-
les du Tibet et de la Chine oocidentale.
(Journal de Botanique, 1891).
Katural History of North- China compiled
chiefly from the travels of Pfere Armand
David. 1893.
Forbes and Hamsley. — An enumera-
tion of all the plants known from China.
1891.
David. — Journal d'un voyage dans le cen-
tre de la Chine (Nouvelles archives du
museum d'histoire naturelle t. VII, VIII,
IX et X).
David. — Journal de mon troisieme voyage

en Chine. Paris, 1375.

£winhoe (Robert). — {See : J. Proc. China
branch, tlie Ibis..,).

Milne-Edwards. — Eecherches pour ser-
vir h I'histoire naturelle des mammif&res.
Paris, 1868-7-1.

David et Oustalet. — Les oiseaux de la
Chine. Paris, 1878.

Proceedings of the zoological society of
London (passim).

The Ibis (passim'.

Zi-ka-wei. Memoires concernant I'histoire
naturelle de I'empire Chinois.

Heude. — Conchyliologie fluviale.

Zi-ka-wei. — Bulletin mensuel de I'Obser-
vatoire magnetique. — Chang-hai, 1874
and sq..

Zi-ka-wei. — Calendrier de I'Observatoire.
(From 1903).

P. Froc. — L'atmosphere en Extreme-
Orient, son etat normal, ses perturba-
tions. (Extrait des Annales hydrogra-
phiques, 1901-1902).

Raulin. — Eegenfall in China. 18861892.

Ratzel. — Schnee nnd Eis in siidehina in
Jan. 1893.

China sea Directory (for the climate of the
jjorts).

Maps.

S. Chevalier. — Carte de la Chine. Zi-ka-
wei, 190i (characters and romanisation).

Bretschneider. — Map cf China. S* Pe-
tersburg. 2'' edit., 1900.

Service g^ographique de I'armee. Asie.
1899-1901.

Service gfiodesique de I'Empire iaponais.
Carte gen^rale de la Chine. Tokio, 1894.

Laughans. — Politisch militarisohe Karte
von Ost Asien. Gotha, 1900.

IMadrolle. — Atlas de I'Empire chinois.

Paris, 1900 (in the press).
Bianconi. — Carte speciale de la Chine.

Paris, 1900.
Oxenham. — Historical Atlas of the Chi-
nese Empire. Paris, 1900.

SECTION I.

THE NORTHERN REGION.

CHAPTER I.

VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO jg }pf AND OF THE
HWANG-HO ^ pj.

Characteristics of tliis Region. — Among the numerous
characteristics of this region, the following are the principal :

1 . The region lies immediately to the South of the Mongolian
table-land, the average height of which is 5000 feet. Its effects
are therefore felt more than elsewhere in China, hence the Winter
is exceedingly cold, and the Summer very hot.

2. Loess or alluvial lands are found there in abundance.
These are very fertile when rain falls sufficiently, but in case of
drought, the country is exposed to famine.

3. Towards the West, the region is mountainous, but lecel la
the East. Communications with the neighbouring regions are
very rare, except in the South-East.

4. The rivers and canals are scarcely navigable, hence the
great difficulty experienced in travelling, and the necessity of
using carts in the plain. During Summer, these vehicles snjfc
deep into the mud, while in Winter they raise clouds of dust,
anything like good roads being totally lacking.

5. The country is very much exposed to inundations, on account
of the erratic nature of the Hwang-ho ^ fpf, the waters of which,
flowing above the level of the surrounding plain, are maintained
with Ike (jreatest difficulty within their loo weak embanhmenls.

22 SECTION I. The northern region.

Provinces comprising tliis region. — Proceeding from
West to East, we find them to be the following :

Kansu fl* ^f,

Shensi |^ ^,

Shansi [Ij g,

Honan fpf ^,

Ohihli it ^,

Shantung llj ^.
Of these Provinces, three, namely Ohihli, Shantung and
Honan are partly level; and the others : Kansu, Shensi and
Shansi, mountainous.

Geological Constitution. — The three tnounfainows Pro-
vinces are to a great extent covered with loess. In the otliers,
which are chiefly of alluviaZ formation, loess is but partially
found.

Shantung however is an exception, being of granitic con-
formation almost throughout, Zoess deserves special attention
because of its prominence in this region. What is "loess" and
what are its qualities?

lioess or Yellow Earth (Hwangt'u ^ j^)- — Loess is a
solid but friable earth of a yellowish or reddish colour, very
fine and of great cohesion. It is rather porous, while its mass
is, as it were perforated by very fine tubes which branch out
in the shape of grassroots. Water permeates it like a sponge,
but does not transform it into mud. It is filled with the remnants
of extinct organic matter. It is not superposed in stratified
layers, and has a great tendency to split vertically, especially
when a river has undermined its basis. Inundation and currents
dig beds into its surface, and the inhabitants find shelter and
protection in the numerous caves of its perpendicular cliffs. As
to its formation, it seems to be accounted for by the remnants
of countless generations of plants, embedded under sand and
dust, blown over from the desert. In some parts, it forms a
stratified mass, to the depth of about 2000 ft, and imparts to
the country which it covers, a monotonous yellow hue; trees,
houses, fields, water-courses, all, even the very atmosphere, is
permeated with this yellow dust. The soil notwithstanding is
fertile, and would produce abundant crops, were the climate a
little moister and the region better wooded. Decomposed by
rain, loess resolves itself into 3 parts: Carbonate of lime, sand,
which forms a rather barren element, and clay, which imparts
fertility to the soil.

Alluvial Iiands. — Alluvial lands are those formed by

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 23

the deposits which rain, rivers and glaciers constantly accumu-
late. The great Eastern Plain has been thus formed by a certain
species of clay, sand and debris of various kinds borne along by
the ^vaters of the Hwang-ho ^ ^, the Peh-ho ^ fpf and very
likely by other more powerful rivers. This plain extends
constantly Eastwards, and in all likelihood, the Gulf of Chihli
(t^will in the near future, be filled up by the continuation of
the said plain. Like the loess or yellow country, the alluvial
lands are fertile, provided the clay casts off the rain, and does
not transform the country it occupies into immense marshes.

Orography. — No special feature requires to be added to

what we have stated above (p. 10 etc.), when speaking of the

mountain systems of China. "We shall enter into more ample

details when describing each Province in particular. Suffice it at

present to call attention to the fact, that a girdle of mountains walls

in the Hwang-bo ^ ^, and precludes every outlet, save through

the Chihli ^ ^ plain, situate to the E. of Honan fpf j§, a course

which in fact it formerly followed.

Climate. — The climate of the region is very severe and
dry in Winter. The thermometer then descends frequently to —
4" F. in the Chihli j|[ ^ region, and the rivers remain frozen
during several months (an exception to this rule is to be made
for the S. of Kansu -^ "^ and Shensi ^ ^, where the climate
is mild but rainy). To withstand the cold, the inhabitants are
obliged to resort to the use of Stove-beds or JK'anffs >}^, upon
which they lie down to rest for the night. These Stove-beds are
entirely unknown throughout the two other regions of China
(Central and Southern regions), where it is sufficient to be a
little more heavily clad during Winter. The Summer, although
very hot, is not unhealthy, for it is less damp than in the re-
gion of the Lower Yangtze ^ ^ fL-

Dust-storms, so uncongenial to the traveller, and accompanied
by cold winds, are also a characteristic of this region. Their
violence is generally spent out when they reach the Nganhwei
^•Sfc Province, and the North of Kiangsu ^|^, where nevertheless
they are still dreaded by the inhabitants.

Sydrograpliy. — All this region is watered by the Hwang-

/to ^ ^ and its tributaries, except Chihli ji[^j drained by the
network of the JPeh-ho g f^, and Honan ^ 'j^, watered almost
throughout by the Hwai-ho ^ fpj. We shall deal in detail with
this latter river, when describing the Central Region. As to the
Peh-ho ^ fflf, its natural place will be found, when we shall

24

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Study the Chihli Province. At present, we shall speak only of
the Hwangho.

The Hwang-ho (TeUow river ^ jqj), length 2,700 miles.
Like the Yangtze ^ ^ {L, i^ "ses in Tibet, South of the Ku-ku
Nor region, and the K'uenlun ^ !^ range. Here, at an altitude
pf more than 13,800 feet, in the midst of jagged hills, towering
a little beyond the plateau, the mighty river has its source.

Its course may be divided into 3 parts : the upper, middle
and lower.

1° Upper Course. — In this part, which extends from its
source until it leaves the Kansu -^'-^ Province, it is interrupted
by cascades and rapids, teems with boulders wrenched from its
banks, and is seldom navigable.

UPPEE II\VANG-HO.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWANG-HO. 25

It rises a little above the two neighbouring lakes of Khchara
(Charing-nor) and Khnora (Oring-nor). Both are connected by a
channel and are situated at an elevation of 14,000 ft. It may per-
haps be at fii'st confounded with the Djaghinggol, a river 110
miles long, which flows from the South, and empties itself into
the channel joining the two lakes. The plateau where it originates
possesses but a scanty vegetation. The river issues forth in two
successive bends, towards the N. E.; and is first called Machu,
but is soon known as the Hwang-ho ^JnT- The first bend winds
round the Amnemachin Mountains, the second, round the Ku-ku
Nor or Ts'ing-hai ^ ^ lake, which lies at an elevation of over
10,000 ft. Swollen by the torrents of this region, and attaining a
width of 220 yards, the Hwang-ho then flows through a large
valley. As it enters Kansu H*;^' i' breaks its second bend, and
is deflected to the East by a spur of the K'uenlun g^ ^. It main-
tains however a general 8W.NE. direction till it leaves Kansu.
When entering this Province, it flows at an altitude of 8,200 ft;
on reaching Lanchow Fu f| f^ jj^, it has fallen to 5,800 ft.

Throughout the whole of Kansu -^ ^, it makes headway
with the greatest difficulty, through the prolongation of the K'uen-
lun g-^ mountains, which compels it to adopt a circuitous course
and obstructs its career with fallen rocks, beneath which it even
disappears at times. It receives in this part of its course 2
important tributaries : the Sining-ho M ^ fflf , which passes at
Sining Fu 'SM M^ ^^^ '^ joined afterwards by the Tatfwng-Jio
:k %. M' ^"'^ ^^^ I'ao-lio ^ fpj, this latter watering the South-
West of Kansu "^ ;§". Before leaving Kansu, the Hwang-ho ^
fpf flows along the high chain of the Alashan (Holan-shan ^
^ llj) mountains, and is forced by the Ordos plateau to take
a Northward bend. If it is not navigable in Kansu, it is never-
theless a source of wealth for the Province, as owing to its
waters, conducted by canals of irrigation, immense plains are
fertilised. It leaves the Province after watering the rich Ning-
hsia % X plain. It then flows at an altitude of about 3,300 ft.

2" Middle Course. — This part extends from the place
where the river leaves Kansu -^ ^, till it reaches the moun-
tains of Honan ffff jf and Shansi ill ®, that is to say to near-
ly the North of Honan Fu J^ |i jf . After having taken a

26 SECTION I. THE NORTHEKN REGION.

northerly direction, the Hwangho ^ |pf is forced Eastwards by
the mountain range, which forms the Southern limit of Mongolia.
Soon again the table-land of Shansi [Ij ^ compels it to flow
Southwards, until meeting the Ts'in-ling ^ -^ chain, it is obli-
ged to force a passage for its waters between the mountain and
the Shansi [Ij If plateau. In this part of its course, up to
its Southward bend, it attains a width of over 425 yards,
becomes occasionally navigable, and is not obstructed in its
channel as it was previously. In its bend from the N. of the Ordos
country, it has changed its course several times, and left its
former bed, which is covered with a rich layer of alluvion and
produces a plentiful harvest.

As it advances from N. to S., it skirts the Shansi \[\ ^
Province, which it separates from the Ordos country and from
Shensi ^ H- It is from this latter Province that it receives
its principal tributary, the beautiful and turgid Wei-ho ^ Jpf.
"We shall have occasion to speak of it, when describing Shensi
^ '^. Somewhat higher up, but on the left bank, it receives
the Fen-ho -^ Jpf, the great river of Shansi iJj ]g. It runs
afterwards along the Hwa-shan |^ [jj mountains, and follows the
direction of the Weiho f| fpf, hemmed in between two cliffs of
yellow earth. The loess held in suspension by its waters im-
parts to them a yellow hue. Thus far, its bed is pretty high,
almost 1,300 feet above the sea-level.

3° Eiower Course. — On leaving the T'ungkwan Pass -[^
H, the river enters the lowlands. Henceforward it takes suc-
cessively a twofold direction : W. to E. till it reaches a little to
the N. of K'aifung Pu H ^ ;j^, when it swerves from South-
West to North-East, and pursues this direction till it enters the
Gulf of Ohihli jg ^. In its first part, it divides Shansi []j ■g'
from Honan ^ ^, then bisects the Northern extremity of Ho-
nan : in its second part, it runs along the great plain, North-
West of Shantung [Jj ;^. Throughout its whole lower course,
its waters run through the plain. Here it is most to be dreaded,
because the mud and sand carried down by its stream, conti-
nually raise the bed of the river, which is several yards above
the level of the surrounding country.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OF THE HWAN(J-HO. 27

To hinder its overflowing, embanlcments have had to be
raised. These hem it in, some nearer, others farther, ranging one
behind another at variable distances. In this manner, if one gives
way, another prevents the inundation. In its present state, the
work is still very inefficient, the dikes being weak, and cons-
tructed with materials that offer little resistance. The mud and
sand, which frequently obstruct the Hwang-ho, render it also very
difficult of navigation. The only portion Avhere it can be availed
of, is to the N. of Honan jpj ^, and in the last 25 miles of its
course. But even in this part, a shoal prevents junks drawing
more than 6 ft. of water from passing.

From the T'ungkwan -Jg ^ bend, ferry-boats ply on the
river, and take from one side to the other thousands of travellers,
carts, animals, and a vast quantity of general merchandise. In
crossing, the oar or sail is ured, or even if a suitable place is
chosen a long pole. In Summer when the waters are swollen,
the current renders the passage difficult; in Winter on the con-
trary, water is lacking, and there is danger of running aground.
Throughout all this part, the Hwang-ho ^ fpj receives no
important tributary. The only ones needing special mention are :
the Ijoh-hM jig^J^, flowing into it from the right, through Honan
fpf ^; and the Tsfin-ho ^jj, fpj, which rises in the Shansi ^ ^
plateau.

Variations in its Course. — The Hwang-ho ^ Ji^ has not
kept regularly to its present course. In the past it has changed
many a time across the vast North-Eastern plain. Frequently
it has run to the N. or to the S. of the Shantung [Ij "^ mountains,
flowing in turn, either into the Gulf of Chihii ]i[ ^ or into the
Yellow Sea.

Formerly it followed the bed of the lower course of the
Peh-ho Q ^pj. Its last important deviation dates from 1851.
Previously to this, it flowed towards the South, in the Northern
part of Kiangsu ft j^, Avhence it emptied itself into the Yellow
sea. In that year, its dikes gave way to the N. E. of K'aifung Fu
W^I^M- Foi" *wo years, its course varied considerably, and finally
leaving the South, it definitively followed the bed of the Tsi-ho ^

28

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Ifff, a river so far of little importance. Since then its embankments
have burst several times. In 1877, it inundated an immense
region, and caused the death of a million of people. In 1898,
1,500 villages to the N.E. of Tsinan Fu ^ '^ jj^, and a still
larger region to the S.E. of the same town, experienced
its ravages. These changes of bed and the terrible
inundations that followed, have deserved for it the name of
"Cliinafs sorrow," "the Ungo-
vernable," "tJie Scourge of
the sons of Ban?', all of which
are indeed but too well merited.
The Mongols call it Raratnuren
(black river). The name
"Hwang-ho" (^ fpf yellow
river), has been given it, becau-
se of the yellow land which it
traverses, and which imparts to
its waters a yellow tinge.

Neither along its middle or lower course, is there any
important city built on its banks. Such a terrible neighbour is
always dreaded and therefore avoided with the greatest care.

Flow. — The flow of the Hwang-ho ^ jpp varies much with
the season. It has been reckoned to be a little over 4,000 cubic
yards per second, in its middle portion, near Tsinan Fu (Shan-
tung iJj ^) The flow is three times greater in the flood season.
It is on the whole relatively small for such a great river, but
this is accounted for by the waste of the water that filters
through the embankments or escapes through other causes. The
mud and sand, which it unceasingly deposits in the Gulf of
Chihii [i;^, constantly lessen the depth of this latter, and form
there new alluvial lands. Opposite the former mouth of the
river (1851) it can be seen what great quantity of sediment it
carries in its waters.

TUe Great Wall. (10,000 li rampart Ij M :R- i^ Wan-
licli'aug CU'dng). — The great Wall extends along the
Northern Provinces, from Chihii ji[ ^ to Kansu -^ ^, skirting
them all to the N. ; wo shall therefore describe it briefly

Sketch, showing the

various changes in the course of the

Hwang-ho.

CHAPTER I. \ALLEYS OF THE PEH-HO AND OP THE HWANG-HO. 29

here. It was built by Shih Bivangti i^ ^ ^ (246-209 B. C),
of the Ts'in ^ dj^nasty, as a means of defence against the
Hun tribes, arid was repaired under the reign of Hsientsung
,^^ (1465-1487 A. D.), of the Ming PJ dynasty. In a straight
line it is about 1,300 English miles in length, and with ils
windings, over hilly districts and mountains, some exceeding
4000 feet high, it measures a distance of 1,500 miles. lis
height varies from 15 to 30 feet. At intervals of 200, yards, are
towers some 40 feet high. It is still in a fair state of pre-
servation, except on the Western slope, where it has in some
places entirely crumbled, this part being principally faced with
yellow earth. On the Eastern side, the bricks with which it has
been constructed, have enabled it to resist better. It attains in
this latter part, a thickness of over 20 feet at its base, and is fully
12 feet wide at its summit. The Great Wall has nowadays little
military importance, and serves only as a geographical boundary.
The passes are the only places where military posts are main-
tained. The most important of these are the following : the
Slianhaiku-an Pass ([Ijf^l^ mountain and sea Pass or Barrier)
at the Eastern extremity; — the KaZgan Pass (Changkia k'ow
MM 0) at theN. W. of Chihli g,^; — the Tinmen Pass (goose
pass ^ P^) at the Jv. of Shansi llj ■§ ; — the Kiayu Pass
(Kiayii kwan ^({? |^), at the ext;reme West leading to Barkul.
It is noteworthy that in speaking of China, one meets frequently
with such expressions as "within the Great Wall" (Kwan-nei
§§^); and "beyond the Great Wall" (K'ow-wai P^|>), meaning
the region or country on the outer side.

A few other Particulars concerning tlie IVortlierii
Region. — We will but mention them here, as they are to be
described further on.

Tlie Grand Canal (jg |jif Ymn-lio. Transport river) con-
nects the basins of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj and Yangtze ^ ^ in
their lower Course.

The JPeking-Blankow Railway will also connect Chihli jj
^, Honan fij ^, Hupeh jjjfl i^ and the whole Western region.

30

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

while the line from Pehimg to Maneh/u/ria will henceforward
facilitate communications with Europe,

The great highway, which crosses Shansi |lj 'g, and con-
tinues through Shensi |^ 'g and Kansu "^ ^, connects the
Northern Region with Central Asia, while that of Kalgan and
several others, starting from the Northern Provinces, lead into
Mongolia.

flbr fwrther details, see : section V. ch IV. Highways of
communication).

Among the minereil wealth of the N., the principal is pit-
coat. It abounds chiefly in Shansi |J[j "g, Shensi p|J 'g. Shan-
tung ilj ^ and Honan |^ ^. Iron is also found extensively
[See : Section V. ch IV. Mining and Industry).

Eeferences

Gundry. — China present and past. Lon-
don, 1895 (ch. 15, the Hwang-ho, p. 413
sq.)-

Ney Elias. — (Journal of the Geog. Soo.
1870. Feb. — On the Hwang-ho).

RonlTart. — The Yellow river, 1898.

nfetchnikofi*. — La civilisation et les
grands fleuves historiques. (o. XI. Le
Hoang-ho et le Yang-tse-kiang) Paris,
1889.

Imbault Huart. — Une excursion a la

grande muraiUe de Chine (Magasin

pittoresque. 1888).
Iiarrien. — La grande muraUle de la Chi-
ne (Revue d'Bxtreme Orient. 1885).
Martin. — La grande muraille de la Chine

(Revue scientifiq. 1891).
William&on. — Journey in North China.

London, 1870.
China : Imperial maritime customs. I. —

Statistical series : N° 6. Decennial reports.

1892-1901. Shang-hai, 1904.

CHAPTER 11.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER
HWANG-HO

(KANSU t M AND SHENSI ^ W)-

The Provinces of Kansu "^ ^' and Shensi ]^ If, are both
governed by the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of Shen-Kan

These two Provinces are traversed from N. W. to S.E. by
spurs of the K'uenlun ^ ^ range, and are for the greater
part mountainous. Loess covers all the Northern part of Shensi,
and the North-Eastern part of Kansu. To the N. of both, lie the
elevated buttress-ridges of the Mongolian table-land. Influenced
thereby, their climate is dry and very cold towards the N., while
it grows milder and enjoys more rain in the S., this part being
included in the basin of the Yangtze ^ ^. Highways of com-
munication are difficult from one Province to another, and even
within the same Province, should one wish to travel from N. to
S. or in the contrary direction.

Another remark not to be forgotten, and which applies
equally to the aforesaid Provinces. Fifty years ago, they were by
far richer, and more populous than at the present day. The
reason is, because they have been overrun and laid waste by a
twofold rebellion. The first, that of the T'aipHngs ^ 2!^, which
lasted from 1830 to 1864^ and affected especially the Yangtze region,
in the South. The second, still more disastrous, devastated the
whole of the A'.. This was the Mahomedan revolt, which broke
out there in 1861, and was completely put down only in 1878,
after the taking of Khotan, the last stronghold of the rebels. The
number of those who were then killed in the two Provinces, is
estimated to be about 10,000,000. It was chiefly through the
agency of Tso Tsungt'ang ^ ^ ^, that order was established.

32 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

1". Kansu #

Avea. — 125,483 square miles. In this respect, it is the
third province of China, being surpassed only by Szechw'an
Pg }\\ and Yiinnan ^ ^.

Population. — 10, 386,000, thus giving 82 persons per
square mile. Kwangsi ^ 'g alone is less thinly inhabited.

STanie. — It is so called from two of its principal cities :
Kanchow Fu -^ j'|'| )^ and 8u Chow '^ >)\\.
Boundaries. — On the
N. — Mongolia,

W. — Sinkiang -^r ^ and Tibet,
S. — Szechw'an gg j||,
E. — Shensi ^ |g.

Ca;?iial. — LANCHOW FV ^ -M-] ;j^, situated almost in the
centre of the Province, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^fpj.
Otiier Prefectural Cities. — These are 7 in number :
On the left batik of the Hwang-TiO ^ i^, shirting the
Northern frontier, and proceeding from W. to E. :

1° Kanchow Pu t #1 Jk,
2° Leangchow Fu ilC #1 if,
3° Ninghsia Fu ® H ;f .
Between Ku-Jcu If or and Lanchow Ihi :

4° Sining Fu n^M.
On the right banJc, of the Hwang-Jio, going from N.E. to
S.W. :

5» K'ingyang Yvl^WjM,
6" P'ingleang Fu ^p rS fliF,
7" Kungch'ang Fu |^ S fl?F.
There are also 6 independent Chow >}^ cities : Knyuen
Chow ^]$.'}\\, King Chow ■Jgffl, Kiai Chow [!^jH"|, TsHn Chow
^ jW , Su Chow ^ >)^ , Ngansi Chow ^ ^ j^ , and one inde-
pendent T'ing H City : Hwap'ingchw'an T'ing -f^ 2]i j|| ^.
(Independent Chows and T'ings, closely resemble Prefectural
cities, although of the 2"-^ and 3^^ order. We shall therefore
place them generally after the Fu }^ cities, or Prefectures of
the first order.)

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 33

Aspect and Characteristics. — The immense course of
the Hwang- ho ^fp[ runs through the Province from S.W. to N.E.,
making headway with great difficulty, its bed strewn with rocks,
and navigable only from the spot where it touches on Mongolia.
On its left, are long chains of mountains, sloping froyn N. W. to
S.E. and reaching an elevation of 6^500 to 20^000 ft. On the
light, towards the N., is an immense loess plateau, into which the
Wei-ho ^ ^ and its tributaries have cut deep channels. To
the South, are 2 parallel ranges, prolongation of the K'uenlun
Ml ^1 ^^'^ following the same direction as the mountains on
the left bank. The population swarms towards the centre, in the
environs of Lanchow Fu ^ ^I ^, and to the South. Another
chain, bordered by important cities, rises towards the N., near
the Great Wall. The climate, dry and cold in the N., tones
down as one advances to the S., where it becomes mild and rainy.
Being an important place of transit, Kansu "^ "^ lacks neither
mineral nor agricultural resources and may subsequently become
prosperous and- densely populated as in former times.

Geological constitution. — Kansu is sandy in its Northern part, schistous
and granitic in its mountain chains, which are a prolongation of the K'uenlun range.
It is also for the most part, especially in the E., covered over with rich loess terraces
which the inhabitants excavate for dwelling purposes. In several sandy plains, as at
Ninghsia Fu, Lanchow Fu and Su Chow, a well organised system of irrigation makes
the soil yield splendid harvests.

Orograpliy. — To the 2f.W. 3 principal chains, running
in the same direction, N. W. to S.E.. They continue a little
on the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^ :j'pj, and fall gradually in
elevation from N.W. to S.E.. They are the prolongation of the
Bastem Jifuenlun ^ ^ range, and are sometimes called the
Nanrshan ^ jlj mountains (not to be confounded with the Nan-
shan range on the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^). These chains are:

To the N. of the highway leading from Leangchow Fu \^
^ }^ to Kanchow Fu "^ ')^ M : the Shantan |lj ^ mountains.

To the S. of the same highway, the JRichthofen or T'ien-
shan (celestial mountains 5^ jlj) mountains. This chain which
rises in the N.W. to an elevation of over 20,000 ft, is crossed
with difficulty. Several of its peaks are snow-clad, and covered
with glaciers the whole year round. The most important pass of

3

34

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION,

the N., that of Lagiobo, is nearly
10,000 ft high. From its North-
Eastern slopes run down, in Spring
and Summer, torrents which give
fertility to the country.

Further to the South, between
the Hwang-ho ^ |pf and the Ta-
t'ung-ho^jj^, are the Ta;tfwng
^ jj mowntains, an irregular
mass, but better watered and
covered with woods and forests
on its sides and valleys.

Qwite to the S., two principal
chains, the more Northern of which
is the Slh'ing-shan "g f^ [Jj , inter-
sected in its centre by the T'ao-

ho -^^ ^; the other further to the

S. is the Min-sJiMn (jg [Ij, called

also the JOao-ling ^ -^ by the

natives.

These two chains run in the

same direction, from W. to E..

They are difficult to cross , and reach

an elevation of 6,500 to 10,000 ft.

Their summits are rather barren,

andoneofthem,theShagolomoun- s =s d

O O o

tain in the extreme South, even S, ■= S,

S " ==

exceeds this elevation.

To the IFcs«, between the Sik'ing-shan '^ f^ [Ij, and the
Hwang-ho ^ J^f, is an irregular mass of mountains and hills. The
road however from Singan Fu 'g' ^ ^ (Shensi ^c ^g) to Lan-
chow Fu^jl'l'l)^ crosses it by passes which reach nearly 10,000
ft. The whole is a mountainous region terminating in the N. by
a great table-land of loess with deep gorges.

To the N.B. is the continuation of the Richthofen mountains
sloping North-Eastwards, while the Niulfn-ahan ^ :^ jlj, stands

S

•s

o

CO

■43'

ta
O

a

u

•*3
o

S

en

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 35

out opposite the Alashan (Holan-shan ^ |B llj), and exceeds even
10,000 ft in height. These two chains hem in the Hwang-ho ^
fpf, as it issues from Kansu -y* ;^, while a long and very rich
plain lies to its left.

With the exception of a few plains to the North, the Province
of Kansu is therefore very mountainous.

Climate. — During the long Winter months, Kansu is covered with snow and
ice ; all the rivers are frozen over, and the inhabitants though clad in skins, protect
themselves with difficulty from the cold. A bleak wind also blows from the table-
land of Mongolia. In Summer, the thermometer rises at times to 104 degrees P.. At
this period, vegetation is luxuriant, and crops grow with great rapidity. An exception
however must be made for the South, which is very wet, owing to the rain-laden clouds
that are wafted up from the same direction. In some valleys, the climate there is so
mild, that the fruits of Southern China come to maturity, as the medlar or p'ip'a and
the persimmon.

Bydrograpliy. — The greater part of Kansu "^^ is watered
by the Hwang-ho ^ JpJ and its tributaries. We have already
described this river (see ch. I). Its chief tributaries in Kansu
•^ ^ are the following:

On the left bank, and flowing from the Southern side of the
Richthofen chain and the Tat'ung ;^ jj ll| mountains, is the
Slning-ho ^ ^ ^, to which the Vtan-muren or Ta'^ung-ho ^
jg Jfif joins its waters. (A vast number of torrents and rivers
water the whole region of the Tat'ung ;^ jj llj mountains).

On the right bctnk, its principal tributary descends from
the Sik'ing g ^ mountains, which it crosses. It is called the
OP'ao-ho ;^^ fpf, a long and winding stream, which empties its
waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fp[, a little beyond Lanchow Fu
M iW }^. On this bank, many other rivers flow into it from the
Sik'ing mountains, from the hilly region of the E. and from
the table-land of the N.E..

In their South-Eastern portions, these two latter regions are
watered by the Welrho Jf fpf and its tributaries. (For the
Wei-ho, see the description of Shensi.)

The extreme S. is watered by the Kialing-lciang ^ ^ ^,
which flows almost immediately into Szechw'an pg j||, and
traverses the whole N.E. of the Province before emptying itself
into the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fL-

In the N.W., skirting the Richthofen mountains, is the Hei-
iio H fpf, a water course of little importance save in the Sum-

36 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

mer season, when it is swollen by the torrents which descend from
these lofty snow-capped mountains. Its waters, mingled with those
of the EaMngol, flow into a lake on the table-land of Mongolia.

Fauna and Flora. — Kansu has remained one of the wildest regions of China,
on account of its isolation, its severe climate, and the difficulty of its means of commu-
nication. A great number of tigers, leopai:ds, bears, wild boars, wolves and foxes,
are accordingly found there, as well as eagles and vultures. Game is plentiful.
Throughout the whole of the moist and wooded region of the S.E., numerous and
various kinds of birds abound. The flora of aU this region, as well as that of the
Tat'ung mountains is also very rich : the pine, birch and beech thrive at the bottom of
the valleys and on the mountain sides. Higher up is found the rhododendron or rose-
bay, and iiocks of sheep and goats are reared on the slopes.

Agricultural Wealtb. — Although the elevation and steep
slope of the mountains render cultivation difficult throughout a
great part of Kansu, in other places, as at Ninghsla Pu ^
J }^, Lanchow Fu ^ ^ fl^, Kanchow Fu -g" jfl jjj and Su
Chow '^ ^H, abundant crops are found : corn, millet, sorghum,
Indian-corn and even rice. In several parts, there are even two
harvests annually. The cultivation of rhubarb, formerly thriving,
has nowadays much diminished. On the other hand the cultiva-
tion of the poppy has increased, and tends to become universal.
Even in the Han-ti (dry lands ^ J^), which the people cover with
stones and shingle to maintain them moist, the poppy is largely
cultivated, as also the water melon and the common melon.

Fruit is the great wealth of the region. Besides the jujube-
tree found almost everywhere, apples, pears, apricots, walnuts,
plums, strawberries and myrtles abound.

Mineral Wealth. — So far, it is but little known. Ex-
tensive coal-fields exist at the N.B. and E., and especially in the
vicinity of Kungch'ang Fu ^ ^ jj^. Iron-ore, gold, silver,
and petroleum are also found.

Population. — The population of Kansu is chiefly composed of Chinese, a great
number of whom are Mussulmans. The country surrounding Ninghsia Fu is largely
inhabited by Mongols. They are likewise found throughout the whole of the N. W.
and in the neighbourhood of Sining Fu. In this latter region there are also many
Tanguts or Pmi-tee and inhabitants of Korth-Eastern Tibet. In the S. a great number
of immigrants from Szechw'an have settled down.

The population swarms especially in the S. where it is very dense, as also
towards the centre and E.. — The people of the S. are gentler and more cultured than
those of the N., but the latter are hardier. They are for a great part illiterate.

IJanguage. — CAmese is spoken throughout the greater part of the Province,
save in the regions inhabited by the Mongols and Tanguts. Turkish does not begin to
be spoken until further W., in Chinese Turkestan.

CHAPTER II. KANSU. 37

Cities and principal Centres. — LANCHOW FU^^ j'H jiff >
population, 500,000.

Capital city of the Province, and residence of the Viceroy
of Shenkan ^c -^^ is a very commercial city. Its environs are
well cultivated : gardens, orchards, tobacco-plantations, poppy-
fields etc.... Corn is imported from Sining Fu W ff iffi ^'^^
land near Lanchow Fu being considered too valuable to culti-
vate it thereon. A bridge of boats is established every Summer
over the Hwang-ho^jpf, instead of the ice which has then melted.

Sining Fu 'g ^ j^ at an elevation of more than 7,000 feet,
and with a population of 60,000 inhabitants, has important
commercial relations with Tibet. The Governor-general of Ku-ku
Nor has his residence there. The town was recaptured from
the rebels only in 1872.

Ningltsia Fu ^^ jff, population, 12,000, — laid waste by the
Mahomedan insurrection, but rising slowly from its ruins. The
enterprising spirit of the Mussulmans has seized upon all the
sources of gain which exist in the country. The city is situated
in a vast plain, 125 miles in length. It is well watered by a skilful
network of canals, abounds in fields of rice, corn and poppies,
and is studded with numerous villages nestling amidst luxuriant
clusters of trees. Unfortunately, it is ill protected from the
inundations of the Hwang-ho ^ jpf, which has again devastated
it in the year 1904.

I.eangchow Fu-^"^,^ )^, population, 200,000.— The largest
agglomeration of the Province after Lanchow Fu U >)^ }^. The
city stands at an elevation of over 6,000 ft.

Kanchow Fu ^' jifl ^. — A wretched town^ built upon
moving sand. Its importance is especially due to its position
upon a frequented route.

8u Chow^ j^\, — in the North- Western extremity ofKansu,
and in the W. of perhaps the most fertile region of China.
In Spring and Summer it abounds with rice, wheat, millet,
maize, melons... jujubes, pears, peaches.

KHngyang Fri ^ pf iff — had formerly 300,000 inhabitants,
but possesses now only one unimportant street.

38 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Among the other towns may be mentioned; Chungwei hsieit
4* ^Mf ^ commercial place where the Hwang-ho ^ ^ begins
to be navigable; — Ts'in Chow^)^, 150,000 inhabitants, to the
S.E. of Kungch'ang Fu ^^}^. It is perhaps the most impor-
tant market place of the Province after Lanchow Fu fg j^ }^.

KunOmm, to the 8. W. of Sining Fu ® ^ )i^, is an exten-
sive lamasery, possessing a living Buddha. People come there
from afar on pilgrimage.

Industry and Commerce. — These are of no great
importance. Lanchow Fu Wi'MM '^ ^^^ o^^y remarkable centre
of industry, and manufactures chiefly cloth. The principal
eocsport articles are: opium, tobacco, furs, musk, wool and
medicinal plants. The imports are stuffs and salt.

Higbways of communication. — Communication is very
difficult except by the few roads that cross the Province.
Carts may be used on them. Outside these ways nearly all
traffic is carried on upon the backs of men, the roads being too
difficult even for animals. The Hwang-ho ^ JpT is not really
navigable until below Chungwei hsien 4* ^ IPi' although rafts
are employed elsewhere. The principcU roads are:

1" The road from Singan Fu 'g^^ (Shensi ^"g) to Lan-
chow Fu BB;H'l^- This follows the valley of the King-ho ^ Jpf,
passing by P'ingleang Fu ^ \% /j^, and continues beyond by
Sining Fu 'g ^ jj^ as far as Tibet. (Another road leads from
Singan Fu (Shensi) to Lanchow Fu^ passing more to the S. by
Ts'inchow Fu ^ jH-j }^. The way is very difficult.)

2° The road from Mnghsia Fu^ ^ )^ to Su Ohoiv -^ >H-| .
This passes by Leangchow Fu \%^^^ and Kanchow Fu 'H'jI'H^i
and continues beyond into Sinkiang 5||f |g.

3" A third road starts from Lanchow Fu ^ jM"] )j^, skirts
the Hwang-ho and joins the preceding.

4" The road leading /r-om ZancJiow Fu^^^ to Szechw'an
pg ]\\, and passing by Minchow |I|g >y^ (Kungch'ang Fu ^ g H^).

Difficulty of conveyance and communication is the greatest
hindrance to the development of Kansu -^ ^^

Note. — Kansu ■^^, formerly made only one Provinee with
Sinkiang ^ H, but was separated from it in 1882.

Chapter ii. shensi. 39

2° . Shensi 1?^' g

Area : — 75,290 square miles.

Population : — 8,450,000, or 112 per square mile.
Name : — It is so called because this Province is situated
to the "West of the famous T'ungkwan ff |g pass. Shensi
means to the "West of the Pass."
Boundaries. — On the

N. — The Ordos plateau, which i§ the Southern extension
of the Mongolian table-land. Shensi is separated
from the Ordos country by a portion of the Great
WaU,
W. - Kansu -y- f,

S. — Szechw'an 0 j|| and Hupeh ^ ^,
E. — Honan ^ '^ and Shansi ilj ^. The Hwang-ho
^ fpj separates it from this latter Province.
Capital. — SnfGAN JFXr g ^ jjjf , near the right bank of
the Wei-ho f| }pj and almost in the centre of the Province, as
Lanchow Fu ^ ijj^ jjf in Kansu -^ ■^.

Ottaer Prefectures. — These are 6 in number : Along
the Wei-7io fg jpj, proceeding from W. to E.:
1° Pmigsiaiig Vuam!^,
2° T'lmgcliow Pu m #1 flf.
To the N. of the Wei-ho, the first in the extreme N., the
second mid-way between the Great Wall and the "Wei-ho f| fpj :
3° Yuling Fn Ml U: if ,
4° Yenngan Pn 5i S ^.
To the S. of the TsHrtrling ^ -^ mountains and along the
Han-ho -^ jpf, as it runs Eastwards :
5° Hanclnmg Yu^,^ M,
6° Hsingngan Fu R 3f ^.
There are also in Shensi |^ U 5 independent Chows >I'|'| :

Shang Chow ^ >j^, IL'ien Chow ^ >)\\, Ping Chow ff, >yi\, Fu
Chow j|]5 ^•H, Soeiteh Chow ^ f* >)W.

Aspect and Cliaracterlstlcs. — The country is exactly
divided into 2 parts by a ■well-marked chain of mountains which
may be- crossed only with difficulty at its two extremities. All

40 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

activity is centered upon the 2 rivers, which flow one on theN.,
and the other through the S. The 2 valleys, especially the
Northern one, afford important passages to those travelling West-
ward. On the N. of the Wei-ho f^ fpj a long plateau of yellow
land rises gradually towards the N. . To the S. of the Wei-ho and
especially of the T'sin-ling ^ -^ mountainSj the yellow earth
disappears.

Geological constitution. — The Ts'in ling mountains are composed of granite,
schist, limestone rock and sand-stone ; the granite however predominates. On both
sides extends an immense layer of quaternary strata, which continues towards the N. of
the Wei-ho under the form of loess. To the S. of the Han-ho it takes the shape of schist,
sand-stone and the limestone rocks of Kiulung.

Orography. — It is easy to remember and is most char-
acteristic.

On the y. of the Wei-ho f^ jjij' exists an extensive platoau
of loess, which rises from the S.E. towards the N.W. and is
more and more furrowed by ravines as one moves away from
the 8.E.. This plateau terminates on the North side in a series
of chains which support the Ordos plateau, and rises on the S.
to an elevation of more than 4,000 ft.

On the South of the Wei-ho, rises the massive chain of the
Ts'in-limff ^ ^ mountains, a prolongation of the lifiietUun,
g, -^ range. It runs from W. to E., reaching in height 9,000
ft, which it even surpasses in several places. One of the most
celebrated summits, which stands out a little to the W. , is the
Tapeh-sJuin :^ ^ llj with an altitude of 11,500 ft. With
its steep rocks, perpendicular paths, its torrents and gloOmy
forests, the Ts'in-ling ^ .^ is crossed with great difficulty.
Two passes are easier of access, one to the W., the other on
the E.. The Northern slope is the steepest and descends quite
abruptly upon the Wei-ho f| fjij^, the other inclines gradually
towards the Han-ho ^^. Richthofen compares the Ts'in-ling
to a heavy bar applied slantwise upon a wrinkled cloth with
parallel folds, and which would then be moved in a direction
perpendicular to its axis, till the folds deviated completely from
the point of contact.

On the South of the Han-ho ^ ]pj originates the Kiulung

CHAPTER n. SHKNSI. 41

■Jlj fl chain. It is less massive than the Ts'in-Hng range, runs
along the whole North-East of Szechw'an pg j|| and continues
the Min-shuu |||g [[j of Kansu "^"^ Province. It attains more than
13,000 feet in height. A pass traverses its Northern extremity
and connects through the Wuting 5£T pa^s, — [4,000 ft. high]
— the upper valley of the Han-ho ^p^ with Szechw'an pg j||.

Climnte. — The climate is widely difEerent in the N. and in the S. of the
Ts'in-ling.

Ill the N., it resembles that of the region of the Hwang-ho, with its dry cold, its
dust, and its violent storms.

In the S., it is rather like that of Szechw'an without Northern or Southern winds,
these being prevented from blowing by the two mountain ranges. From February to
October, the sky is overcast and the atmosphere damp, while excessive heat prevaOs in
Summer. The cold sets in only at the end of November. It is the fine season of the year.

Hydrograpby. — On the N'., the Wei-ho |^ jpf and numerous
streams, running N.W. to S.E. All flow into the Hwang-ho
^ Jflf, which skirts the E. of the Province^ and is navigable only
from the place where it receives the Fen-ho ^ ^ from Shansi
llj ^. The most important of these rivers is the Loh-ho jf^^fpf.
None however are navigable.

On the S., the Marv-ho ^ ^, which receives numerous
torrents from the Ts'inling ^^ mountains, but is not navigable
in Shensi. Till it leaves this Province, it runs through steep
gorges where it is obstructed with rocks and rapids. Junks of
small tonnage avail themselves of the flood season to travel to
Hanchung Fu ]g tfi ^ (For^the Han-ho ^ 1%, see section II,
ch. III.)

The Wei-ho j^ JpJ'. The Wei-ho is the principal tributary
of the Hwang-ho ^ p^. Its sources are in Kansu -^ ^, near
the mining region known as Kungch'ang Fu ^^^. It runs like
all its affluents on the left bank — these are the most numerous and
important — through the loess plateau of the N., in which it cuts
deep channels. These beds diminish in depth as they advance
towards the S.E.. As it enters Shensi ^ 0> the Wei-ho \^ fpj'
runs at a depth of 600 feet, amidst those towering stratified
cliffs so characteristic of the loess region. It then widens and
swerves gradually from the loess land. It is navigable after
Hsingp'ing hsien ^ ^ ^. Henceforward up to the bend of

42 SECTION t. TitE NORTHERN REGION.

the Hwang-ho ^ |pf, near T'ung-kwan yf p, boats of shallow
draught ply on its waters^ for although it is pretty wide in this
place, it never runs deep. — Its chief tributary is the King-ho
^ }pj^, an important river, which with its affluents, waters the
whole North-Eastern part of Kansu ^^ ^.

Fauna and Flora. — I'hese differ completely in Northern and Southern Shensi,
the ridge of the Ts'in-ling constituting almost the dividing line. In the N. the fauna and
flora are those of the Hwaug-ho; in the S. those of the Yangtze (See Preliminary Notions :
fauna and flora, p. 16, 17). Wild animals are less numerous than in Kansu, though
they are extensively met with on the Northern loess plateau and in the Ts'in-ling.
Aquatic birds teem in the valley of the Wei-ho ; the wild goose, heron, ibis, and snipe.

Agrlciiltnral Wealth. — Agricultural products abound
in the 2 plains of the Wei-ho f^ ^ and of the Han-ho j^ fpj",
as well as on the loess plateau, wherever it can be tilled.
In certain parts of the Wei-ho plain^ rice and cotton are cultiva-
ted, and there are 2 harvests every year, that of Spring yielding
corn, and that of Summer, cotton. Elsewhere, the crops raised
are those peculiar to the Northern region : barley, pulse, peas,
lucerne, hemp, tobacco and Indian-corn. The valley of the
upper Han-ho ^ ^ perhaps much richer, produces besides
various fruits, abundant crops of corn, cotton and tobacco. Silk
is manufactured, and the mulberry, palm, bamboo and even
orange -tree are found there in abundance. Throughout the whole
Province, the cultivation of the poppy is the all-absorbing pursuit
of the inhabitants.

Mineral Wealtli. — The Province is exceedingly rich in
coal mines but they are little worked. Iron, salt of inferior
quality (towards the N.), quartz veined with gold, nickel and
magnetite (in the upper valley of the Han-ho ^ JpJ) are also
found. Stones for building (marble, granite, and porphyry)
abound, especially in the Ts'in-ling ^ ^ mountains.

Population. — The population is very dense in the two valleys and becomes
thinner as one travels away from these two centres. The people are largely agiven to
agriculture. As in Shansi, many skilful bankers are nevertheless found among them. The
alien element is scanty: Mongols (in the N.),3zeohw'an and Hupeh immigrants(m the S.).

Like Kansu, though for a shorter period, Sheusi suif ered exceedingly from the two
rebellions: that of the T'aijj'ings to the S. of the Ts'in-ling; and that oi the MiissuJman.i .
to theN.. The city of Singan Fu was almost the only one which held out in the North.

Ijang'uage. — It is only io the N. that a little Mongol is heard. Everywhere
else. Mandarin is the common tongue.

CHAPTER II. SHENSI. 43

Towns and chief Centres.

In Northern Shensi ^ ^ :

SINGAN FV^^^, a few miles to the S. of the Wei-ho,
at an elevation of 1, 600 feet. — Population, about 1, 000, 000.
It is the capital and one of the most important cities of Shensi,
perhaps even of all China, not only because of its historical remi-
niscences, but also because of its site, the number of its inhabi-
tants and its wealth. Singan Fu or a neighbouring city has been
the capital of China under several dynasties. It acquired its
greatest celebrity especially during the T'ang § dynasty. It
was then called Siking ("g^ Western Capital). Inl900, when the
Boxer insurrection broke out, the Court withdrew there for a time.
A short distance from it, towards the E., the Annals of the Empire
were burnt under Shih Hwang-ti ^^ ^^ (246-209. B. C). The
Mussulmans who are said to have arrived there about the VIII"" cen-
tury, occupy quite extensive quarters and have a famous mosque.
Not far from the city, towards the W., is found a slab bearing date
from the VIII''^ century, and testifying that the Nestorians, an
heretical christian sect, were established there at that time. A cele-
brated museum, called the Pei-lin {^^ forest of slabs or stone-
tablets) is rich with the remnants of ancient civilisation. The city
has its Tartar quarter, which is surrounded by a high wall. In the
centre of the town there is a large agglomeration of petty shop-
keepers. The Eastern suburbs is a very populous and rich quarter
where cloth, silks, porcelain, foreign-made articles and iron are
stored. In the year 1899, a cotton-mill was established within
the city.

Hsienyang hsien ^ |^^ This town is not far from Signan
Fu, and owes its importance to its being the terminus of naviga-
tion on the Wei-ho ^JPJ", hence great traffic is carried on there.

T'nnffchow lu ^ ^ /ff- — On the Loh-ho j?§ jpj.

OCwnghwan hsien \%^ ^ H^. — At the bend of the Hwang-ho
^ fpj. It is rather a garrison town than a commercial place,
and owes its importance chiefly to its position which borders on
the Western regions.

44 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Hwayinmiao ^ j^ ^. — This is a pilgrim resort and has
a famous shrine. It is here that people start when making the
ascent of the Hwa-shan ^ (J[j, one of the 5 sacred mountains
of China.

Fungsiang Fu]^^f^. — It is picturesquely situated upon a
high loess terrace and on the Kansu "^ ^ road which follows
the course of the Wei-ho \^ jpf.

Ting Chotv 0 j^. — On the King-ho ^ f^. It is renowned
for its excellent fruit.

TUlin Fu ^^}^. — In the extreme N.. A garrison town
and important market place for furs.

In Southern Shensi :

Hanehung Fu '^ fp }^, on the banks of the Han-ho and
at an elevation of 1,600 ft, like Singan Fu 'g ^ j^, — population
80,000. — It is a large commercial city and important centre in
the midst of a plain over 90 miles in length and from 25 to 40
miles wide.

Hsingngan Fu $^ ^ }^- — A more important commercial
centre than Hanehung Fu. Commerce is carried on with Sze-
chw'an 0 J||, Kansu -^ '^ and Southern Shensi ^ 'g.

Industry and Commerce. — These are more developed
than in Kansu "^ ^, but are however in a rather backward
state. Besides the somewhat industrial centre of Singan Fu '^
^ ji^, a certain number of towns exist along the lower Wei-ho
fm Jpfi which engage in special branches of industry : T'ungkwan
hsien -'(g ^ ff,, tin-ware; Hwayinmiao ^ I^ Jg, straw-shoes;
Ch'ihshui ff: 7jC, incense sticks and bamboo articles ; Weinan
hsien f| '^ ||,, a large coal-mart....

To the S., Sihsiang hsien jg ^ ff„ S.E. of Hanehung Fu
^ f|» J^, and famous for its manufacture of gum.

Shensi |^ ^ imports silks from Chfikiang ^ ^ and Sze-
chw'an pg j||, tea from Hupeh j^ j^ and Honan jjj^ ^, and
sugar from Szechw'an ^)]\. It exports opium, skins and furs.
Besides it is a place of transit for all goods coming from Tibet
and Central Asia, or going to these two regions.

CHAPTER II, SHENSI. 45

Shensi holds perhaps the first rank for the varnish-tree which
supplies varnish and vegetable tallow.

Higliways of comiuunication. — Two roads connect Si-
ngan Fu 'g^^ with iMnchoiv Fu ^ ')]] }^ (Kansu -y-;§[). The
most important of these is the Northern one, passing by P'ing-
leang Fu ^ J^ ^ (Kansu). It is a very beautiful road, and was
formerly bordered with trees like French boulevards. It was
constructed by Tso Tsungt'ang 25: ^ ^, the General who put
down the Mussulman rebellion. Besides these 2 roads, three
other important highways deserve special mention.

1*'. The road leading from Singan Fu "^^J^ to T'utig-
Ttwan hsteii \^^^^- At this latter place, it branches off into two,
one going at the S. of the Hwang-ho ^ ^ to Honan ^ ^ ;
the other, crossing Shansi [Ij 'g, following the course of the
Fen-ho |^ fpj, and leading to Peking ;|t ^.

2''. The road connecting Singan Fw H ^ ^ with Sse-
chw'an. This passes at the Western extremity of the Ts'in-ling
^•^, over the T'iensha-ling Ji^^ pass, (3,300 ft. above the
Wei-ho, and .5000 above the level of the sea) and at the North-
Western extremity of the Kiulung ;^ m mountains over the
Wuting ^ y pass (4000 ft. high). It is the famous road of the
golden ox (Kinniu-tao ^4^ jM) built at such enormous expense.
(According to local legends it was constructed in order to seize
oxen on the mountain, as it was thought their fodder was changed
into gold.)

3"*. The road connecting Singan Fu with Chang Chow ^
jH-J. This passes to the E. of the Tsin-ling, and connects the
capital of Shensi ^ ^ with South-Western Honan Jp| ^ and
the middle course of the Han-ho ^ fp)".

We have previously mentioned the navigable rivers.

Note. — Shensi is considered as the cradle of the Chinese
race. It is here that it grew up, developed, and expanded
to the E. and S.. Shensi commands all passes of the great
Eastern plains leading to Central Asia, and thanks to the Sze-
chw'an gg ^|| road, connects them easily with the whole South

46

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

of the Empire. The valley of the Wei-ho |(f Jjif is especially
of unparalleled importance in the history of China.

References :

Rockhill. — The Land of the Lamas. New-
York, 1891. (ch. I.).

Grenard. — Mission BcieutifiqnedelaHante
Asie. Paris, 1898. (11" p. pp. 451-472,
note on the ethnography of Eansu ; — I"*
part. p. 371 sq., from Sining to Peking).

Prjevalsld. — Mongolie. Paris, 1880 (Ch.
IX. Province of Eansu).

Potanine. — Expedition dans le Kan-sou.
1884-1887. St Petersbourg, 1891.

Von Kreitner. — Die Chinesische Pro-
vinz Ean-su. 1888.

Journal des Missions Beiges de Mongolie
et du Kan-sou, from 1892.

Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris, 1878.
(ch. 13 to 19 : Kansu and Shensi).

la uw^aert. — Observations baromAtriques

faites au S. du Kan-sou. S' Petersbonrg,

1898.
Richthofen. — Letters. Shang-hai, 1873.

(p. 70-74, Shensi; p. 96-110, Northern

Shensi; p. 111-114, Southern Shensi).
David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.

(vol. I. oh. 7 to 17 and vol. II. ch. 18

and 19).
Leprince-Ringuet. — (Tour du monde.

1902 p. 347 sq).
Sven Uedln. — Travels.
P. Havret. — La stele de Si-ngan fou.

Chang-hai, 1895 et 1897.
Hogg. — Hsi-an (Singan). (Written for the

North-China Daily News).

CHAPTER III.

THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE
HWANG-HO

(SHANSI ill W AND HONAN fpf ^.)

The Provinces of Shansi jlj 'g' and Honan JpJ ^ do not
depend on the same Viceroy as Kanmi "^^ ■^ and ShenM ^ ■g|.
Each of them has its own Governor.

If we study them in common, it is because the mountains
of these 2 Provinces constitute a powerful barrier on the W. of
the Great North-Eastern Plain. Both also hem in the Btvang-ho
^fpj' below its last great bend^ and before it enters the lowlands.
Moreover, both abounding in coal and iron, are partly covered
with loess or yellow earth, especially Shansi [^j '^. Finally they
have been in former times the residence of the Emperor of China
and the seat of the Capital.

The differences existing between them are very prominent :

Shansi ^ "gf is mountainous throughout; Bmian fpj" ^
only in part. Shansi is very rich in mineral wealth : Hrnian in
agricultural products. Access to Shansi is difficult saue through
a few highways; Honan on the contrary, except on the N.W.,
is rich in means of communication.

Both Provinces have suffered from the T'aip'ing -j^ ^
rebellion.

48 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN RE&ION.

1°. Shansi \h g

Area. — 81,853 square miles.

?rnnibei* of Inhabitants. — 12,200,000, or 149 per square
mile.

IVauie. — Shansi [Ij'gf signifies "Westof the Mountains." But
what mountains are meant? Perhaps the peaks which bound on
the E. the entire plateau of Shansi. It would however be more
exact to say that they are the mountains on the W. of Chihli
j|[ ^ as Shantung ^^ means E. of the same range, that is
of the T'aihang-shan pic /}t ill-

Boundaries. — Shansi is bounded on the
N. — By Mongolia,

W. — By the Ordos plateau (being part of Mon-
golia -and Shensi ^ "g',
S. — By Honan Jpf ^,

E. — By Chihli H ^. — The Hwang-ho ^ fpf
fixes exactly the boundary line on the W.
and S..

Capital city. — T'ATEVeN FTJ-ja]^^^, which is situated
in the centre of the Province and on the left bank of the F6n-
ho 19- fp[.

Otiier I»reffectnres or First class cities. They are 8.
namely, To the N. of T'aiyuen Fu -j^ ^^ )^ :

1° Shohp'ing Fu jS? ¥ ^,

2° Tat'img Pu :*: 1^ jf ,

3° Ningwu Fu ffi ^ iff.
To the S. of T'aiyilen Fu, and along the right hank of
the Fen-ho -^ fpf as it runs into the Hwang-ho :

4° Pdncliow Pu n ffl M,

6° P'ingyang Pu ^ H )f ,

6" P'uchow Pu ii iHl flf .
At the S.-Baatern eootr entity, proceeding from N. to S..

7° Lungan Pu iK S Mf ,

8» Tsehchow Pu m iHI flf .
There are besides in Shansi ^J'g^ iO independent Chotvs ;M^ .•

CHAPTER III. SHANSI.

LOESS PLATEAU OF SHANSI ]ii J§.
According to Richthofen.

50 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

T'ingtfmg Chow ^ ^ ^Hl, Bsin Chow ^ jHI, I*«* Chow -f^ jHI,
Taateh Chow -^fg^I'H, Boh Chow ^^H, H»mi Chow ^^, Kiang
CJmw ^ jH-l, Sih Chow H ^fj, Ts^in Chow l^ >]% Leao Chow ^ ;H'I.

Aspect and ctaaracterlstlcs. — Shansi is a plate&u ascen-
ding in gradual terraces and intersected by mountain-ranges towards
the N.. It has long monotonous ridges of yellow land and several
alluvial plains very rich and fertile. There is great difficulty of com-
munication. The people are industrious^ but the soil is rather poor,
and this compels them to seek elsewhere the prosperity they lack at
home. Coal and iron abound, but up to the present, the absence
of good roads has rendered the working of the mines rather
unprofitable. The Province has also a lengthy river, the FSn-ho ^
^, which runs through its centre and develops there, more than
in the other parts, wealth and prosperity, Such are in brief, the
most striking features of Shansi.

Geological constitution. — A layer of limestone covers a rich bed of coal.
Over the layer itself are found sand-stone and yellow earth. This latter reaches in the
S. a depth of 2,000 ft. In the N. there are^long mountain-chains of granite, schist and
porphyry. In the Centre, skirting the Eastern bank of the [^Hau-ho ^JiJ, is the Hoh-
shan S UJi ^ granitic and metamorphic mountain.

Orograptay. — Shansi is formed by a strong mountain
ridge, which, more or less wide, inclines gradually from N.
to 8.. This large pUtteau, varying in elevation from 2,600
to 5,000 ft., is flanked on the E., N.E. and N. by peaks
which rise to a still higher altitude. Its steep slopes have
been deeply furrowed and eroded, and disclose to the eye at
the present day the calcarious and coaly deposits which cons-
titute its base. On the N., long chains traverse it from S.W. to
N.B., and continue the massive crest of the Southern Ordos
table-land. These attain an elevation of 3,600 feet in the
Wulfai-shan 2. S llj • The Sirshan "gj [Ij or T'aihang-shan
:iC tf lli' which stretches along the plateau to the S.E., rises
only to 3,200 ft. , although it appears to look higher when viewed
from the Chihli jt ^ plain. Further to the W., running along
the left bank of the F6n-ho '^^ Jnl, is the Hoh-ahan || (J|j, the
height of which is 7,860 ft. In the centre of the JProviMce
there ea^sta a series of depresaUms inclining in the direction of

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 51

N. to S. and separated from each other. These are the dried-
up beds of former lakes, which have disappeared, leaving behind
a thick alluvial sediment more fertile than the surrounding loess
or yellow land. The number of these lakes is 7, and upon their
principal sites stand the following cities : Tat'ung Fu ;/(: p| jj^,
(3,900 ft. high); T'aiyuen Fu jk ^> )^ (2,600 ft. high); P'ingyang
Fu ¥ ^ ^ (1,800 ft. high). The Southernmost, that of Hsiai
Chow ^ >)\], attains an elevation of only 1,200 ft.

In the S., is a mountain of sufficient importance to be men-
tioned, the Clitmglfiao-shan PfJl^lll (3,300 ft. high), which must
have been separated by an earthquake from the Hwa-shan ^ jlj
(see section I. ch. I. p. 26.), which lies opposite to it. The
Hwang-ho now flows between the two.

Olimate. — The climate of Shansi is severer than that of the N. taken in
general. This results from the mediocre elevation of the country. Snow covers it
during the long Winter months and the thermometer falls to — 4 degrees P. and even
further. At T'aiyiien Fu, the lake was frozen over from November to March in 1903-04.
The thermometer then fell to — 9 degrees F. and reached in Summer 82 F. .

Kydrograpliy. — In the 8., there are two important
rivers, the Fhi^ho t^ fpj and the Tffin^ho ^j^ ^, both tributaries
of the Bwang-ho ^ fpj". In the N., the Province is traversed
by several large afiluents of the Peh-ho ^ fpf. Jn the W., a vast
number of streams cutting deep ravines in the soil empty their
waters into the Hwang-ho ^ fpf-

The Fhv-ho ^ fSf is the largest river of Shansi. It rises to
the S. of Ningwu Fu ^ ■^ /jj, and after leaving T'aiyiien Fu
-j^ H }^^ waters the most fertile part of the Province. It is
navigable only up to Kiang Chow ^ jH'|, but from T'aiyiien Fu
to the latter city, a very frequented road traversing numerous
important centres, runs along its banks. It crosses the two richest
plains of Shansi [ij |f : that of T'aiyiien Fu -j^ ^, }^ and that of
P'ingyang Fu ^ ^ )^. Its waters are wont to rise suddenly
and devastate the adjoining region.

The Tafimrho \ji^^, which descends from the S.E. of the pla-
teau is of less importance. It waters however one of those regions
richest in mineral wealth: Tsehchow Fu ^^^; and one of the
most fertile and populous of all China : Hwaik'ing Fu '^ ^ ^
(Honan fpf ^).

52, SECTION I. THE NOHTHEHN REGION.

Fauna and Flora. — There is nothing special to mention, save the hunting-
grounds in the North, which are reserved for the Emperor.

Agricultural Wealth. — Agricultural products are confined
to a great extent within the valleys of T'aiyiien Fu ^JjJ^ jj^ and
Kiang Chow |^ jlfl, and consist mainly of corn, tobacco, cotton
and sometimes rice. The climate is too severe to obtain two
harvests, so Shansi [Jj If is compelled to procure from the
neighbouring plains the products it lacks itself.

Even as regards opium, reputed to be the best in China,
the crop is insufficient. — Shansi grows excellent grapes from
which wine is made, unequalled it is said, throughout China.

nUneral Wealtli. — Minerals are the great wealth of Shansi
llj If Province. They consist especially of pit-coal and iron.
No part of the world is perhaps so rich in coal-fields. The three
principal mining-centres are the following: the basin of T'aiyiien
Fu ;ic j^ ^1 t'^** of P'ingting Chow 2^ ^ ^ and the country
around Tsehchow Fu ^ j>f| ^. On the S., to the E. of Hsiai Chow
^jft|, there is a salt lake called Luts'un ^^ which has consi-
derable importance. A Taot'ai is in charge, to superintend
the collecting of taxes upon the salt, which is afterwards sold
extensively throughout Shansi [J[j "gf , Shensi ^ "gf and Honan

Population — Shansi is hospitable, industrious and eager in the pursuit of
gain. The best bankers of China and her shrewdest merchants are recruited from this
Province. Nearly the whole commerce of the South of Mongolia is carried on by Shansi
traders, some of whom even go as far as Tibet. When enriched, they return to settle
down at home, bringing back with them the means of comfort, if not of luxury.

In the N., the population is largely made up of Mongols, who number 500,000.
They have their sacred mountain, the Wut'ai-shan, where they lovingly bury the
remains of their relatives. A large Mongol lamasery occupies its summit. They have
also their own town, Kweihwa oh'ftng, or the Blue City, called in Mongol Ku-ku Khoto.

lianguage. — Mongol is spoken throughout the N.. Everywhere else the Man-
darin dialect is prevalent.

Cities and Principal Centres. — T'^jnrt)jg«r FU ^ jg

fff, with a population of 230,000 inhabitants, is the capital of
Shansi llj |f and the residence of the Governor. It is situated
at an elevation of 2,600 ft., on the N. of a vast plain studded
with populous villages and neatly constructed houses. The valleys
which open out on the plain have nearly all mines, occupying

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 53

each about 200 workmen, while rows of carts drawn by oxen
and wheelbarrows bring the coal daily to the capital. Formerly
this city manufactured defensive weapons on a large scale, and
even at present it possesses an arsenal. It has its Tartar quarter
and important barracks for the soldiers. It is surrounded by
beautiful gardens and orchards. Its commerce is very brisk. In
several places throughout the plain, pit-coal, iron and sulphur
are found ; there is also in a neighbouring village a famous
spring which has been turned to advantage by the people.

To </te If. of T'aiyUen Pu i: ^, }^ ■■

Ktveihtva c^'ewjy ^ -ffc :^.— population, 200,000 inhabitants.
— The Slue (My <w Ku-kn Khoto comprises two towns, the one,
religious and military, with its schools and its Lama monas-
teries (the grand Lama of Mongolia, actually at Urga, resided
formerly here) ; the other, largely commercial, is an important
market for skins and camel-hair ropes, imported from every part
of Mongolia and exported chiefly to T'ientsin ^ ^ )^ The
environs are covered with fruit-trees.

Tttt^tinff Fu ^ 1^^. — A town situated 4,000 ft. above the
the sea-level, in a long plain of scanty fertility where several
volcanic peaks arise. There are important deposits of coal and
sodium carbonate in the vicinity.

To the S. of T'aiyUen Pu:

F^nchmv Fu ^ ji^ ^. — An important town, near a rich
valley abounding in coal.

P'ingyang Fu Zp^J^. — population, 19,000 inhabitants. — It
is one of the oldest cities of China (tradition states that the
Emperor Yao ^ resided there), but of its ancient splendour, the
only remnant to-day is a magnificent city -wall. It is situated in a
vast alluvial plain where the system of irrigation is unrivalled.

Siang Chow ^^. — Within the bend of the F6n-ho ^\^,
towards the W.. — It is a prettily situated town, the terminus
of navigation and the principal market-place of Shansi. It lies
in a plain of considerable fertility and is in the neighbourhood
of coal-mines.

54 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REG-ION.

To the B. of OCaiyUeii Fu -jsi M^ Mi descending towards
Chihli It W. ■

r'ingUng Chmv i^% f^■ — 20,000 inhabitants. — A great
manufacturing (gold and silver-ware, iron) and commercial city.
In its vicinity is the rich coal-mine known as Shihpuhtaui 7^

Two other cities deserve also to be mentioned. They are
situated in the T'aiyiien Fu -^^M P'^i" = F^in^yao hsien ^^|i,
population, 60,000 inhabitants, — an important market for exports
into Honan f^f ^; and SH h»ien f|5 f^, a very commercial
town with a population of 30,000.

2V> tfie S.Xi. i

Tsehchmv Fu ^ >)i\ j^, situated in a district which abounds
in coal and excellent iron-ore. As moreover, its communications
with the plain are numerous, it is the centre of a very industrial
region, principally iron-works.

Indnstry and Commerce. — In both of these, Shansi
holds a prominent place. This is the natural outcome of the
industry of its people, its rich mines and the poverty of its soil.

Several cities and large villages devote themselves specially
to industry. We have mentioned above P'ingting Chow ^ ^
j^\, famous for its goldsmiths'work ; others are engaged in the
paper, iron, and sulphur industries. Kiang Ohow i^ >)]] has
started lately a cotton-mill.

The easport articles are principally : coal, iron, salt and
products from Mongolia, such as skins and ropes. The imports,
which seem to exceed the exports, consist of corn, silk, woollen-
goods, tea and salted provisions.

Hlgtaways of €ommniiicatioii. — The communications
are difficult through lack of good roads. Transport is extensively
made upon the backs of animals : camels, mules and asses. —
The principal roads are :

Two carriage rooAs. — If they can be so called, for they
are very impracticable. — These are :

1° The road leading from Chin^timg Fu j£ ^ ^ (Ohihli

CHAPTER III. SHANSI. 55

i[^) to Shenai gjj|f , passing by T'aiyiien Fu ^^ jg ;^, P'ing-
yang Fu ^ ^ jj^, P'uchow Fu ff i|t| jj!f and T'ungkwan hsien
?i M M (Shensi). (At P'uchow Fu one may also cross the
Hwang-ho ^ fpf, and proceed by T'ungchow Fu to Singan Fu
M^ M^ Shensi).

2" The road leading from T'aiyU&i lu -^s;,^^ to Ttx^ung
"**** :^ IrI ^- It passes by Y6nmen-kwan jjj f^ P, a famous
and much frequented gate of the Great Wall. Here the road
branches into two : one branch going by Shohp'ing Fu jSg ^ flj
to Kweihwa ch'6ng|f ft|^; the other leading to Kalgan (Chihli).
Two other roads or rather pathways are less frequented :
1° One from Tsehchow FU "^ jlfl ^ to P'ingyang JP**.
2" A second from Tsehchow Fu to T'aiyiien, Fu, passing to
the W. of Lungan ¥\i\% ^ )^.

The only good Water-Bighways are: the F^n-Jio '^|pj, from
Kiang Ohow ^ ^ to the Hwang-ho ^ f^ ; and the Bwang-hxt.
This latter is navigable from P'uchow Fu ^ Jlf] jj|= to T'ung-
kwan hsien \% BB /^i ^"^^ iii several places to the W. of Shansi
jlj "g, especially near its North-Eastern bend.

Extensive traffic is carried on upon the road leading from
Chihli It il to T'aiyiien Fu pfejgjjSf. From 2,000 to 3,000 mules
and asses, and 200 to 300 camels, pass every day opposite a
fixed place. The same activity exists in the N., at the Y6nmen
)^ P^ pass. The railroad from Ch&ngUng Fu jE ^ )if (Ohihli)
to T'aiyHien Fu, connecting the capital of Shansi |Jj "g' with the
great trunk-line from Peking :}[^ ^ to Hank'ow ^ P (Hupeh
jj^ J}t)) ^ill afford easy tranport for the rich mines of Shansi,
and at the same time increase its wealth.

Note. — We have seen above that P'ingyang Fu 2p ^
}^ was the capital of the celebrated sovereign Yao ^, in the
early times of the Chinese empire. In the 8.E., the present
district town of Hsia hsien J % (Hsiai Chow ^ jlfl) had in its
midst the court of the Emperors of the Hsia ;j dynasty, the
^rst that governed China (2,205 to 1,766 B. 0.)..

56 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REftlON.

2° . Honan M ^

Area. — 67,954 squai'e miles.

Population. — 25,317,820 or 373 per square mile.

Its Xame. — Honan }pj" ^ signifies South of the river,

and in fact the greater part of the Province lies to the South
of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj, while only a small tract of land extends
beyond it on the North.

Boundaries. — Honan is bounded, on the

N. — By Ohihli jf ^ and Shansi ilj |f,
W. — By Shensi ^ ff and Hupeh }^ ^fc,
S. - By Hupeh JiSg :}fc,

E. — By Nganhwei ^ 0, Northern Kiangsu fL
^, Shantung [Jj ;^ and Ohihli ig ^.
CapiUa. — K'AIFVNG FU^ MM^ situated in the Norlh-
East of the Province, and towards the South of the last great
bend of the Hwang-ho ^ ^.

Other Prefectural Cities. — These number 8, three of
which are to the North of tlie Hwang-ho. They are, proceeding
from the West to the North-East :

1° Hwaik'ing Pu IS M ^,

2° "Weihwui Pu fB i^ ^,

3° Changteh Pu ^ ^ iff.
Ttie 5 others lie along the Southern course of the Hwang-
ho ^ Jpf, one to the N.W., another to the S.W., and the rest
in the basin of the Hwai-ho il^ JpJ.

4° Honan Pu M ^ ^,

5° Nanyang Pu ^ F# M,

6° Tuning Pu r* ^ M,

7° Ch'tochow Pu |SR ■m iff,

8° Kweiteh Pu i! ^ flf .
Honan has besides 5 independent Chow cities : Hsii Chow
fj: ^, Shen Chow ^ >% Kwang Chow % .JH, Jm Chow ^ j|fl,
avta Chhtg Chow fjj ^.

Aspect and Cliaracteristics. — Honan is a vast fertile
pliiin, but exposed to the cold winds of the North. It has no
natural separation on the East from the neighbouring Provinces,

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 57

but is closed on the S. and principally on the W., by a semi-
circular chain of mountains, which allow only few passages
towards the Yangtze ^^ valley, and that of the upper Hwang-ho
^ fpf. Its fertility, compared with the other Provinces of the N.
has deserved for it the name of "Iiand of tlie Central Flower",
and perhaps the designation of Chung-hwoh ^ ^ or "Miadle
SingdomJ" given lo the whole of China, may be traced back to
that origin. It affords also, excepting however the mountains of
the West, commodious highways, and can exchange its products,
especially agricultural wealth, although coal is not lacking,
better than the other Provinces which we have previously studied.
The railway which runs through it and connects the basins of the
Hwang-ho ^ fpj and the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ H, will henceforth
attract thereto increasing wealth and activity.

GeoTosr><*al constitution. — Yt-Uow earth predominates in a large portion
of the Xorth, and is mingled with alluvial soil in the basin of the Hwai-ho ^ fiif. In
the W., the Fnniu Mountains are composed of marble, sand-stone and granite. The
mountains which are their continuation to the S., are formed also of granite, schist
and gneiss.

Orography. — On the North of tlie Hwany-ho ^ jpj, the
surface rises slowly towards the N. E., but more abruptly to the
N.W., where it forms the first slopes of the T'aihang-ahan -jl^^
\\i range.

On the South of tlie Hwang-ho ^ fpj :

Throughout the whole Western and South-Western part of
the Province, the last branches of the Eastern K'uenlun g .^
throw out numerous spurs, which are called, proceeding from
\. lo S., the Hwa-shan ^ [Ij, Funiu-shan^ ^ (Ij, and further
Southwards, the HwaUung-shan ^ f | |Jj and Hwaiyang-shan
?^ ^ ill- The whole mass varies from 2,600 to 3,000 feet in
average elevation, though it exceeds at times the height of 6,000
feet. The Funiu-shan reaches also an elevation of 7,800 ft. in
the Pehyun-sJuin & .^ llj, while the Sunff-shan j^ [Jj, an
important mountain-mass advancing into the plain to the S. E.
of Honan Fu fpf ^ j^, rises likewise to the height of 7,800 ft.
in the TanffcJi'Mg-shan ^ M llj- The plain slopes slightly
down as these mountains advance towards the B..

58

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

AVOIIO X\£

I I ' \

l_L-JL

o

be
I

i

i:

3

3

r — 5 — r

CHAPTER III. HONAN. 59

The climate of Honan becomes milder as one advances Southward. Here the
same products grow as in the valley of the Yangtze. In the N., the cold and dust-
storms are severely experienced during the AVinter season.

Sydirograpliy. — The rivers may be divided into four
different systems.

1° On the N. of the Hwang-ho ^ ]pj, several streams,
the principal of which is the Wei-ho ^ ^pf, run into the €frand
Canal. The Wei-ho is navigable up to Tao-k'ow |g P, and
throughout the greater part of the year, even up to Siuwu hsien
^ 5^ ^ near Hwaik'ing Fu '^ ^ ^, considerably higher than
Weihwui Fu ^ ^ ^. Numerous and limpid streams fertilise
all this part of Honan |p[ ^.

2° The foUmmng empty themselves into the Hwang-ho

On the N., the Ts'in-ho jjjj |g', flowing down from Shansi
\\] 'g (see description of this Province p. 51), and on the S., the
Zoh-ho ^ JpJ". This latter waters a very fertile valley running
parallel to the basin of the Hwang-ho and famous in the history
of China.

3" On the S.W. of the Ihtniit-shan fj^ ^ llj, two rivers,
the Feh-ho ^ m and the T'ang-ho ^ fp]", which water the
whole region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ )^, and after uniting their
streams, flow into the Han-JM ^ ^ opposite Siangyang Fu ^
1^ )^, in Hupeh jjj^ 4b- The Peh-ho is navigable at all times
up to Nanyang Fu. — Another river, the Xan-hiang -^fX.^ runs
a little further Westward into the Han-ho '^J^, and is navigable
in Winter up to Kingtze-kwan ^J ^ ^, affording thereby a
highway to Singan Fu 'g -^ jj^ in Shensi |^ ||.

4° The Stvai-ho ^ Jpf and its tributaries, the principal of
which is the Sha-ho ^ ^. Nearly all its affluents flow from
N.W. to S.E.. The Hwai-ho, after flowing for a time from W.
to E., but impeded in its course by the mountains of Western
Nganhwei ^1^, runs in a North-Bastern direction upon entering
Nganhwei,and there empties its waters into the Hungtseh Lake
gt ^. It is navigable below Sinyang Chow ft ^ iltl (Juning
Fu y^^}^). The Sha-ho is so likewise below Cheukia-k'ow ^^
P, where it receives the Kialu-ho'^^i^ and the Tii-ho ^ JjJ.

60 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Htvang-Ju>, which bisects the Northern part of Honan
JpJl^, is navigable from Szeshui hsien ^ tJC ]|^ near K'aifung
1"'" ^ # ^' a little to the N.E. of Honan Fu, till it leaves
Honan fpf ^. Navigation on it is however rather difficult. At
low-water season, it is very shallow, and when the flood sets
in, the current is too strong for junks. To the N.E. of K'ai-
fung Fu, its former bed is still visible, and we shall deal with
it when describing North-Kiangsu ^ j^.

Fauna and Flora. — There is nothing deserving any particular mention, save
that in the S. the fauna and flora of the Central Region begin to appear in some
places.

Agricultural WealtU. — The soil of Honan is very fertile
and produces excellent crops : corn, millet, sorghum, Indian-
corn, cotton and opium. The most fertile parts are 1" the region
of Hwaik'ing Fu '^^^, a real garden with numerous planta-
tions of trees and shrubs; the soil is well irrigated. 2" the
region of Nanyang Fu ^ |^ ^, which produces cotton, opium,
and a little silk. 3° the Loh-ho j!^ Jpf valley, a splendid alluvial
country, growing corn, fruit and the poppy in abundance. The
Western mountains alone are barren, being for the greater
part destitute of trees. The Funiu -f/J^ mountains are however
partially covered with dwarf oaks, upon the leaves of which
numerous silk-worms are fed. The rearing of the silk-worm is
the chief source of prosperity of this region.

Mineral wealth. — The mineral wealth consists prin-
cipally of coal-mines (between Lushan hsien ^[Ijfg and Ju Chow
W^)- Ii'O"' t'" ®"<i argentiferous lead-ore are also found.

Population. — The people are principally given to agriculture, and few
alien elements are found among them. K'aifung Fu had formerly an important colony
of Jews, but they have now dwindled to only a few members. The population is very
dense everywhere, but particularly to the N. of the Hwang-ho, and in the country sur-
rounding Nanyang Fu. An exception must however be made for the mountainous
district of the W..

Language. — Mandarin is spoken throughout the whole Province.

Cities and Principal Centres. — K'AIFVNO FV^^}^.

— population, 200,000 inhabitants. Situated to the S. of the bend
of the Hwang-ho ^' }pj, it was formerly a city of great impor-
tance, but is nowadays without either commerce or industry.

CHAPTER III. HON AN. 61

Despite the numerous embankments which surround it, it is
much exposed to the inundations of the Hwang-ho, to which it
has already fallen many times a victim.

To the North of the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf :

Hwaik'ing Fu l^J^)^. — a large city but doing no trade.

Tafinghtva ehen J^-ffc^. — a few miles to the East of
Hwaik'ing Fu, is a large emporium and carries on a consider-
able trade in coal and iron. It is moreover a very populous
city and an important transit centre. Steel instruments are
extensively manufactured there, and it is the chief market for
the medicinal plant called "Ti-hwang" Jfe ^ (a medicinal root
perhaps allied to cumfrey and used as a febrifuge. — Williams.),
the sale of which realises £160,000 annually.

Ttmkfow Chen j^ P ^. — to the N. E. of Weihwui Fu. A
considerable commercial mart upon the Wei-ho ^ Jpf , which is
always navigable up to this place except when the ice has formed.
By this river, a large portion of the mineral and metallurgic
products of South-Eastern Shansi [Ij ^, and also corn from
Hwaik'ing Fu '^^^j^, are exported to the N. E. Taok'ow chhi,
is the terminus of the Honan fpf '^ railway.

In the part S. of the Hwang-ho ^fpj'. To the N.W. and W. :

Honan Fu ^ ^ ]^- — In the rich valley of the Loh-ho
f^ J^. The city is advantageously situated at the crossing of
the highroads leading to Singan Fu 'g ^ jj^ in Shensi ^JS-
It is nowadays of no importance. To the S., rises the sacred Sung-
shan ^ [Ij mountain, and to its W. is the famous defile known
as Lung-m6nf|p^, whose banks are adorned with pagodas and
ancient sculptures carved in the limestone rock. Several of the
statues of Buddha are over 60 feet in height.

Ju Chow ^ji\. — A town situated in the midst of splendid
scenery and in a well-watered valley. The environs were
formerly very industrial, but have lost their activity. The
manufacture of common pottery is still carried on and gives it
some importance.

62 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

lAtshan hMen ^ [1} ^. — Centre of the silk trade in this
district. Paper is also manufactured as well as pottery and
waggons with cast-iron wheels, much in demand throughout
the whole of this region.

Xo the S. M and S. :

Nanyang Fu -^ ^ ^. — An important city, both as a
transit place and as the centre of a populous and fertile region.

Sh^kH ehin ^ j^ ^. — A very important commercial
centre between the Provinces of the N, E. and those of the W.
It has large warehouses.

Sinyang Chow ^^^- — An important town and the head
of navigation on the Shih-ho |^ ^, a tributary of the Hwai-ho
'M M- ^^ '^ ^^^ terminus of the high-road which comes from
the N., and continues Southwards over the mountains by a
mule-path. Numerous rafts bring salt from the maritime Pro-
vinces. The Peking-Hankow railway ^ ^ which passes near
it, gives it a still greater importance.

To the B. :

CheMMa-Tsfow Jg ^ P . — to the W. of Chenchow Fu ^%
jj^. — The most important commercial centre of Eastern Honan
fpf '^. It is situated at the confluence of 3 rivers. The Sha-ho
^ ^ is navigable up to this place the whole year round, and
all three are navigable in the flood season.

Industry and Commerce. — If we except its iron and
earthenware trade, Honan is not a very industrial Province.

Its export trade consists chiefly of agricultural products :
corn, cotton and opium, while its imports are textile fabrics
from Hupeh ^ :fc and T'ientsin Fu 5^ ^ ^ (in Chihli jt 0),
and iron supplied by Shansi [{j 'g.

Blghways of communication. — Communications are
easy, save in the W. . We have seen to what extent the Hwang-ho
^ Jpf, Wei-ho ^ fpj, Hwai-ho ff Jpf and Peh-ho g Jfff are
navigable. (The T'ang-ho jg ff , which joins this latter, is also
navigable as far as Sh6k'i ch6n ^ ■f^ ^). The principal roads
are .•

CHAPTER in. HONAN. 63

1° The road fnvm Peking 4fc ]ft «o Hank'mu ^ p (Hupeh
^ ^t), passing by Changteh Fu ^ @ jjOp, Weihwui Fu ff jg
J^, K'aifung Fu ^ f^ jjSf, Cheukia-k'ow ^ ^ p and Sinyang
Chow It It W (Juning Fu -^ ^ ijSf).

2° The road leading from, R'aifunp Fu to Singan Fu 'g
^ )^ (Shensi ^ ||), passing by Honan Fu ^pj j^ jjf and then
skirting the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^ fpj".

3° The road leading /rom Honan Fu to Siangyang Fu ^1^
jjj (Hupeh ?j^:|t;), on the Han-ho ^fpf, traversing Ju Ohow, Lu-
shan hsien and the Nanyang Fu ^|^;g^ pass. This pass stands
at an elevation of 1,500 ft., and is situated between two moun-
tains whose altitude varies from 4,000 to 5,000 ft. It is nearly 25
miles in length, but offers no difficulty.

4° The road leading from, Weihtvui Fu ^ ^ )^ to Honan
Fu, passing by Hwaik'ing Fu i^ ^ ^.

5" The road leading from Sfaifung Fit to Fungyang Fu
%,^ ^ va. Nganhwei ^ ^, passing by Kweiteh Fu If ;^, ^j^^.

The FeMn^-Hanlffow railway passes by Yungtseh hsien
^ ^ M; Shenchow Fu g^ i\\ }^, Hsii Chow |^ ^, Yench'^ng
hsien gU ^^ jg, Sip'ing hsien ^ ¥ M^ Suip'ing hsien ^ 2p
1^,, K'iohshan hsien |^ jjj J^ and Sinyang Chow ^ ^ 'M-

JLnother line, that of Honan \^ '^j runs from SinTiMang
jtMen 1§i % %to Taok'ow chin Jl P i^ on the Wei-ho ^ fpf .

A third line, recently opened, runs from, Ching Chow ^>}\\
to K'aifung Fu^ ^ M-

Note. — The ancient capital of China stood several
times in Honan ^ ^. It was situated in the valley of the Loh-
ho ^ fpf, in the environs of K'aifung Fu ^ ^^, or at Kweiteh
Fu ^ ^ jjj. If we believe the legend, Fuhsi {^ ^ the first
Emperor of China, had also his capital there.

References

Grenard. — Mission scientifique de la
Haute Asie. Paris. 1897. (ch. VII, p. 423
to 440).

lieprince-Ringaet. — Tour du Monde.
1902. (p. .814 sq. and p. 347 sq.).

Rockbill. — The Land of the Lamas. New-
York. 1891. oh. I.

Williamson. — Journey in North-China.
London. 1870. (vol. I. ch. 9. and 10, Shan-
si; ch, 15. to 19, Honan).

64

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Richthofen. — Letters. Shanghai. 1873

(p. 18-40, Honan and Shansi. — p. 77-

96, Chihli, Mongolia and Shansi\
Kerval. — Deux martyrs fran^ais (au

Chan-si). Rome, W'S.
Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris. 1878

(liv. II. ch. 11 and 12, Honan).
Chavannes. — Le defile de Longmen.

(Journal Asiatique. 1902).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. Vol.

I. 4"> Edit. New- York. (Shansi. p. 7S-7n ;

Honan. p. 79-80).
Grosier. — General description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. Shan.ii. p. 83-87;

Honan. p. 73-78).
David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875

(vol. I. ch. 5 and 6).
Tobar. — Inscriptions juives de K'ai-fong

fou. Chang-hai. 1900.
Murray. — Historical and descriptive

account of China. Edinburgh. 1843. iVol.

III. Shansi. p. 21-22; Honan. 27-28).
Little A. — The Far East. Oxford. 1905.

(Shansi. p. 29-33; Honan. p. 39-44).
Alappa della Provincia di Ho-nan (Diseg-

nata da un alunno della Missione Ita-

liana di Kin-kia-kan).

CHAPTER IV.

THE REGION OF THE LOWER
HWANG-HO AND OF THE PEH-HO

(CHIHLI it ^ AND SHANTUNG Oj ^).

These 2 provinces, like the 2 preceding ones, are indepen-
dent of each other. The former, Chihli g gj, has however a
Viceroy residing at Paoting Fu f^ ^ }^, while Stuintung ^ ^
is ruled by a Governor, whose residence is at Tsinan Fu ^1^}^.
Like Shansi jlj |g and Honan fpf ^, CMhli jg ^ and
Shantung [Ij -^ differ widely from each other. Chihli jg ^ in
times gone by, a gulf, but now filled up, is hemmed in by a
semicircle of high mountains. SJiantwig, a former island, sur-
rounded little by little by alluvial deposits, strikes boldly out
into the ocean. Chihli has but one very shallow sea, which washes
the coast, and is very little indented. The coast-line of Shantung
is dotted with bays, several of which are of great depth. Chihli
is traversed by long rivers, which descend in cascades and rapids
from the mountains that surround it.

Shantung has long rivers only in the N.W., and they all
run in lowlands. The 2 provinces, as we shall see further on,
have many other distinctive characteristics.

Moreover, they are densely populated, and lack neither min-
eral nor agricultural resources. Both are important from an
historical standpoint, Chihli possessing for several centuries the
Capital of China, and SJiantung having given birth to Confucius
(K'ung Futze ^ 3fe ^^. 551-479. B.C.), and to his principal
follower, Mencius (MSngtze ^ ^. 372-289. B.C.).

5

6f> SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

1". Chihli

Area. — 115,830 square miles.

Population. — 20,930,000 inhabitants, or 180 to the
square mil*.

It must however be remarked, that as the greater part of the
inhabitants live in the plain, the density is greater therein.

TTame. — Chihli ^ ^ signifies "directly ruled?', or "imr
mediately obeying". It was formerly called JPeir-ChiMi :|t ji[ ^
or NortTiem Chihli, in order to distinguish it from Kiangnan
fL ^ (the present Kiangsu fL |^ and Nganhwei ^ ^), which
bore the name of Nan-Chihli "^ li[ ^ or Southern ChiMi.

Boundaries. — The Province of Chihli is bounded on the
N. — By Mongolia,
W. — By Shansi [Ij ^,
S. — By Honan ^ ^ and Shantung [Ij ^,
E. — By the Gulf of Chihli jl!^ and Manchuria.

Capitals. — Two Capitals are to be distinguished in this
Province : That of Chdna, which is JPEKUfG ^\^ jfr, also called
Slinnt'loa Fu jl|f ^ J^, not far from the Western mountains,
on a tributary of the Peh-ho ^ fpf.

OChMt of the Province of Chihli, which is PAOTHfO FU
# ^ Jff> also on a tributary of the Peh-ho and situated to the
S.W. of Peking.

Other Prefectures. — These are 9 in number :
To the N., in the nwuntainou^ regitm proceeding from W.
to E. :

i" Siienhwa Fu S ft W,

2° Ch'§ngteh Pu * ^ ;fi=, called also Jehol (Jehho.eul f^ Jif ^

warm river),
3° Yungp'ing Fu 7Jt ^ Jf .
To the S. of Peking, on the Peh-ho |^ fpj :

4° T'ientsin Fu 5^ S: W.
To the W. of the Province, descending from N. to S. :
5° Hokien Fu n TbT M,
6° Chfingting Fu jE ^ fl?=,

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 67

7° Shnnteh Pu IS S fl?,

8° Kwangp'ing YnmWm,

9° Taming Pu ;*: « W.
There are besides in Chihli jl; ;^, 6 independent Chows :
Tsunhwa Chow ^ ffc >)^, I Chow ^ ^M, Ki Chow M. jHl, ChMO
Chow Jl jHI, Sheiv Chow ^ ^, mid Ting Chow ^ ^.

Aspect and Cbaracteristics. — The traveller from Mon-
golia, descending from the high plateaux abounding in pasture-
lands, finds himself all at once in presence of mountains, which
descend rapidly to a large plain, irrigated by turbid risers, and
nearly all unfit for navigation. This plain, covered in Summer
with an abundant harvest, but also with thick mud, as soon as
the rairis set in, is swept in Winter by a cold blast, which covers
it with a cloud of yellow dust. It is nevertheless inhabited, but
by indigent families. The South-Western portion alone is remar-
kable for its greater fertility and its richer vegetation. Consi-
derable activity reigns throughout Chihli jf; ^, and is directed
especially towards T'ientsin 3R j^ /^ and Peking ^ ■^, the two
great centres of the Province.

Geological constitution. — The great Eastern plain of Chihli is entirely
composed of alluvimu, deposited doubtless by the delta of the Yellow Eiver (Hwang-
ho) and by the Peh-ho. A small tract of yellow earth is found towards the W.. The
mountainous region contains chiefly China limestone, and is traversed in many places,
as it abuts on the plain, with volcanic streaks of porphyry and granite. Then further
on, are found granite, schist, and gneiss, partially buried beneath volcanic eruptions
and yellow earth or loess. Generally speaking however, especially in the volcanic region
of the N., the China limestone is predominant, and is covered over with rich coal
measures. The denuded layers are conspicuous in the mountains which lie to the W.
of Peking.

Orograpby. — The plain rises gradually with only a few
undulations up to the mountains. These then soar abruptly,
running in the direction N.E. — S.W., and constitute the pro-
longation of the chains, which we have already noted on the N.
of Shansi [Ij |f . They form towards the W. several parallel
lines, which are called, as they proceed from the plain towards
Mongolia : the Hung-shan ^ [[j , Siaowut'ai-ahan <j^ 5^ § llj ,
Bwangyang-shan %ij^ lii, and the Kuln-shan fj |^ jij- This
latter extends to the N.W. of Kalgan (^ ^ □ Ohangkia-k'ow),
under the name of the Tin-shan ^ [Ij and the Wei-shan i^ jlj

68

SECTION I. -fHE NORTHERN REGION.

NORTHERN CHIHLI

and
Approaches to Peking.

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 69

mountains. The Wei-shan has the highest peak in Chihli jj|^ :
the Feh-eh'a ^Q, which attains an elevation of nearly 10,000
feet. Towards the N.E. these mountains descend gradually,
proceeding from the Peh-shan to Jehol (Ch'Sngteh Fu JS^»Jj^).
In this very hilly region, there are large valleys, which are
used for agricultural purposes, when they are covered with
loess or volcanic earth.

Climate. — The climate of Chihli is excessively hot in Summer, both on the
mountains and in the plain. The Spring is dry ; rain sets in only in July and August,
and falls principEilly in the plain. It is very cold in Winter, and the rivers are frozen
over from the middle of November. When snow falls; it melts quickly in the plain.
The inequality of the rain-fall renders the harvests very precarious, and so the Province
verges often on scarcity and suffers even from famine. Moreover, the Summer rains
make the roads impracticable, and the dry persistent westerly gales of Winter, raise thick
clouds of dust (the famous Peking dust-storms, March to June) throughout the plain.

Hydrograpliy. — Chihli ^^ is exceedingly well irrigated,
and its rivers flow into the Gulf of the same name. The most
important is the Feh-ho Q fpj, with its numerous tributaries.
The others are : to the N., the Lwan-ho ^ }pf; <o the S., the
Htvanff-ho ^ fpJ, the Wei-ho % fpf and the Chang-Jw j^ Jpf.
These latter streams traverse only the Southern extremity of
the Province. The Wei-ho, as we have seen (see Honan Jpf ^
section I. ch. III. p. 59), is navigable there, but the Hwang-ho
is not. The Chang-ho, which comes from Shansi jlj "gf , and
runs for a considerable distance beside the Grand Canal, into
which it finally flows, is also unfit for navigation.

The Feh-ho ^ fpJ (white river). — The Feh-ho rises in the
Yin-shan [^ 1I4 mountains. After running parallel to the Great
Wall, and descending suddenly between denuded mountains, it
enters the plain to the N. of Peking ;jt M) already swollen by
several torrents. It becomes navigable however only at T'ung
Chow jj jl'H. Henceforth, it runs S.E. and assumes great impor-
tance at T'ientsin "Ji^M- From this city to the sea, it takes an
Easterly direction, and empties its waters into a muddy bay. The
bar which exists at its mouth, has only about three feet of water
on it at ebb-tide, which renders the passage very difficult.

It is at T'ientsin ^ ^ ||, and on its right, that it receives

70 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

its principal tributaries : 1° the SanffJean-ho ^ ^ M) called
also Yenrho '^ fpj" and TtmgUnff-ho ^ jg fpf . 2" the Hutfo-
ho \i$. v''£ fpf, which comes from Northern Shansi lU H. The
Sangkan-ho receives on its right the Tge-ho ^ JrJ, a tributary
of which, the Tafingytien-ho If ^ Jpf' '^ navigable as far as
Paoting Fu iJ^ £ /jSp.

These two rivers have this in common, that rising in denuded
mountains, and flowing down into the plain, they at times over-
flow their banks and cover the country with an immense sheet
of water. The region around T'ientsin is especially exposed to
these terrible inundations. Here also are found the principal
lakes of the plain.

The Uwanrho -J^ jpf, after having made an immense sweep
to the N. of Dolon-Nor (city in the N. of Chihli JIl^. — Mongol,
"seven lakes"), traverses from N.W. to S.E. the whole moun-
tainous region of North-Eastern Ohihli ]i; ^, then passes to
the S. of Jehol (Gh'^ngteh Fu ^ :^ ^), and flows into the
Gulf of Ohihli, a little beyond Yungp'ing Fu ^ ^ ^.

No large river flows through Peking 4fc flCi but only two
streams of little importance.

Fauna and Flora. — The famia and flora of Chihli, are those of the Northern
Begion, interspersed as one advances towards Mongolia with the characteristics
peculiar to those high table-lands, (see Book II. Mongolia : fauna and flora).

Agricnltnral Wealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Chihli
consists in corn, barley, buck- wheat, millet, sesamum, beans
and peas. Fruit grows plentifully in the S.W., especially grapes.
— Horses, donkeys, mules, oxen and the Mongolian camel are
found extensively throughout the country. In the mountainous
region, cows, sheep and goats are reared, and largely supply
the Ohihli ||[ ^ markets with food.

Fish is very scarce in the rivers and ponds of Chihli ; a
few kinds however are caught in some of the lakes.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Chihli consists
mainly of coal-mines, which ai"e found principally to the W. of
Peking, and atK'aip'ing |g^, near the railway, which runs from
T'ientsin ^^^ to Manchuria. Kaolin and sand-stone are also

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 7t

found, as well as a great quantity of stone for building purposes.

Population. — The population is very dense tiiroughout the whole plain, and
principally towards the S. ■«'. — In the mountainous region it is centred in the most
fertile valleys.

The inhabitants of Chihli are hardier, more robust and braver than those of the
Southern Provinces. This is due to the predominance of Tartar blood in their veins,
the stimulating and cool climate, and their dry-grain diet : wheat, millet and
sorghum.

At Peking, more than elsewhere, a large admixture of several races is found :
Chinese from the 18 Provinces, Mongols and Manchus. Constant intercourse is main-
tained with Mongolia, but much less with Sinkiang and Tibet.

Cities and Principal Centres. — PEKING ^f^, the Ca-
pital of China, is built on the Tiinghwui-ho, a tributary of the Peh-ho
gfpf. It received the name of Peking (Northern Capital), to distin-
guish it from Nanking ^ ]^ (Southern Capital), under the Ming H^
dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644). Peking v?as originally founded by the
Leao ^ dynasty A.D. 920, and then called Yenking ^ 5^. The
Kin Tartars or Golden Horde, conquered the House of Leao, and
occupied the site of Peking from A. D. 1115 to 1234. The Kin
Emperors were in turn ousted by the Mongols, who made it
their capital under the name oiShun^ien Fu ^Ji}^ (city obedient
to heaven). Its Mongol appellation, according to Marco Polo,
was Kambalu (city of the Khan). In 1341, the Mongols wefp'
driven out by the native Ming B^ dynasty. These established
their first Capital at Nanking, but owing to renewed Tartar in-^
cursions, Twngloh ^ ^ (1403-1425), the 3«i Emperor of the Ming
dynasty, removed in 1416 to Peking, which has remained the na-
tional Capital ever since, about 500 years, without interruption.

The actual city has a population varying from 600,000 to
800,000 inhabitants. It stands upon a flat plain, and is composed
of 2 parts, both forming a rectangle, and communicating with
each other : the Tartar City on the N. and the Chinese City to
the 8.

The Tartar City, called also the Interior fjtty {pj j^
Nei ch'eng), comprises the Imperial Precincts (^ ^ Hwang
ch'6ng) and the Med ForUdden City [^ ^ ^ Tzekin ch'eng).
It has also numerous temples, courts and parks. The T^gatUme
are in the S.E. of the Tartar City,

72

SECTION I. THE NORTHBRN REGION.

PLAN OF PEKING

^ m ^ m

A. HWANG CH'ENG g Jgf.

[mpmial City (within the Tartar City).

B. NEI CH'ENG PS M-

NoHheni or Tartar City.

C. WAI CH'feNG jr|. ^.

Southeni or Chinese City,

CHAPTER IV.

CHIHLI.

73

INDEX

TO PLAN OF PEKING.

1. — Xganting min ^ ^ f^.

Peaceful Gate.

2. — Tehshengmcn % }$ P^.

Gate of Victory.

3. — Prefedureof Shunt icn Fti^Ji'^.

4. — Sichih men ©' jt P^.

Direct West Gate.

5. - SWang n ^•

Western Church (R.C.).

6. — Tungchih inin ig ji; PI.

Direct East Gate.

7. — Tingan men Jft ^ P^j.

Gate of Terrestrial Peace.

8. — Feuch'lng mhi %. BE P^.

Gate of .\bundant Wealth.

g. — Singan men ^ ^ p^.

Gate of Western Peace (Interior gate,
leading to the Imperial City).

10. — Sinpeifientsu-t'ang ff*?c±®'

New Peit'ang (R. C. Cathedral).

11. — Pei-hai ^ \%.

Northern I^ake.

12. — Chung-hai «J> J5.

Central I,ake.

13. — Chaoyang men % H P^.

Gate of the Rising Sun.

14. — TaWingmhi -X'^^.

Gate of Great Purity (reigning title of
the present Manchu dynasty).

15. ~ Chengyang mi-n jg H PI-

Meridian or Noonday Gate.

16. — Raihvay station to Hank'oiv.
i-j. — Railzcay station to THcntsin.

18. — Foreign Legations.

19. — Sipien men H ffi PI-

West-privy Gate.

20 — Changi men ^ H p^.

Gate of Pompous Ceremony.

21. — SiienzvHinen g; |^ pg.

Gate of Military Renown.

22. — ChUmgTVen men ^ ^ W

Gate of Sublime Literature.

23. — Tungpien iiihi ^ M P']-

Kast-privy Gate.

24. — Kwangk'ii in(n ^ |g p^.

Gate of the Large Canal.

25. — Sienntmg-t'an ifc :^ fl|.

Temple of Agriculture.

26. — THen-t^an Ji. j@.

Temple of Heaven.

27. — Yiungan min j^ gj p^.

Gale of Peace (on the right).

28. — Yungting mln ^ ^ pg.

Gate of Perpetual Stability.

29. — Tsongan inln ^ 3c H-

Gate of Peace (on the left).

30. — Railway to T'ientsin.

74 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Chinese City contains 2 parks in which are the
Temples of Heaven and of Affricfulture. It is the great centre of
industry and commerce.

Both cities cover an area of 40 square miles, but there are
many empty spaces. Two streams run through them, but are
scarcely sufficient to supply the great city with water. Thick
walls surround the Capital, and are so broad at the top, that
one could drive several waggons on them side by side.

The roads of the Chinese City are constantly crossed by
caravans of camels, mules and asses, transporting wool, tea and
coal.

Peking is not only the residence of the Emperor and his
Court, but also the seat of the Grand Council, the Grand
Set^etariat, the various Boards, and the Court of Censors. The
city has its special administration, distinct from that of Chihli
||[^, and at the head of which is a Mayor or Governor called
Kimg-fu -^ )^ (Imperial Prefect) or Fu-yin ^ f* (Metropoli-
tan Governor).

The Port of Peking is at a short distance to the E. and is
called Jfung Chmv ^ jHI- It is situated on the Peh-ho. Rail-
ways bring the capital into easy communication with Hank'ow
:g|P, the great central mart of China, and with Europe, through
Manchuria. T'ientsin connects it also with Japan, Shanghai,
Canton, and the other important places on the coast.

The Bmnmer Palace of the Emperor is to the N. W. of
the Tartar City, and is called the TuenmAng-Tuen jU B^ @
(round bright garden). The Emperor has also his private hun-
ting-grounds to the 8. of the Chinese City. They are called the
Nan-Yuen ^ ^ (Southern Park) or Nanhaitze |^ ^ ■^■

Several reasons determined the Emperors of China to select
this place, in preference to any other that seemed more central,
such as Nanking ^ )^ or Singan Fu |f ^ ^. In the eyes of
the Mongol or Manchurian Emperors, it has been chosen, because
of its proximity to their native country ; in regard to the Chinese
Emperors, because of the greater facility it afforded to control
both countries. Moreover, it is central with respect to the 18

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. 75

Provinces, to Mongolia and Manchuria, the most important parts
of the Empire.

PJ^OTJUG FU^^}^. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants.
Provincial Capital of Chihli, and official residence of the Viceroy.
As a city, it is unimportant and devoid of activity, but the Pe-
king-Hankow railway will undoubtedly arouse it from its torpor.
A university was erected there in 1901.

T'iemsin Fu ^ ^ )^. — Population, 750,000 inhabitants.

T'ientsin is the most important commercial and industrial
city of the whole N.. It is situated at the junction of the Peh-
ho iQ fpj with the Grand Canal, a little below the place where
its principal tributaries enter the Peh-ho. Besides, the railway
brings it into constant communication with Peking :jt T^ and
Manchuria. England, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Belgium,
Russia and Japan, have Settlements there. The Peh-ho attains
there a width of 300 yards, while a wharf, nearly two miles long,
affords steamers and junks every facility for coming alongside.
Commerce in skins, bristles, furs, ropes and camel-hair fabrics
is very important. T'ientsin exports also avast quantity of wool
and coal, while the market of rice and stuffs is very extensive.
The city has vast stores of cereals, and an abundant supply of salt,
of which it holds the monopoly. — The Viceroy, although not re-
siding officially in the city, has his Yamen ^P^ there, and close by
it, is an important arsenal. — As to industry, cotton mills deserve
special mention. Since the Boxer Insurrection, in 1900, the aspect
of the city has completely changed. Wide roads have been
opened, the city-wall has been pulled down, the course of the
river straightened out, electric lighting and tramways introduced,
and a system of pure drinking-water established, so that the city
of late shows all the signs of active development and progress.

To the 8. W. of Footing Fw f^ ^ ^, on the road leading
from Chengting Fu JE ^ jjf to Shansi [Ij |f :

HwoMuh JtMen ^^f^- — A market-place of great impor-
tance from a commercial and industrial point of view. It is the
trading centre between Shansi and Chihli. Excellent stoneware
is manufactured there, and the article is in great demand.

76

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

SKETCH-MAP OF T'lENTSIN

ji n f^

CHAPTER IV. CHIHLI. TT

To tlie N. E. of TungpHng Fu ^^ }^ :

SlianUal-kwan llj :^ ^ (mountain and sea-barrier).

Population, 30,000 inhabitants. It stands at a distance of
two and a half miles from the sea, and is situated near a famous
pass, which gives it importance. A military station is established
there.

Pehtai-ho. — A celebrated watering-place, some 22 miles S.
W. of Shanhai-kwan, and 9 miles from the port of Ts'inwangtao.

In the Mountainous region, to the W. :

Siienliwa Fo W-ffefl^. — Situated in a region covered with
loess, and owing its prosperity to its being in the centre of a
number of large valleys. Cereals, vegetables and fruit thrive
well in the whole region, and supply largely the Peking markets.

Kalgaii or Changhin-k'oiv 5g ^ Q , with a population of
30,000. It is one of the most important commercial centres in
China, and the great emporium of the tea trade with Siberia and
Russia, during the Winter season. Nearly half a million camels
are employed in this transport.

Doloii-Nor (Tolunnoheul ^ ■f^ ^ M- — Mongol, "seven
lakes").

At a short distaflce from Shangtu _t ^, 4he ancient Summer
Capital of the Mongol Sovereigns, but now in ruins. Dolon-Nor
has a population of 15,000 half-Mongol inhabitants, and is rather
an encampment than a city. It is the great market for horses
brought in from Eastern Mongolia. A few miles from the town
are Lama monasteries, which have given to the place the name
of Lama-miao (tfi) 1^ ^ Lama temples).

To the North-Uast. :

Jetaol lift JpT ^ (Jehho-eul, warm river).

Formerly the cherished country-seat of the Chinese Em-
perors. The park is surrounded by a battlemented wall, which
has a circuit of 15 miles, while the palace and its appurtenanct s
occupy a vast space. A great number of monasteries are built
in the environs. The city, although abandoned by the Court,
possesses still many officials and a strong muster of troops.

78 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

The Prefecture of Jehol, called in Chinese j|t ^ ^ (Ch'eng-
teh Fu), is governed, not by a civil officer, but by a Military
Lieutenant-Governor or Tu-T'ung ^ f^.

Industry and Commerce. — Besides the industries already
mentioned, several others may be quoted, though none attain
any great importance. The principal are distilleries, dyeing
works and cotton manufacturing.

A very brisk commerce is carried on with Mongolia, Man-
churia and Japan, the entrepot of which is T'ientsin 5^ ^ f^.

The chief import articles are : fabrics, tea, rice, fruit, opium,
skins, furs, timber, coal and iron.

The exports are : skins, bristles, ropes, camel-hair carpets
and wool.

Higbways of communication. — Besides the railway,
the etrand Canal (see for both : Section V. ch. VI. Highways of
communication), the Beh-ho g fpj" and some of its tributaries,
the principal ways of communication are :

1° The road from Peking 4fc M **> Shanhm^k/wan ^%^,
passing by T'ung Chow }§ j^j (at the B. of Peking), and Yung-
p'ing Fu ;qc ^ H^-

2° The road from Peking to I>oi«m-^«M*, passing by Fungning
hsien ^^J||, after having crossed the Kupei-k'ow -jfr^bP pass.

3" The road from, Pekimg to Kalgan (proceeding thence to
Urga), passing by Siienhwa Fu ^-ft^S^, and crossing the Chang-
kia-k'ow ?i ^ P or Kalgan pass.

4" The roaa from, Pekvng to T'aiyUen Fu -^ J^^ f^, in
Shansi ilj ^, and thence to Singan Fu |f ^ ^j^ (Shensi ^ ||),
passing by Paoting Fu ^ ^ ;^, and Ghengting Fu JE ^ ;^.

5° The roaa from, Peking to Tsinan Fu ^ ^ JJJ (in Shan-
tung ilj ^), passing by Hokien Fu fpf f^ ^.

Open Ports. — Two ports are open to Foreign trade in
the Province of Chihli ji[ ^ : — T'ient^n ^ ^ f^ and Ts'in-
wany-tao ^ 3E A) depending on Yungp'ing Fu ^ ^ f^. -^
There is besides a custom-house at Taku ^ yj[f , and Tungku ^
^, near the estuary of the Peh-ho g }pf, on the highway to
T'ientsin ?? j(t ^-

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG. 79

2". Shantung Ui "^

Area. — 55,984 square miles.

Popnlatlon. — 38,247,900 inhabitants, or 683 per square
mile.

This province has the densest population of China, and as
to the number of its inhabitants, it comes immediately after
Szechw'an gg j||.

?rame. — Shantung ilj ;^ means "mist of the Mountnin^',

and, in fact, a great part of the Province lies to the E. of the
T'ai-shan % [Ij, the famous mountain frequented by so many
pilgrims.

Bonndarles. — Shantung is bounded on the

N. — By the strait of Ohihli jf ^, the Gulf and

Province of Chihli,
W. — By Ohihli if ^ and Honan fpf ^,
S. — By Honan ^ ^, Kiangsu gC j|^ and the

Yellow Sea,
E. — By the Yellow Sea ^ %.

Capital.— TSET^JV FV ^ ^ ;i^, which stands at a short
distance from the right bank of the Hwang-ho ^fpf, and to the
N. W. of the T'ai-shan %. [1] mountain.

Other Prefectures. — These are nine, as follows :
To the 8. W. :

1° Ts'aochow Pu W ffl M-
AUyng the Grand Canal or near it, proceeding from N. to 8. :

2° Timgch'aiig Pn :^ 1 W.

3° Yenchow Fu ^ Wl M,

4° Ichow Fn iJr i>H ;fiF.
To the N., goiaig from W. to IS. :

5° Wuting Pu ^ ^ fl?r-,

6° Ts'ingchow Pu ^ jtH Jff .

7"LaicliowFu^ffl M^

8° Tfingchow Fu g * fl9=-
To the 8. of Tainan Ihi :

9° T'aingan Fu Ijp * )f •

80 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

There are also in Shantung .5 itidependent Chow cities •'
Tsining Chow ^ ^ ^, JAnta'ing Chotv f^ Jft Jt|, and Kiao
Chmv J§ j{\.

Aspect and Characteristics. — Shantung is made up of .
1" a mountaip-ous region, which lies to the E. pf the Hwang-ho
^ fpj'^ and of the Grand Canal; 2° of a level region situated- to
the W.. It is of all the Provinces, except Kwangtung ^ '^, the
one that has the greatest length of coast-line. Its coasts are pro-
foundly indented and abound in deep bays and excellent li^irpours.^
To the W., its great plain differs but little in aspect from that
of Chihli ]|[ ff, while to the E., numerous rivers rise in all its
mountains and hills. Towards the E., the Province is rich in
coal and metals; to the W., cereals and fruit abound. It enjoys
■inoreover a very mild climate, because of its proximity to the,
sea. The Grand Canal has hitherto afforded it an easy outlet for
its products, but ere long, its railways will still further increase ;
its wealth. The historical memory of Confucius (K'ung Futze ^ ;
^ ^) imparts to it also a certain celebrity, as well as the pre' \
sence of the T'ai-shan ^ \i], one of China's five sacred mountains.

Geolosical constitution. — Shantung was foi-mei-ly an island cut off from
tlie continent by an arm of tlie Yellow S..a, but iirthe course of time became linked .
with the mainland through alluvial deposits. This same alluvium mingled with loess, ;'
predominate's in the \V.. In the centre, a large portion of the soil is composed of gneiss,
mixed with limestone and 'clay. In the E., gneiss is also found, but mingled to a great- !
fr extent with granite, sand-stone and limestone, while to the N. ^specially, it is veined
with basalt and porph^'ry.

Orograpliy. — Adjacent to the Hwang-Jio ^ ■jpj' anid the
Grand Caned, a vast plain extends to the N. and to the' S. of
these. 2 rivers.

In the centre is an important mountain mass formed by
several chains, whence issue in all directions a great number
of rivers. The principal peak is the T'ai-shan ^ llj, which
attains an altitude of 5,060 feet,

To the Bast of Jiiao Chow ^ ^ Bay is another mass, for-1
med by several chains, running N.E. to S. W. and of which the ;
highest, called the fMO-sIian ^ [Ij, rises to 3,700 feet. A' third
chain exists to the S. E. of Chefoo ^ ^. It is a spur of the
K'tienfun ^ -J^ (ij range, and is only 2,940 feet in height.

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG.

81

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SHANTUNG Oj ^
according to Richthofen.

82 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Oliinate. — The climate, milder in tlie S. is in general very healthy. The N.W.
monsoon is keenly felt on the Northern coast, and the S. E. monsoon on the Southern
coast. The rainy season commences in July and August, and the snow which falls in
abundance during Winter, disappears very quickly. In July.fogs are frequent upon the
coasts. At Chefoo there is an average rainfall of 24,4 inches, and 15,6 inches at Ts'ingtao.
In Winter, the rocks on the Northern seacoast are at times covered with ice. This
arises from the waves breaking on the shore,and the ice may last for several weeks.

Hydrography. — To the W. are long rivers confined to the
plain and running through the lowlands. The principal one is
the Hwang-ho ^ }pj, which runs from S.W. to N.B. , and crosses
the Grand Canal (its bed is then 16 feet above the level of
the Oanal). The Hwang-ho being far higher than the neigh-
bouring country, is maintained within its bed by embankments.
These sometimes give way and thus cause dreadful inunda-
tions. It is navigable only during the last 25 miles of its course.
(&ee Section I. Oh. I. p. 27). — Several other streams are also
navigable, especially the T'uhairho ^ ,^ Jpfi which runs to
the N, in a parallel direction with the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf. Tsinan
Fu ^ p^ ^ is connected with the sea by a navigtMe canal,
which in the last part of its course, follows the bed of the
Siaots'ing-h^ /J> ^ }pf . — Nearly all the rivers, which run
through the mountainous part, bear the aspect of torrents, and
none of them have any real importance.

In the S., 2 large rivers flow into the Ortaid Canal : the
I-ho f/f JflJ and the Tawen-ho :fc -{^C fpf'

At the Western extremity, but terminating at the Grand

Oanal, is the Wei-ho ^ ^, navigable throughout the greater

part of its course, as we have stated when describing Honan }pf ^.

The Grand Canal or Tun-ho (^ fpj transport river), traverses

the whole Western and South-Western part, and runs through

several lakes. Its highest point is at its junction with the Tawen-

- ho ^ fi M (see Section V. Oh. VI. Means of Oommunication).

The Province has several lakes, the most celebrated of which

are : the Ts'ing-shui ^ ^Jc lake, to the N. of Ts'ingchow Fu }f|

jHI /jj ; — the Peh-meh -g" ^ lake, to the N. W. of Kiao Chow

JP iHI bay; — the Ohaoyang Hg ^ and Wei-shan ^ jjj lakes,

along the Grand Oanal, as it leaves Shantung jl]3*.

CHAPTER IV. SHANTDN&. 83

Faimn and Flora.— Tlie fauna and flora are those of the Northern Region. Shan-
tung abounds also in ■nild boars, wolves, foxes, badgers, partridRes, quails and snipe.

The principal trees met mth are : the pine, oak and poplar; willows and the
cypress-tree are also very plentiful.

Agricnltnral Products.— These are abundant in the great
Western Plain, and consist principally of millet, corn, barley,
sorghum, maize, peas, cotton, hemp and the opium poppy. Rice
grows only in the extreme S.

Numerous fruit-trees give a plentiful crop of pears, apples,
peaches, apricots, plums, grapes and jujubes.

Shantung [JQ ^ furnishes also a vast quantity of silk, both
common and wild, (the woven stuff is called pongee), the latter
being produced by a silkworm that feeds on oak-leaves.

The country possesses besides, good strong mules as well
as horses, oxen and goats in great number. The camel is found
only in the Western part.

Various kinds of good fish are caught on the coasts and
rivers, such as the sole, cod and mackerel... also crabs, shrimps,
oysters and mussels.

Mineral Wealth. — The principal mineral wealth of the
Province is found in the centre. Coalfields exist in 3 places :
at Wei hsien 3^ jg, Pushan hsien ^ [Ij f^, to the S. W. of Ts'ing-
chow Fu ^ ^ ^, and at Ichow F\i ^ j^ )^. — Iron, copper,
argentiferous lead-ore. gold, diamonds, gypsum, clay and sand-
stone are found, as well as building stone in great abundance.

Population. — The population is very crowded in the plain, but much less in
the mountain districts, except near the large centres.

The people of Shantung are a vigorous and sturdy race but rather pugnacious.
In the neighbourhood of Tengchow Fu are found some 200,000 immigrants from Hu-
peh, who are much more militant and less religious than the natives of the Province.
They entered the counti'v, and settled down there about the middle of the XIV*'' cen-
tury A. D.

Langaage. — There is nothing deserving any particular mention. Mandarin
is spoken, but with the rude accent of the North.

Cities and Principal Centres. — TSZNAN FU ^ij^^,
4 miles to the South of the Hwang-ho.

Population, 100,000 inhabitants. The Governor of Shantung
llj * resides there. The -vvalls enclose a very large space,

84

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

Tsinan Pu was formerly famous for its silks and its imitation
precious stones. Nowadays it is the great commercial centre of
all Western Shantung, a vast trading mart, but not a manufac-
turing centre. The city owes much to its late Governors. At the
present day it has a university, a military school and a well-
organized police force. A highway connects it with the Hwang-
ho ^ }pf , which flows at a distance of nearly 4 miles to the N.

Alon^ the Grand Canal :

IdnWinff Chow gjl j|| jHI- — Population, 48,000 inhabitants.
Formerly a very considerable town on account of its trade and
its extensive warehouses, but it has much declined since it
was taken by the T'aip'ings yJc ^ in 1855. Its manufacture of
bricks however gives it even nowadays some importance.

Tsining Chow T^^ )^. — Population, 150,000 inhabitants.
One of the most populous cities of Shantung ]\\ ^, formerly a
large trading centre, now an industrial city, where copper,
iron and bamboo articles are manufactured. The town exports
a vast quantity of salt provisions.

2'o l/te North:

Ttfim/gchmv Fu ^ ^J^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.
A town destitute of industry and commerce, but to which the
coal-mines in its vicinity and the passage of the railway impart
some activity. Not far from it is Folishan /isien i$ lU H^! which
supplies excellent coal, and manufactures pottery, glass, oil and
bricks.

Cheiu-Ufun ^ /f^f", depending on Ch'angshan hsien g ]\\ (||,
is a great distributing centre whence the silk manufactured in
the Province is exported.

Laichow Fu ^ ;H1 M- — Population, 80,000 inhabitants.
A town deriving importance from its position. It is famous for
its marble quarries and its soapstone.

TSngehow J% ® jHI ^- — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It
occupies a fine position on the coast, and was formerly a great
commercial city.

Chefoo ^ ^ or Tenfai jtS $• — Population, 82,000 in-

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG.

85

habitants. An important commercial port open to foreign trade.

Weihaitvei^^^. — An excellent harbour and anchorage,
leased to Great Britain in 1899, and now used as a large supply
station and sanatorium. The town is governed by Chinese
officials under the direction of a British Commissioner.

To the S. :

Ttfinfftao ^ S( . — Village situated upon Kino Chmv 0 ^
Bay. Leased to Germany in 1898 for 99 years, and vigorously
developed into a great trading and promising port. It is 300
miles North of Shanghai.

PORT OF TS'INGTAO ^ %.
To the N. of T^ingtao :

Wei hMen J^ f|. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A
large town situated near the great commercial highway of that

86 SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REGION.

region and monopolizing all business. The new railway passes
close by, and affords easy transport for the coal which lies in
abundance to the S.E. of the city. It is a great mart for goods,
such as cotton, tobacco and coal. Wei hsien is the great com-
mercial centre in Shantung for the sale of straw-braid.

Industry and Commerce. — A certain number of cities
are engaged in industrial pursuits. We have already mentioned
several. At Pohshan hsien -(if ilj J|^,in the prefecture of Ts'ing-
chow Pu ^ j|t| )^, clay is utilized in making pottery renowned
throughout all Northern China. Close to this, a special kind
of sand-stone is employed in the manufacture of enamel cloi-
sonne. ■ In other places, stone and marble quarries abound,
while gypsum and asbestos are also extracted.

Commerce is principally carried on through the treaty-ports
and the Grand Canal, T'ientsin 5i W ^^^ Shanghai _t ^ being
the great distributing centres. The chief eacports are : fruit,
pottery, bricks, beancake (used for manure) and straw-braid.
The imports consist of fabrics, rice and petroleum.

Klgtaways of Communication. — We have spoken of
the navigable waterways. Further on we shall study the coasts
(see Section IV. The Coasts ; and Sect. V. ch. VI. Means of
Communication.) A Tailway links Ts'ingtao ^ ^ with Tsinan
Fu S if ^' via Wei hsien ;^|g, and will soon extend to T'ien
tsin Fu ^ }$ ;j^ ('see the same ch. VI, as above). Moreover
several roaOs connect Shantung jlj ^ with the other Provinces

1" The roaa from PeMng :}t; jJC «« Tsinan Fu, passing by
Teh Chow ^ f^. This forks off at Tsinan Fu into two roads :
one continuing Southwards by T'aingan Fu ^ ^ ^ and Ichow
Fu fjf ^H ;i^ towards Kiangsu ^ j§; the other, leading to the E.
by Lajchow Fu ^ ;|t| )^, T6ngchow Fu g -)t| ;j?f and Chefoo
^ ^. From this latter road a branch runs to Wei hsien M M
and Ts'ingtao ^ ft.

2° A road almost parallel to the Grand Caned starts from
Teh Chow ^, jUi, in the N., passes by Yenchow Fu ^ M ^,
and goes on to North Kiangsu by Siichow Fu ;^ ^ jj^.

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG. 8t

Open Ports. — Four ports are open to Foreign trade :
CA«/<»o ^^ (in the prefecture of Tengchow Fu g jlfl fl^), Tsituin
■'^ 81 ^ Jfif. ^«i hsien ^ J|^ (in the prefecture of Laichow Fu
^ ^ Jff)» »"d Cheu-M'un ^ ^ (in the prefecture of Tsinan Fu
jJSf ^ ^). Two ports are leased : one to Great Britain, namely
WHhaiwei J^ ^ ^, which depends on Tengchow Fu S iHI fl^^ ;
the other to Germany, namely Ttfingtao || ^ , near Kiao Chow
^ ;It|. This latter has a custom-house.

Notes. — 1". The T'ai-shan ^ [Jj mountain is situated
5 miles to the N. of T'aingan Fu ^ ^ /^. It was a famous
pilgrim resort twenty centuries before the Christian era, and as
tradition records, the ancient monarch Shun ^ (one of the first
Emperors of China, who reigned B. C. 2,255 to 2,205), is said to
have sacrificed there. At the present day, each sect has erected
temples and monasteries on its peaks, and thousands of pilgrims
throng to them in the Spring season.

2°. The Sub-prefecture or district city of K'iifeu hsien ft#f^
(Yenchow Fu ^ ^ fl|f) is the birth place of Confuwus (Kung
Futze ^ ^ ^). He was born there 551 B.C. (21=' year of the
reign of the Emperor Ling-wang g 5, of the Cheu-dynasty),
and died in 479. He travelled much, offering his services to
several princes, but with scant success. His teaching may be
sunimed up in a few ethical principles, and some maxims on
state-government, gleaned from the sages of antiquity.

References

Madrolle. — Chine du Word. Paris, I'JOi.
(p. 4 to 27).

lieboucq. — Vie de Mgr Dubar. Paris, 1879.
(ch. 3, 1, 0).

Mgr Favier, — Pe-king. Histoire ct des-
cription. Lille, 1900.

I^roy. _ En Cliine : au Tohe-li S. E.
LiUe, 1900.

PROVINCE OF GlilHLI.

Ministere de la Guerre. Service geographi-
que de rarmSe. Notice descriptive tt
statistique du Tche-li. Paris, 1900.
Ministere de la Guerre. Carte du theatre
des op&ations en Chine. 1° Le Pei-tohe-
li. — 2° Les environs de Pe-king.
Ministere de la Guerre. Plan de Peking.

88

SECTION I. THE NORTHERN REftlON.

Carrez. — Carte du Tohe-U S. E. Paris,

1890.
Richthofen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.

(p. 77-96. Chihli; Mongolia and Shansi)
Bret^elmeider. — Peking and its envir

ons. Shanghai, 1876.
De Rocheehouart. — Pe-kin. Paris; 1878.
Jametel. — Pe-kin. Paris, 1887.
Bourne. — Notes of a Jodrney to the Im-
perial Mausolea, East of Peking. (Pro-
ceed, of the Geog. Soo. 1883).
Delaroche — Vemet.— Le Pei-ho et Tien

tsin. (Ecole des sciences politiques, 1889)
Franke. — Besohreibung des Jeholgebie-

tes in der Provinz Chihli. Leipzig, 1902.
Monnier. — L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,

1899.
Eevue Fran^aise d'exploration. Dec. 1904 ;

Tientsin sous I'administration Europeenne
China Field-force Survey. — China. Chihli

Province.
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol

I. p. 53-72).
Grosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. Chihli. p. 4-2S).
Winterbotham. — Historical and Geo-

graphical View of the Chinese Empire.
London, 1795. (Chihli. p. 37-52).

Murray. — Historical and descriptive ac'

count of China. Edinburgh, 1843. (Vol.

III. Chihli. p. 18).
Du Halde. — Description of the Bmpir^

of China. London, 1738 (Vol. I. Chihli.

p. 65-72). ... . -

GutzIafT. — China opened. London, 1838.

(Vol. L Chihli. p. 58-71).
Davis Sir J. V. — The Chinese. London;

1844. (Vol. II. Ch. XI. p. 71-94).
Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.

(Chihli. p. 33-39.)
Parker E. H. — Revenue of Chihli (N.

C. B. E. A. Soo. 1895-96. p. 107-110).
Edkins J. — The bituminous coal-mines

of Peking (N. C. B. K. A. Soc. 1867.

art. 12. p. 243-250).

MdllendorffO. F. Von.— The Vertebrata
of the Province of Chihli (N. C. B. K.
A. Soc. 1876. art. 2. p. 41-112).

Williamson A. — Notes of a journey from
Peking to Chefoo, via. the Grand Canal.
(N. C. B. K. A. Soo. 1866. art. I. p. 1-25).

Hedley J. — A trip into the Chihli Pro-
vince. (Geog. Journal. 1905. p. 513-525).

PBOVINCE OF SHANTUNG.

Fauvel. — Description du Chan-toung (Re-
vue Fran^aise d'exploration. 1898. p. 236
sq.).

Fauvel. — Description de Kiao-tcheou.
(ibid. p. 213-221).

Pila. — Une Province chinoise en pro-
grte: le Chan-toung. (Bulletin du Comitd
de I'Asie Fran^aise. Juillet et Aofit 1904).

Armstrong.— Shantung. Shanghai, 1891.

Fauvel. — La Province chinoise du Chan-
toung. Bruxelles, 1892.

Behme und Krieger. — Puhrer durch
Tsing-tau und Umgebung. 1904.

Pieper. — Unkraut, Knospen und Bliiten
aus dem "Blumigen Reiche der Mitte".
Steyl,1900. (Flora and fauna of Shantung).

Von Richthofen. — Schantung und seine
Eingangspforte Kiautsohou. 1898.

Goedertz. — Reisen in Schantung. 1898.

Fauvel. — Carte du Chan-toung.

Hassenstein.— Karte der Provinz Schan-
tung. 1898.

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. — I.
— Statistical Series : N° 6. Decennial re-
ports, 1892-1901. —Shanghai, 1904. (I. p.
46, Chefoo. — p. 87, Kiaochow).

Williams. —The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 73-78).

Grosier. — General description of China.
(Vol. I. Shantung, p. 78-83).

Wintertwtham. — View of the Chinese
Empire. (Shantung, p. 89-93).

Murray's China. (Vol. III. Shantung,
p. 20-21),

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. (Vol. I. Shantung, p. 104-106).

CHAPTER IV. SHANTUNG.

89

Crutzlair. — China opened. (Vol. I. Shan-
tung, p. 90-95).

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford. 1905.
(Shantung, p. 41-48. — Tsingtao. ibid. p.
48-52).

Parker E. H. — Eevenue of Shantung.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1895-96. p. 132-34).

WiIliain:>On A. — Notes on the produc-
tions, chiefly mineral, of Shantung. (N.
C. B. R. A. Soo. 1867. art 3. p. 64-73).

Markham J. — Notes on the Shantung

Province. (N. 0. B. R. A. Soo. p. 1-30).

Beeoher H. M.— Notes on the mineral re-
sources of Eastern Shantung. (N. C B.
R. A. Soc. 1887. p. 22-28).

Tsohepe A.— DerT'ai-schan. Yentschou-
fu, 1906.

Anz W. — Eine Winterreise duroh Sohan-
tnng and das nBrdliche Eiangsu. (Peter-
mann's Mitteilungen. 1901. Vol. 50. p.
131-140).

SECTION II.

THE CENTRAL REGION.

->S-K-

CHAPTER I.

VALLEYS OF THE YANGTZE ^ ^ iL AND OF THE
HWAI-HO m M-

Characteristics of this Region. — We now enter upon
the most important region of China, the richest, the most popul-
ous, the largest and the most favoured by the facility of its com-
munications.

1 . The valley of the Mwai-Iio fH \^ has but a very secondary
importance, as this river irrigates only the North of Nganhwei,
after having crossed the Honan JpJ '^ Province, which we have
already studied. But as it forms a special system, and traverses
an intermediate region, situated between that of the North and that
of the Centre, it is preferable perhaps to describe it here. We
shall study this river particularly when treating of Nganhwei ^
HJ and Northern Kiangsu fl_ ^ (See : Ch. VI. of this Section).
What we are going to say here may be applied more especially to
the region drained by the Yangtze ^ ^ XL ^'^d ifs affluents.

2. The region has a great central artery of communication, the
Yangtze ^ ^ tLi ^^^^ * "^''1/ important network of navigable
rivers flowing into that vast stream. All kinds of wares and
merchandise are borne on its waters and distributed throughout
the Provinces that border on its banks.

3. It has a temperate climate and is not subject to the
great variations of the North. It is indeed very hot in Summer,
but does not experience the excessive cold of the Winter. The

CHAPTER 1. VALLEYS OF THE YAN&TZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. ^^

K'ami M or 8tov»-bea is therefore unknown there, and the rivers
are not frozen in Winter. The rainy season in Summer is con-
stant, and the crops are less irregular than in the North.

4. It is the region where tea, rice, silk and cotton abound,
while the sugar-cane is cultivated only in some places.

5. Less rich in coal-beds than the North and South, it is
not however destitute thereof, and its mineral wealth is great,
especially in Hunan ^ J^ and Szechw'an 0 )\\.

6. This Central region of China is connected with those of
the North and South by several frequented highways.

7. It is the lake region, and includes some expanses of wa-
ter which are very large, such as the Tungt'ing ^ 0, P'oyang
fR ^, raihu ± ^, Hungtseh gfc ^ and Ch'aohu ^ jj^ lakes.

8. It is the great manufacturing region : industries of silk
and yarn being found in Kiangsu ^ j^ ; of Indian ink in Ngan-
hwei -^ %; porcelain ware in Kiangsi f£ f^; cotton cloth and
steel-works in Hupeh fjg Jtt: silk, salt and oil in Szechw'an^ )]\.

9. It is the region of the great treaty-ports open to Foreign tra-
de : Shanghai ± ^, ChSnkiang H ^, Wuhu ^ ^, Hanh'ow g| p ,
Ch'ungk'ing g ^, HsiXchow ^ ^, this last in Szechw'an pg j|( .

Provinces comprised in tills Region. — They are the
following, proceeding from W. to E. :

Szechw'an

la ill.

Hunan

rifi ^.

Hupeh

flW TU)

Kiangsi

n.m.

Nganhwei

*#,

Kiangsu

iLM-

Geological Constitution. — The loess or yellow soil
which has been found so abundantly in the Northern region,
exists here only exceptionally, in the Province of Nganhwei ^
J^ and in that of Kiangsu ^ j^, so tar as Chenkiang ^ jj[^.
The predominating formations of this region are alluvium, lime-
stone and sand-stone. The Szechw'an gg j|| table-land is for-
med chiefly of this latter rock.

Immense lakes, larger than those of the present day, for-

92 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

merly covered the Eastern plain, as also the low parts of Hunan
^ ^, Hupeh jSS :jb and Kiangsi JH If. The actual sheets of
water are the remnants of those ancient lakes. Little by little
they wore away the low portions of the rock-bound banks which
hemmed them in, and their waters formed an immense river, the
Yangtze-kiang ^ -jF ^, which carried their overflow to the
sea. As the water ran off, it gradually eroded the rock, and
dug a deep channel through the lakes. Their original surface
area was thus much diminished. As they lessened in extent,
vast alluvial deposits were disclosed, some of which when dried
up proved exceedingly fertile ; others remained still saturated
with water, and these formed swamps. All these swamps are
anew enlarged into lakes when the Summer floods set in. Such
lakes and swamps are therefore of great advantage ; the waters
rush to them and leave behind a large quantity of alluvium.
For this reason, the inhabitants are not obliged to construct, as
on the banks of the Hwang-ho ^ fp[, high embankments, which,
when they give way, produce such terrible disasters in the region
of the North. It has been necessary, however, to erect dikes
in many places along the banks of the Yangtze ^ ^ fiCi ^9
order to protect the lowlands.

Orog;r»pIiy. — The land surface inclines both on the N. and
S. towards the Yangtze ^ ^. The outlines of the basin are
distinctly traced. To the If., the Ekistem K'ttetUvM g_ !^ extends
its different branches even into Nganhwei ^ ^J. These are the
StkHtiff-Bhan H j^ (Ij) Tal'itUinif ^ ^, FU-niu fj{ ^, and Hwai-
yang-shan fH |^ [Ij . To the 8., three plaieauas: those of Yiin-
nan :J'^, Kweichow ^ ^ and Kwangsi ^ |f, continuing in
the yanling ^ -^ or Nanshan ^ ilj and the Tayuling ^ ^^
mountains, form the water-parting of the Yangtze ^ ^ from
the 8i-kiang If fL, and the coast-rivers of Fokien jjg ^ and
Ohfikiang ^ gC. : Nowhere, save to the W., are there any high
peaks. The general configuration of the Northern chains is clear
enough i but it is quite otherwise to the S., where the grouping
is rather irregular and too little known to enable us clearly
to describe its features.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE YAN&TZE AND OP THE HWAI-HO. 93

Climate. — During Winter, the thermometier descends sel-
dom below 14* Fahrenheit, and rises in Summer to 104° P. The
rainy season is in Summer. This period is much damper in
Kiangsu fL ^, because of its proximity to the sea, and the large
sheets of water scattered over the country. In Szechw'an ^ )\\
likewise, the climate is very damp and fogs are frequent. The
cold dust-laden winds cease in the Province of Nganhwei ^ 1^,
but on the other hand, mosquitoes and the close heat atten-
dant on the frequent thunder-storms render the Summers very
unpleasant.

Hydrograpliy. — The Central region is the most favoureid
part of China, both for the number of its rivers and the advan-
tages derived from them. As the Yangtze ^ ^ j!]^ receives
all these streams, and traverses the region from E. to W., we
shall study this river more particularly.

THE rANOTZE KIVEB. ^ ip tt*

Its Course — The Tangtae rises in Tibet, and runs at first
towards the S. E. It makes a great bend to the S. of Szechw'an
H j|(, then two others of less importance (also Southwards)
at the W. and E. of Hank'ow ^ P (Ilupeh ^ :|t Province),
and after making a last one towards the N., it approaches 'Nan-
king ]^ ^, and empties its waters iiito the Eastern China Sea,
a little to the N. E. of Shanghai.

Provinces wlilcli It traverses, as it flows from W.

to E. — The Yangtze traverses the following Provinces: Yiin-
nan ^ ^, Szechw'an Q j||, Hupeh }j|g 4t, Kiangsi fL |f , Ngan-
hwei ^ ^ and Kiangsu iL ^■

Its Name. — It is generally called the Yangtze- Kiang ^
-p t[Li ^"t •" several parts of its long course, other names have
been also applied to it. Up to the Szechw'an 0J )\\ bend, it is
called the UUtttmvuren, the Murui-uHu, the Peh-shui ^ 7^
(white river) or also the Kinalui-ltiatig ^ t!? j!X (golden-sand
river). At Hsiichow Fu ^ ^ /jj, it is styled the Ta-hiang ^ j!X
(great river), which corresponds to the Min-kiung |I|R jtL of

94 SECTION n. THE CENTRAL RBOION.

Chinese literature and geography. Up to the Tungt'ing lake, it
is known as the Ch'ang-Man^ ^ ^ (long river). In the latter
part of its course it is called the Tan^txe^lciang ^ ^ f£_. It
owes this last name to the ancient Yang ^ Kingdom established
formerly near its then mouth in Kiangsu ^ ^, — capital, the
present Yangchow Fu j^ jHI ^ — and which imparts its name
to the whole course of the river. The rendering Son of tlie
Ocean ^ ^ ^ is utterly unfounded, and based only upon the
similarity in sound of two Chinese characters, ^ and f^, both
pronounced Yang. Instead of Yang ^, character of Yangchow
Pu, another Yang j^ signifying poplar-tree is also found in
some Chinese geographies, but this is erroneous.

Foreigners sometimes call it the Blue Siver, presumably to
contrast it with the Yellow River of the North.

Its different parts. — The Yangtze may be divided into
three principal parts : the first, torrential; the second, Sjcmi-
navigable ; and the third, navigable throughout.

1° The torrenUal part. — This extends from its source to
P'ingshan hsien ^ llj )||, a little above Hsiichow Fu ^ ^ ^,
called also Sulfu. The river rises in the centre of the high
Tibetan plateau, in a region up to the present insufficiently
explored. It seems at first to follow a S. E. direction, and re-
ceives in this part numerous torrents.

When it has reached the S. of the sources of the Hwang-
ho ^ Jpf, from which it is separated by the Baiankara range,
it takes a N.W. — S.E. direction. At the town of Sogon-gomba,
its bed is still at an altitude of 15,700 ft. It then flows between
perpendicular mountain barriers, which separate it from the
Hwang-ho and the Mekong (Lants'ang-kiang ^ j| fj). Its
width is 400 feet, and its depth from 20 to 26 ft. Throughout
the whole of this region, its course is rapid. A little above
Batang g. Iff (Pat'ang), it passes through a large valley where
its bed is at an altitude of only 9,000 ft. It then assumes a tor-
rential aspect and flows between narrow defiles to the W. of the
Szechw'an Alps (thus shall we style the high mountain mass
which forms the Western limit of Szechw'an Q )\\). The rivey

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 95

continues in this same direction till it impinges on the high table-
land of Yiinnan ^ ^. Impeded in its course, it cuts its way
with difficulty through the Szechw'an Alps, forming threie great
bends (the first, from Chungt'ien tf 13; the second, from Yung-
pei t'ing ^ :H: J^ ; the third, from Huili Chow ■§• 3|| ^).

Before its last bend, it receives its longest tributary on the
left side, the Yalung-hiMng ^ ^ jUi torrential like itself, and
rising near the sources of the Hwang-ho ^ fpf. After this bend
the Yangtze ^ -^ fjC flows at an altitude of 2,600 feet, and is
skirted on both sides by powerful ranges and mountain masses.
On the left, are the Szechw'an Alps, and on the right, the last
spurs of Yiinnan ^ ^ and of Kweichow -^ Jfl. It is thus
compelled to follow a S. W. — N. E. direction, which it keeps
till it reaches P'ingshan hsien ^ [Ij H^, in the prefecture of
Hsiichow Fu ^ im ^. At this latter town, its bed is at an
altitude of only 1,000 ft. It has flowed through a distance of
1,250 miles, but has still to run 1,860 more before it reaches
the coast. A little above P'ingshan hsien is a rapid almost
impossible to pass.

In all this part, the river may be crossed only where it is
dammed for mill-streams.

2" The sentiimuvigaMe part. — This extends from P'ing-
shan hsien ^ lij f^. to Ich'ang Fu g g ^. Below P'ingshan
hsien, the direction of the river inflects Eastwards. From the
last bend at P'ingshan hsien it runs 8. S.W. — N.N.E.; now it
turns W.S.W. — E.N.E. After Wan hsien 1| fg (in K'Weichow
Pu^ W ji^)» it flows even W.-E., its waters being obstructed
by the Tapashan :^ fi lU mountains, which form the North-
eastern boundary of Szechw'an 0 )\\. The river having no
longer such a steep incline, becomes navigable, except in the
region of the rapids.

Up to K'weichow Fu H jHI jfl^. the river is from 500 to
650 yards wide, but further down, it narrows in and flows be-
tween two high ranges, its breadth being only 200 to 300 yards,
but it widens out soon again till it reaches the Wuslian ^ \\\ l||
gorges,

96 SECTION 11. THE CENTRAL RB&ION.

The rapids appear in numerous succession, one of the
fiercest being between Ich'ang |[ g jjj and-Patung }St M M-
When the water is low, the new rapid — Sin-t'an MM°^ ®'""
lung-t'an ff H i| — near Yunyang hsien ^ ^ ||, is also very
dangerous. If the descent of those rapids is an expeditious
matter, it is however not unattended by danger (as regards
three or four of them at least) ; their very slow, tiresome
ascent is still more dangerous. The boats used in crossing
them have an enormous scull in front. This is manned by 4 or 5
men, and is intended to strengthen the rudder. In the low-
water season (Spring and Autumn), and especially in Winter,
they are more easily crossed, and the distance from Ich^ang
<|^ g Jj^ to Ch'ungk'ing "S. St )& ™^y ^^ covered in a few
days, although this same journey requires sometimes as much
as 30 days and more, and at the least 3 weeks. The time
required to perform the voyage varies in fact to a great extent,
and depends especially on the buoyancy of the boat and the
number of the trackers.

In this part, the Yangtze ^ ^ f£. receives on the Uit, from
Szechw'an P9 j||, its chief aflFluents. 1° the Min-kiang ||g j£
or Ch'Sngtu river jsK^^, which has long been considered, and
is still considered in China, as the parent branch of the Yangtze,
on account of its importance. 2° The Sialitt^-Mang ^ ^ {!£■
Both of those are navigable, as are also several of their tribu-
teiries. On the right, the Yangtze receives the Hoh-kiang '^ j^
or €ihHh-shui "^ jjc, and the Wu-kiang J^ ^, two rivers
suitable for navigation, and coming both from Kweichow j^ j^.
At HsuchOw Fii ^ j^ ^, the bed of the river is at an alti-
tude of 900 ft.; at Ch'ungk'ing 1: J5 j^, it is only 600, while
at Ich'ang^ g ^, it has fallen to 130 ft. This latter port
is distant 2,175 miles from the sources of the Yangtze, and 960
from P'ingshan hsien ^ ^J )||. Before the river reaches the
ocean, it has still to flow a distance of another 960 miles.

It is in this portion of its course that its waters rise
highest, reaching sometimes to 96 feet beyond low-water mark.

3° The navigtMe part. — This extends from Ich'ang ^ g ^

CHAPTER I. VAIiLEYS OF THE .YAN&TZi: AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 97

to the- sea; In this last part of its course, the river makes two
bends to the S.; the firtit, which is the more apparent, occurs
to the N. of the Tungt'ing }|^ ^ lake ; the second, to the N.
of Lake P'oyang fg |if- A third is faintly traceable to the N.
of the T'aihu ± ^ lake.

Running in the lowlands, the Yangtze ^ -^ {X has a less
rapM slope, and a very winding course, especially frpm Ich'ang
S^ ^ to Hank'ow ^ p. During all this period, itiTuns
in level ground covered with lakes and marshes, into which it
pours the overflow of its waters when the flood-season sets in.

It is always the slope of flie land surface which imparts to
it its direction, and not the affluents flowing into it, allhougji
this direction is modified whenever it receives an inapprtant
tributary. The first change of direction is where it receives
the waters of the Siang-kiang j^ ^ and of the Tungt'ing ||^ ^
lake; the second, where it receives those of the Han-ho ^ }jif ;
the third, those of the Kan-kiang ^ jX ^"d of the P'oyang
lake fP ^; while a fourth has already been formed, before it re-
ceives the waters of the Grand. Oanal, but then becomes more
marked.

In all this part, the river is e«tailv navigable, and large
steamers can sail up to Hank'ow :^ P . In this third portion
of its course, it receives four large affluents: one on the left,
the Han-ho '^ ?pf or Han-shui ^ -/jn ; and three on the right :
the Ttien-hiang ^ ^ and the Siang-kiang f^g f^, which flow
into it through the Tungt'ing ^|^ ^ lake ; and the Knn-Mang
^ ^, which reaches it by the. P'oyang lake ^^ |^. All these
rivers are navigable, [see for these tributaries, as well as for
those from Szecbw'an ffl J|| and Kweichow ^ ^, the Provinces
they traverse).

The river throughout all this lower part often exceeds a
mile in width, and is from 30 to 60 feet in depth. At its estuary,
where it is divided into two branches by Ts'ungming ^ Bj]
island, it is 20 miles wide, reckoning from the extremity of
HaimSn % f^ to the mouth of the Hwangp'oo ^ \^\ and 60 miles,
if we. reckon from Haim^n to P'ootung Point "jj^ ;^- 1'he rise of

98

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REfilON.

the waters in the Summer season, makes it run 30 feet or more
higher than the usual low-water level. It then overflows its
banks. Ships drawing up to 25 feet, can at this period of the
year, sail up to Hank'ow g| □, in Hupeh.

Near its mouth, it receives the Hwangp'oo ^ |^or Shanghai
river, the waters of which at high-tide run into a multitude of
canals, and establish easy communications throughout the whole
neighbouring country.

Change* in the course of the Yangtze ^ -^ fx.- The Yang-
tze has not always followed its present channel. The two
principal changes seem to have affected its upper and lower
course.

1° Its upper course. — After skirting the W. of Szechw'an
pg )\\, the river seems to have formerly run in the valley of the
Sungkoi or Red River, which empties itself into the_ gulf of
Tongking ;^ jjC. An upheaval of the Yiinnan ^ ^ plateau occur-
ring later on, obstructed this course, and forced the river to work
a passage to the E. through the chains of the Szechw'an Alps.

2" Its lower course. — The river flowed formerly into the
sea through 3 branches : the Northern, which it follows even
at the present day; the Southern, which commenced at Wuhu
hsien Se Jj^ J|^, and ran Eastwards towards the lake region of
South Kiangsu jQQ ^, until it reached the Northern extremity of
the T'aihu ;ic t59 ^"^ Great Lake. Here, it branched into two :
one, the Woosung ^ ^ river, commonly called Soochow Greek;
the other, an outlet which flowed into Hangchow i^ j^ Bay, in
the Province of Ohfikiang ^ f^.

The toteU length of the Yangtze is 3,200 miles.

JHstanee of the prindpfU porta on the Yangtze frotn the
sea-coast.

Shanghai J; :^ on the Hwangp'oo ^ ■;§[ 45 miles.

Hank'ow ^U 630 , ,

Ich'ang S 1 j^ 1,000 ,,

Hsuchow $( jHI ^ 1,500 ,,

Mean flow of water. — It is hard to estimate even approxi-
mately the mean volume of the Yangtze waters. It has been calcu-

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OP THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 99

lated, that at Hank'ow ^ P, the flow per second is 173,000
cubic feet at low-water level ; at high-water, it attains 1,270,000,
which would give a mean of 540,000 cubic feet per second. At
the mouth, its average flow is estimated to be 650,000 cubic
feet per second, but to be nearer the reality, this result should
be more than quintupled. Giving the river a width of 6 miles,
a depth of 5 fathoms, and a current running 3 feet per second,
that is to say 2 miles to the hour, we would thus have a mean
flow with a volume of 3,530,000 cubic feet per second ; but this
result is in fact greatly inferior to the reality.

Area of its baain. — The Yangtze river drains in this
Central Region an area of 700,000 square miles.

Fiopulation. — The population of the Yangtze basin is reckoned
to be 200,000,000 inhabitants, and embraces the Provinces of
Szechw'an, Hupeh, Kiangsi, Nganhwei, Kiangsu and the
Northern parts of Yiinnan and Kweichow.

Ttdal influence. — The tide is felt to a distance of 375
miles from the mouth of the river, or a little beyond Wuhu |^

mm-

Share taken by the Parts of this Begion in the foreign
commerce of China. — The ports of this region absorb almost
60 "/„ of the whole commerce of China with foreign countries.

Yangtze shipping. Annual tonnage. — According to the
returns of the Imperial Maritime Customs (1902), this amounts to
2,000,000 tons, borne in 1,733 steamers which have transported
1,800,000 tons, and 1,196 junks carrying 185,000 tons.

Navigation of the Jtiver.

At its mouth. The Yangtze is obstructed at its mouth by
sandbanks, which leave but a depth of 13 to 16^ feet at low-
water. At high-water, however, the largest steamers can enter.

From its mouth to Hankfow. A regular service of large
steamers is maintained up to Hank'ow.

From mmkfow ^ P to Ich'amg g g jjj. Large freighters
ply as far as Ich'ang ; the river is however filled with shoals,
and boats cannot find in Winter more than 6^ feet of water.

Beyond Ich'ang is the region of the rapids. Here, native

100 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RE&ION. .

junks and cargo-boats must be hauled through the rapids, but at
medium or low-water season, small steamboats can easily cross
them.

From Ch'ungl^ing ^ M M *^ BsUcfiow (Suifu) ^ jH| jff-
Despite the rapids, the channel is still easily navigable for large
junks. Small steamboats can also run there without difficulty.

From Hsilehow Fu ^ j^ )^ to PHngalmn haien ^ llj j|f.-
This part is navigable only for junks.

jyimere quired for tlie voyage. Dietance-table on the
Yangtze. —

From Shanghai to Hank'ow. — Distance, 600 miles.

3 days by steamboat. Owing to an elaborate system of buoys
and lights being erected at the more dangerous places, steamers
can proceed on the journey day and night.

Prom Hnnk'ow to Ich'ang. — Distance, 370 miles.

4 days by steamboat. During the Winter season; boats can
travel only during the day-time, as lights and buoys are lacking
beyond Hank'ow.

From Ich'ang to Ch'ungkHng. — Distance, 400 miles.

20 to 40 days are here required, and the journey can be
performed only in junks hauled by trackers. The hire of a boat
costs from 150 to 200 taels {£ 22 to ^ 30). At the flood-season,
the voyage becomes very difficult, and accordingly much more
time is required.

From Ch'ungJc'ing to Hsilehow Fu (Suifu). — Distance, 100
miles.

Large junks hauled by trackers take about 20 days. The
downward voyage is performed with varying rapidity, and
depends principally on the velocity of the current. Junks which
lake 20 days to make the up-voyage, may sail down in three
days, or even less. The difference is not so great for stea-
mers, but the up-voyage often requires double the time taken
in going down, (for the navigation of the tributaries of the Yang-
tze, see the Provinces they traverse).

Steamboat Companies trading on the Yangtze. —

Several steamboat Companies carry on regular services with
the large ports between Shanghai J: fft and Ich'ang g g.

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 101

The principal are : — "7'/ie China Merchants Steam Newiga-
tion Co" (Chinese). — "■Indo-China Steam Navigation G"". Agents,
Jardine, Matheson and C». and ''China Navigation C"". Agents,
Butterfield and Swire (these two, English) — ''Norddeutscher
Lloyd". Agents, Melchers and C" ; and "■Hamburg-America Line"
{Yangtze Steamers). Agents, Arnhold, Karberg and C° (both
German). — "Osafea Shosen Kaisha" and "Yangtze Shipping C""
(both Japanese). — There is also a French C°: "Compagnie Asia-
tique de Navigation" . Agents, Racine, Ackermanh and C". — The
boats of mostly all these Companies call at the following ports :

Distance from SJuinghai.

Kiangyin ^ |^ 105 miles.

Chenkiang^ tIX. 165 ,,

Nanking if ^ 212

Wuhu Ji m 264 ,,

Ngank'ing^^ 370

Kiukiang ^ f£ 458 ,,

Hank'ow ^ p 600 ,,

From Hank'ow, small steamers run regularly to Ich'ang
S ^ Ml * distance further up of 370 miles.

Numerous small steamers ply on the large canals throughout
the whole region around Shanghai _t ■^•

Further particulara regarding this CentrtU Segion.
1". Like the preceding region, this would naturally comprise
parts of Provinces which we place elsewhere : thus the South of
Kansu -^ ^ and Shensi ^ |f ; the N. of Yunnan g |^ and
Kweichow 3^ ^fl. On the other hand, the N. of Nganhwei ^ ^
and Northern Kiangsu fx. M should on account of their general
characteristics be attached to the Northern Region. In order to
avoid the inconveniences arising from the division of these
Provinces, we shall describe here only the 6 Provinces mentioned
above, [see p. 91).

2" In this region, the caravans of camels so common in the
N. disappear altogether. They cease at the N. and W. of
Szechw'an K jlj, the N. of Honan fpj ^, of Nganhwei ^ %,
and of upper Kiangsu jx. M- Camels are seldom seen S. of the

102

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Yangtze ^ ^ fx.\ ^^ the contrary, conveyance by carts becomes
more and more frequent. In the mountainous region, on account
of the lack of roads, they are of little use, and the level parts
are too intersected with canals, lakes and bridges of primitive
construction to render them serviceable, and so boats take their
place. Everywhere else, mules, horses, asses and sedan-chairs
borne by coolies, and not by mules as in the N., are the chief
means of transport. The jinricsha (\ ^ !$ jenlihch'^. Man's
strength cart), where the roads allow it to be used, is coming
more and more into favour. It is faster and more comfortable
than the wheelbarrow. This latter has however the advantage
of being able to travel almost everywhere, and so it is very
largely used by the natives.

3° The Grand Canal and the Pekin^-Hankfow railway
JSC ^) establish easy communications between this Region and
the N. Other railway lines, and among them, that from Han-
k'ow to Canton, and from Szechw'an 0 }\\ to Yiinnan Pu ^ "^
jj5^, will render the same service in regard to communications
with the Southern Region, [see Section V. ch IV. Means of
Communication) .

References :

S, Chevalier. — Le Haiit Yang-tse-
kiang, de I-toh'ang fou it P'ing-chan hien.
Voyage et Description. Atlas. Chang:
hai, 1899.

Bons d'Anty. — Navigation a vapeur sur le
Haut Yang-tse-kiang (Geog. 15 ao<lt,1903).

de Vaulserre. — Chine. Le Pleuve Bleu
et son Bassin (Rev. Coloniale, 1900).

de Vaulserre.— Le Fleuve Bleu, de Soei-
fou k la hauteur de Ta-li fou (Geogr.
1900. vol. 1. p. 449 sq).

Percival. — The Land of the Dragon.
London, 1889.

Metchnikoff.- La Civilisation et les grands
fleuves historiques (C. XI. Le Hoang-ho
et le Yang-tse-kiang). Paris, 1889.

EyssSric. — Notes sur les rapides du Yang-
tse-kiang (Annales de G^og. 1895-1896).

de Bezaure.— Le Pleuve Bleu. Paris, 1899.

Hoimier.— L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,1899.

Minist^re de la Gaerre. — Service geo-
graphique de Tarmee. Bassin inf^rieur
du Yang-tse-kiang. Paris.

Alcock.— The Journey of Slargary (Kiang-
su, Nganhwei, Kiangsi, Hupeh, Hunan),
London, 1876.

de Villard. — Map of the Yangtse-kiang.

13 sheets. Shanghai, 1895.
Hourst. — Dans les rapides du Fleuve

Bleu. Paris, 1904.

Hourst. — Atlas du Haut Yang-tse. 21
feuUles, 1905.

Gutzlaff. — China opened. London, 1838.
(the Yangtze. Vol. I. p. 26-28).

Bishop M" J. F. — The Yangtze Valley
and Beyond. London, 1899.

Barclay Parsons 'W. — From the Yang-
tze kiang to the China Sea. (Geog. Jour-
nal. London, 1902. Vol. XIX. p. 711-
735).

CHAPTER I. VALLEYS OF THE YANGTZE AND OF THE HWAI-HO. 103

Edkins J. — On the Ancient Mouths of

the Yangtze kiang. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.

p. 77-84. Shanghai, 1860).
Oolquhoun A. R. — The Overland to

China. London, 1900. (Oh. XV and XVI.

p. 369-417. The Yangtze valley).
Bourne F. S. A. — The new Rapid on the

Yangtze. Geog. Journal. London, 1897

(vol. X. p. 191-195).

Stooke G. E.— A trip in Summer through
the Yangtze Gorges. East of Asia Maga-
zine, Shanghai, 1903 (vol. 11. p. 3-23).

Manifold O. O. — ^Recent Exploration and

Economical Development, in Central and

Western China. (Geog. Journal. London,

1904. p. 281-313).
Iiegendre Dr F. A. — Deux ann^es an

Setchouan. Paris, 1906. (Shanghai to

Chengtu. p. 5-194).
Davis Sir J. F. — Chinese Miscellanies.

London, 1875. (Valley of the Kiang to the

Port of Hankow, p. 175-191).
GUI VV. — The River of Golden Sand.

Loudon, 1883. (Ch. IV. p. 44-58. Shang-
hai to lohang — Ch. V. p. 59-81. Ichang
to Chungking).

Guppy H. B. — Notes on the Hydrology
of the Yangtze. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. p.
1-11. Shanghai, 1881).

Carles W. R. — The Yangtze Chiang.
Geog. Journal. London, 1898. (vol. XII.
p. 225-240).

Little A. — Through the Yangtze Gorges.
London, 1898. (Ch. II. p. 15-36. Shanghai
to Ichang — Ch. IV. p. 50-86. Above
lohang. — Ch. XII. p. 253-271. Physio-
graphy of the Yangtze Valley).

Little A. — Notes on Szechw'an and the
Yangtze Valley. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. p.
165. Shanghai, 1883).
LittleA. — The Crux (Yehtan, 60 miles
above Ichang) of the Upper Yangtze.
(Geog. Journal. Loudon, 1901. vol. XVIII.
p.498-508).
Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19C5.
(Ch. IV. p. 53-68. The Yangtze Biver).

CHAPTER II.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER
YANGTZE

(szECHW'AN m ;ii).

This region naturally comprises the Province of Szechw'an
pg )\\, also lower YiXnnan ^ ^, and the Northern part of Kweichow
■^ jlfl. These three parts are closely connected through their rivers,
which all flow into the Yangtze ^ ^ ff. Their mutual relations
are unceasing, their inhabitants have many characteristics in
common, their climate is practically the same and more liable to
fogs than in the rest of China. Their isolation is also identical, for
all three experience the same difficulty of communication with the
neighbouring regions. To avoid dividing into two the study of
them, we shall here describe only Szechw'an pg j||.

Szechw'an pg )\\ alone, like Chihli (g ^, has the special
privilege of having its own Viceroy, who resides at Ch'Snglu
^ M M Hemmed in between YiXnnan ^ ■^ and Kansu "^ ^,
it IS the only link that connects the Northern with the Southern
region. It is also completely isolated, for its Western, Northern,
and even North-Easlern mountains offer but few passages into
Tibet, Kansu, and the valley of the Han-ho ^ fpf.

CHAPTER II. SZECHW'aN. 105

Szechw'an m )\\

Area. — 218, 533 square miles. It is by far the largest
of the 18 Provinces. This results from its recent extension,
whereby it has acquired a part of Eastern Tibet. Yunnan ^
^, which comes immediately after it, has but an area of 146,
718 square miles.

Population. — f)8,72'i,800 inhabitants. A more correct
approximation would be about 45 to 50,000,000. It is the most
populated Province of the Empire, Shantung [Ij ^ being next
with 38,247,900 inhabitants. Its population however is not the
densest, as it has but 314 persons to the square mile, and is
surpassed in this respect by 8 other Provinces. The reason
is, because the population unusually dense upon the table-
land, is very sparse towards the W. and particularly along the
whole fringe of the plateau.

Name. — Szechw'an Q )\\ signifies "Four Rivers". These
4 rivers to which it owes its name are, proceeding from
West to East : the Yalung-kiang |J| ^ Jl, the Min-kiang |l|g ;^:,
the Ch'ung-kiang <>f iL a"d the Kialing-kiang ^ ^ fX..

Boundaries. — Szechw'an is bounded on the

N. — By Shensi ^ |S and Kansu -^ ^,
W. — By Tibet,

S. — By Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kweichow ^ ^'I'|,
E. — By Hunan f^ ^ and Hupeh fj^ fl;.

Capital. — CB'ENGTU FV filt ||5 ^, in the centre of the
Province, a little towards the N. W. It is built on the Min-
kiang |I(g tt-

Other Prefectures. — The»e are 11 in number.

To the K. of Ch'&ngtu :

1" Lnngngan Fu st 3c iff-
To the 8. W. of Ch'hngtu:

2° Yachow Fu !t )H1 M.

106: SECTION^Il. THE CENTRAL REGION.

To the S. of Chfhugtu:

3° Kiating Pu K S ^.

To the N. M. of Ch'ingt/u, and in the order of distance :

4° T'ungrchw'an Pu '& )\\ M,
5° Shunk'ing Pu JW R iff ,
6° Paoaing Pu 1* ^ flf ,
7° Suiting Pu Jg ^ ;ff.

Descending the Yangtze, to the left :

8° Hsuchow Fu (Suifu) ^mm,
9° Ch'ungk'ing Pu 2 S flf,
10° Kw'eichow Pu ^ ffl W'.
To the S. W., in the Szechni'an Alps :

11° Ningyuen Pu ^ M )f •
Besides, there are in Szechw'an 03 )\\ 8 independent
Chmvs jm : Tze Chow ^ ^, Mi^n Chow ^ j^, Meu Chow
^ jH>|, Tiuyang Chow ^ ^ jHI, Cftwng Chow ,^, jffl, Mei Chotv
jg j^, JKHUng Chow jp ^ and Im Chow J^ jHI- — There are
also 3 independent T'ings || : Hsuyung T'ing ^ :^ 0, Shihchn
T'img ^ jj H, and Sun^p'an THn^ fe if S-

Aspect and Characteristics. — Szechw'an is composed of
a plateau of red sandstone sloping towards the S.E. Irrigated by
several rivers, it is rich in minerals, fertile, populous and sur-
rounded by high mountains, less massive and less elevated to the
N.,E. and S. than to the W. In the W. are high chains separa-
ted by long and impetuous torrents. Bisecting the Province from.
S. W. to N. E., flows the Yangtze ^ ^ fx., wild and almost
useless for navigation in the mountainous region of the W., while
it is navigable in the Eastern part. The population is of a very
mixed kind, not only to the W. where half-savage tribes, Sifans
"If ^ in the N.W., Lolos ^^in the S. and numerous Tibetans
are still found, but also in the Chinese part, to the E. of the
Min-kiang |||{^ f£.. This region is especially given to agriculture.
It has however its mines, its industry and commerce, all in a
most thriving condition.

Geological constitution. — The E, of Szechw'an, formerly the bed of a
dried up lake, is an immense basin of red and green sandstone. Between the Min-
kiang and the Tapa-shan, the thickness of the sandstone formation is very great,

CHAPTER II. SZECHW'AN. 107

while beneath it lies a thin coal seam. It is euuircled ou all sides by primitive and
primary rocks (gneiss, granite, schist), which once formed the borders of the lake.
The waters eroded the rocks of the E., and thus found an issue on this side. The flow
seems to have been at first great, but diminished little by little, as the outlet deepened,
till it became eventually the actual bed of the Yangtze ^ -{• it river.

Orography. — Three-fourths of Szechw'an gg )\\ are co-
vered with high mountains. The table-land of red sandstone
alone is an exception. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide
the mountainous region into three groups, all running in different
directions.

IS* Oronp. — The North-Eastern mountains of Szechw'an
Q )\\, separating it from Kansu i^ ^, Shensi ^ |f and Hupeh
^ :|fc, form the first group. This is the last Southern spur of
the K'uenlun g ^ mountains. The range is called to the
W. the Min-shan |1|S llj, to the E. the KitUwng j[^ ||, the
Tetpa-shan :^ C llj or the Miut^ieio-shan JL j^ \ii. The first
has an average elevation of 8,200 feet. Between the two, there
is a depression which is crossed by the highway from Peking
Jilt -^ to Ch'engtu ^ M M- This is called the Wuting ^ "J
pass ; its elevation is 4,000 feet.

3"* Oronp. — This is the largest as well as the highest,
and forms the boundary limit between Szechw'an p9 )]\ and
Tibet. It is composed of long and elevated chains running from
N. W. to S. E., and separated by deep gorges. These chains
often attain a height of from 16,000 to 19,000 feet. We shall
call them by the name of the Szechw'an Alps. They extend up
to the Min-kiang jljg ^. The principal road which crosses them
is that from Tatsienlu fl" =if M *« Batang £ # (Pat'ang).

3«^ Oronp. — This extends to the E. of Szechw'an pg J||,
and reaches to the S. of the Yangtze % ^ fL- Its chains have
a N. E. — S. W. direction, and rise sometimes at the S. of the
river to an elevation of about 6,000 feet.

The Bed Basin. This basin varies in altitude from 650
to 1,900 feet, and contains but few plains, the principal being
that of Gh'Sngtu J^ IP j^- It is broken by hills which run
generally in a rather confused direction. This results from the

108

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL llEGION.

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CHAPTER II. SZECHW'aN. 109

action of the rivers upon the soft red sandstone. The height of
these hills above the bottom of the valleys ranges generally from
350 to 2^000 feet, but some of them attain a higher elevation.
Towards the E., they run into the third group of the moun-
tainous region, and follow a N. E. — S. W. direction.

To the W. of Kiating Fu ^ ^ jj^ is a celebrated mountain
frequented by Buddhist pilgrims, and called the Omei or Xffo-
mei-slum, ll^ ^ llj. It rises. to a height of 10,150 feet.

Climate. — There is an exceedingly great difference between the climate of the
mountainous parts and that of the table-land. This latter place, sheltered as it is by
the mountains which surround it on the N.AV., N. and N.E., has a very mild climate,
hut fogs are of frequent occurrence. Owing to the great moisture and warmth, ?>
harvests are generally gathered. The table-land is not swept by those violent winds
v.hich prevail further to the N. and upon the Tiinnan plateau. In the S., bordering
on the Yangtze ^ ^ ft, and in the valleys which slope towards it, the moisture and
great warmth render the climate semi-tropical.

Hydrograpliy. — We have already spoken above of the
Yangtze %^f[., and of the TtUuna-Jdang H © il (p. 93-95).
Several rivers flow into the Yangtze : —

From the North, descending the river :

The 3Un-kiang |||g JQ, which rises quite to the N. beyond
Sungp'an Jj^ ^, at an elevation of more than 13^000 feet, and
becomes navigable for small craft when it enters the Ch'engtu
J^ ^ plain. Here it splits up into numerous branches and conti-
nues its course to the R. It is navigable for junks below Kia-
ting Fu ^ £ flj, and flows into the Yangtze ^ ^ ^ near
Hsiichow ^ j^ f^- It receives on the right the TeUu-ho ^ ^
jpf, a long torrent obstructed by boulders and rapids and quite
unfit for navigation. However, an affluent which it receives on
the left, the r«-feo ||}p[, is navigable up to Yachow Fu ||^;j^.

The Ch'ung-kiang ^ iz. This is a shorter river which
rises in the N. of the Ch'engtu J^ fp plain, and is navigable
below Kien Chow f^ )\\. It irrigates in its lower part a very
industrious and fertile region, and terminates near Lu Chow \^

The Kialing-kUtnff M ^ XL- "^^^^ '^ **^^ longest of the
three rivers. It rises in Kansu -^ ^, passes into Shensi ^ |f

110 SECTION n. THE CENTRAL RE&ION.

and thence into Szechw'an pg )\\. It here receives from Kansu
■y* '^ the Peh-shui ^ 7jC- After numerous windings, it passes
through Paoning ¥n ^ % ^ and Shunk'ing Fu jlj| ^ jj^p, and
ends at Ch'ungk'ing Fu ^Jljff- It is navigable for junks belotv
Paoning Fu -^ ^ J^, though in fact the navigation is easy only
up to Hoh Chow ^ jHI, and for small craft as far as Kwangyuen
hsien ^ 7C M- O" the right it receives the Feu-Kiamg ||f ^,
the Lungngan Fu f| ^ /j^ and T'ungchw'an Fu ''^ )\\ J^ river,
which is navigable up to Ohangming hsien ^ ^ |^ and even
to Chungpa fjj ^ ; and on its left the K'fi-ho ^ fpf, navigable
for junks up to Suiting Fu -^ ^ )^, and even further for small
boats. These two affluents join it almost at the same time
near Hoh Ohow -g- jHI-

A common feature of these three rivers is that they gene-
rally run from N.W. — S.E.; owing to the climate they have
always water in abundance, their current is rather strong, and
they are often obstructed by rapids. The descent is made quick-
ly, but the up-journey is difficult and requires much time. It
is not only for navigation that their waters are of service, the
inhabitants turn them very adroitly to advantage for the irriga-
tion of their fields, chiefly in the Oh'6ngtu plain ^ ^ J^,

From the 8. :

The rivers which flow here have neither the same length;
nor the same importance as the preceding ones. The principal
are, as one descends the river:

1. The Hung-kiang i^ fx.^ which flows into the Yangtze
^ -F id at Nganpien ^ j§, a little above Hsuchow ^ >}i\ J^-.
Although navigable only for a short distance, it is the principal
water communication between Szechw'an Q ^|| and Yiinnan

m «•

2. The Hsilpunff-h4> i? ?§< }pf, navigable for small craft up
to Hsiiyung T'ing ^yji^. It flows into the Yangtze at Nahk'i
hsien j^ :^ ^, a town depending on Lu Chow \§i j^.

3. The Boh-kiang 'p' ^ or CliHh-shwi ^ ^, navigable
for large boats up to Tap'ingtu iz ^ ^ (lord or ferry of great
tranquillity) in Kweichow ;§; >y\.

CHAPTER II. SZBCHW'aN. 1H

4. The Wu-kiati^ ^ fx.- This river is navigable up to
Kungt'an ^ ^, as it enters Kweichow :i; ')W, and even to 8ze-
nan Fu ,g, ^ Jf in Kweichow. The salt from Szechw'an
P9 j|| is carried through this waterway. Numerous rapids
render frequent transhipments necessary. Its valley is very
narrow and its current rather strong. The difference between
low and high-water level reaches even to 60 feet. — The very
peculiar build of the boats which sail upon this river makes
them appear as if they were lying half down on their sides.

To the S. B. of Szechw'an pg /||, there is a small affluent
of the T'uen^Jeutnff ^tc ^, which becomes navigable at the large
village of Lungt'an f| ^. It is the chief means of communi-
cation for all traffic between Szechw'an 0 j|| and Hunan ^^.

Szechw'an pg )\\ has neither large lakes nor canals. A canal
connecting the 3 rivers of the N. would render immense service,
and establish between the W. and E. of the table-land easy
communications, which are at present very difficult. It seems
however that such a prospect cannot be easily realised.

Fauna and Flora. — The fauna and flora of Szechw'an are far richer than
those of the other Provinces.

In regard to the fauna, suffice it to mention especially the great number of ante-
lopes, deer, yaks, bears, monkeys and parrots found in the region of the Szechw'an
Alps. Several kinds of silkworm, as well as the WSx insect, are peculiar to this Pro-
vince.

As to the flora, besides rich pasture-lands, Szechw'an has splendid yew-trees,
rhododendrons or rose-bays and giant azaleas. It possesses also a great variety
of bamboos, a peculiar kind of tea called "white tea", while to the E. there are
fine forests abounding in different kinds of wood, bindweed and other tropical
creepers. The tallow, varnish, soap and wax-trees, the China-grass plant (ramie-fibre-
Boehmeria nivea) and lac-tree are also found in this Province. The best rhubarb
of China grows in Szechw'an.

Agrl«iiltaral Wealtli. — Agricultural produce is the chief
wealth of Szechw'an pg )\\, and consists principally of opium,
silk, tea, rice, sugar, hemp, vegetable wax, indigo, shellac,
wax, varnish, timber, medicinal plants and oranges. On the
mountains, sheep, goats and yaks are abundantly reared ; and
upon the plateau, buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies.

Mineral Wealtli. — Salt (found in 3 principal places : Tze-

112 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REOION.

liu-tsing g $(t ^, Kiating Fu ^ ^ ;j^ and Paoning Fu fti If
jjj), also coal, iron, eopper, silver, gold and petroleum.

Up to the present day, the activity of the inhabitants has
been especially directed towards agriculture. They have how-
ever worked some salt-pits and coal-mines.

Population. — In the S. of the Szechw'an Alps, an almost independent race
inhabits the Kiench'ang ^ ^ valley, and the neighbouring country. They are called
Mantee ^ -f- (barbarous tribes of the South), or ioZos ^ ^, also written fg'i^Lao-
lao, and JSt jft Liaoliao (wild hunters). The Chinese call tliem sometimes jJJ )§ Kwolo
(monkey-nosed savages). In the N. W. are the Sifan MS tribes, who have recognized
the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese o£Scials. Tibetans with their
Lamas and monasteries are extensively scattered throughout the W. They are espe-
cially numerous in the neighbourhood of Batang or Pat'ang Q ^. (For a more com-
plote account of these aboriginal tribes, see Section V. Ch. II.i.

The Chinese race is predominant throughout the rest of Szechw'an, but their
features vary exceedingly ; some are of the Mongol type, others belong to the Hindoo
or even the Aryan branch. Many have blue or grey eyes, and some have brown hair.
These varieties result from the position occupied by Szechw'an, it being the limit and
border-land where widely different races come into contact with each other. Revolu-
tions have also largely modified the population of the country. Among those upheavals,
we must mention the great massacre which took place there at the close of the Ming
dynasty. Three-fourths of the inhabitants are said to have been exterminated. To
repeople the Province, a large number of immigrants flowed in towards the middle of
the XVII"" century. Traces of this immigration are still met with at Ch'ungk'ing,
where the local Council of the Gentry is called Pahshfing A^ the 8 Provinces),
alluding thereby to the 8 Provinces, to which the members of the Assembly originally
belonged, the predominating elernent of the population is said to have a striking
resemblance with the aborigines of Yiinnan, as the Kachyiis (Buiinese, "v.-ild men"),
who inhabit the Burma-Chinese frontier, and whose principal characteristics are : a
triangular face, large, obliquely-set eyes, light hair, and extremely short stature (4 ft. 8
to 5 feet). — In the E., a portion of the population is made up of families that came
from Hunan.

The people of Szechw'an are shrewd, active, quarrelsome, hut nevertheless very
polite. They are also hospitable, and migrate easily from their homes, being found in
Kansu, Shensi, Kweiohow, and even upon the lofty table-lands of Yiinnan.

The inhabitants.crowded especially upon the "Red Basin" or sandstone plateau,
are very numerous in the Ch'gngtu plain, which is densely populated.

Language. — The Lolos, Sifan tribes and Tibetans have their own particular
dialects, and these are predominant in the Szechw'an Alps. Everywhere dse, Mnn-
darin is generally spoken, and with a peculiar clearness of enunciation.

Towns and Principal Centres.

CH'ENOTV FTJ ^ j^ ^. — Population; from 450,000 to
.500,000 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful plain, and is the
provincial capital and residence of the Viceroy. Its walls, which

CHAPTER II. SZECHW'AN. 113

ai-e over 12 miles in circumference, enclose, like Peking, three
parts: the Chinese, Tartar and Imperial cities. The Chinese
city, which is the most important, has some fine streets Mrjj^^
with rich shops. Besides its flourishing commerce, Ch'j
has also various industries. Large boats can reach iigV>^
Min-kiang |l|g ^ during 6 months of the year, from Mt
vember ; and smaller ones during the rest of the year. It has a
military and medical school, a university, an arsenal and a mint.
Numerous officials reside there awaiting appointment.

The Ch'Sngtu Tlain. — The Oh'engtu plain is about 70 miles in
length by 30 in width. Few regions in China can compete with
it in wealth and prosperity, the density of its population arid the
perfection of its irrigation system. It comprises no less than 18
Chows ^ (departments) or hsiensj^ (district cities), most of which
are very populous. Its population is reckoned at about 5,000,000.
The great thoroughfare leading from P'ingshan hsien ^ llj J^
to the capital, is during a distance of 50 miles, like one long
street lined with houses. The plain is well cultivated, and is
covered with rice, cotton, beans, sesamum, poppies, sugar-cane,
tobacco, corn and mulberries ; in fact not a single patch is left
untitled.

To the N. of Ch'higtu Fu :

Chungpa tf> j^. — A large centre, situated a little to the N.
of Changming hsien ^ flj H (dependent on Lungngan Fu || ^
;j^), and upon the Feu-kiang -{^ jT^. It has a population of from
25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants, and is chiefly a mart for the sale
of medicinal plants, which realise a sum of more than £ 120,000
annually.

Sungp'an T'ing i^ ^ ||. — Population 10,000 inhabitants.
An important border city and mart for the sale of wool, musk,
rhubarb, deer horns, skins and sheep brought in from Tibet
and Kansu "^ ;^. Tea is sent in exchange to Tibet. The
climate is very healthy, and there are rich pasture-lands in the
neighbourhood.

To the W.:

Tarchendo w Tataietdti T'ing ^ ^ M ^,. — At an altitude

114 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RBOION.

of 8,850 feet and with a population of 20,000 inhabitants. The
town is largely Tibetan, and carries on an important trade in
musk, wool, gold, furs, medicines, bristles and yak tails, all
coming from Tibet. It exports thither chiefly tea, and also
silks and cotton goods.

Yaehow jF» H ^ fl^. — Population, 30,000 inhabitants.

MiaHng Fu ^ ^ ^. — Population, 150,000 inhabitants.
It is the great mart for white vegetable wax, and the principal
silk-producing centre of Szechw'an.

To the 8.:

TetUti^-taing g ^ ^. — A great industrial centre with its
thousand salt-wells, its bamboo scaffolding, its numerous junks,
its roads constantly enlivened by caravans, carriers, and flocks
of buffaloes led to work at turning the wheel. The brine-wells
extend over an area of 60 square miles.

AUmg the Yangtxer-1e4Mtw ^ -? JC: following its downward
course:

BsUehow Fu ^j^)^ OT Suifu. — Population, from 40,000
to 50,000 inhabitants. — Hsiichow is a commercial port at the
mouth of the Min-kiang il^ f£.. Trade is especially carried on
with Yiinnan ^ ■^ and the Kiench'ang ^ ^valley. The imports
consist in medicines, opium, metals, musk and indigo. The
exports are : white wax insects, petroleum, cotton-yarn and
cloth, which are exported to Yiinnan ^ ^.

IM Chow fS ^. — Situated at the mouth of the Oh'ung-
kiang ^l]l ^. It is a trading place, but by far less important
than the preceding one.

Ch'ungkHriif M M fS- — Population, 620,000 inhabitants.
This city derives its importance from its commerce. It is the
principal trading centre of Szechw'an, which finds in it a mart
for all kinds of merchandise. Its imports are : cotton-yarn and
piece-goods, woollen goods, bazaar articles, ginseng, aniline
dyes, soap, silk-stuffs, silk ribbons, metals and petroleum. Its
exports are : opium, silk, skins, vegetable wax, musk, hemp,
medicinal plants, sugar, oil, tobacco, wool, bristles, feathers,
metals and straw-braid. Extraordinary activity prevails in the

CHAPTER II. SZECHW'AN.

115

..-Mir.'^

j^itn /^

The MIN-KiAN8 ^

<i -S v<C , '

^rM.n^

m-v^ ffm-^

^'"■mn^'^

CH'UNGK'ING M M )&■

streets, and numerous rich shops filled with merchandise are
everywhere apparent. Its harbour is visited by hundreds of
junks of large tonnage.

F»u Chmo ?§ jHI- — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
Formerly the great opium mart of Szechw'an, but now a
decadent town. The leading merchants met there, and fixed
the market-price of the article.

Wan hsien ^ ^. — Population, 140,000 inhabitants. After
Oh'ungk'ing, this is the most important port on the Upper Yang-
tze ^ ^ t[L- It is a great distributing centre for cotton-yarn,
cotton cloth, raw cotton and Hupeh ^ 4t fabrics. Opium is
also extensively exported, and sugar and rape-oil in small quan-
tities. A wide coal-field stretches to the rear of the city.

Kio'eicfunv Fu ^ j^ ^, more commonly known under the
name of JSw'ei Fu. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. It is a
small distributing centre and exports : cotton-yarn and fabrics
from Hank'ow -^ p, and fans from Canton. Salt, extracted
in the neighourhood, is likewise exported. Being a frontier
custom-station, it collects Likin in behalf of two Provinces.

116 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REaiON.

To the S. W., in tlie Kietich'ang ^ ^ valley:

Ningyuen Fi* ^ ^}^. — Chief town of the Kiench'ang
region. It is situated in a very fertile valley, abounding in
fruit-trees and producing three crops annually. It is in this
country, inhabited by the Zolos, that the most productive wax-
insects are found. Thousands of people flock there every year,
in April, to collect them.

2'0 the W. also in the Szech'tvan Alps:

Litfang ^ ^. — It comprises a Tibetan town with its pal-
aces for the two petty Kings ; a Chinese town with crenelated
walls, and a Lama monastery built on a small eminence, and
inhabited by 1000 Lamas.

ISaifang or Tatfang £ |f . — It lies in a beautiful plain
covered with corn in Summer. It has also its two rulers and
its Lama monastery. Several Chinese officials represent the
Emperor. It is a frontier town and hence an important halting
place.

Industry and Commerce.

The industry of Szechw'an gg ]\\ is pretty brisk. The
Province manufactures principally : silk, cotton cloth, cooking
utensils, paper, Indian ink, sugar, indigo and tobacco. Coal-
mines are extensively worked, but the coal is of inferior quality.

The chief silk-producing centres are, in the order of their
importance : Kiating Fu ^ ;g /j^, Paoning Fu -g^ ^ j^, Shun-
k'ing Fu jig ;g ^, T'ungchw'an Pu \% )\\ J^. The production
is estimated as reaching annually about £ 1,000,000 sterling.

The Province trades with Hupeh ^ :|[;, Hunan ^ pg, Yiin-
nan § p^ and Tibet (For imports und eoQports, see Ch'ungk'ing).

Higliways of Coiuin^inicatlon. — We have already des-
crilied the navigable rivers. On all of them traffic is brisk and
unceasing. The Province owns no less than 10,000 junks, which
trade on the Yangtze and its tributaries, and give employment
to a population of 300,000 boatmen. The roads are also much
frequented. The principal are :

1° The road which comes front S. Shensi ^% ^, passes
through Paoning Fu tS W ^> T'ungchw'an Fu \^ )\\ ^,

CHAPTER II. SZECHW'AN. 117

Ch'Sngtu Fu JjS ^ flSp, Yachow Fu jj| >)^ f^, and continues
towards Tibet by Tatsienlu fl" ^ ^, Lit'ang ^ H and Bat'uug

Gif-

2'^ The road going from Vacltow Fu f| jW }^ to Yiinuau
^ '^, passing through the Kiench'ang ^ ;g valley.

3° The road from Ch'engtu Fu ^ M M ^o Hsuchow Fu
^ jk\ M^ skirting the Min-kiang |l|g ^, and continuing along
the S. of the river : one branch running Westward, towards
Yiinnan ^ ■^ ; another proceeding Eastward, towards Kwei-
chow ^ ^<'l.

4° The road from Ch'higtu Fu ^ ^ }^ to Ch'ungk.Hng
P'"' M M M^ passing through Tze Chow ^ 'j^.

b" The road from Ch'engtu Fu ^ ^ }^ to Ich'ang Fu
S ^ ^1 passing through Shunk'ing Fu )lg ^ jjj, Suiting Fu
m% M^ and Wan hsien ^ l^.

Szechw'an is chiefly deficient in cross-roads running from
W. to E. The rapids of the Upper Yangtze ^ -^ fx have
also been, even to the present day, a great hindrance to
the expansion of its trade. When the Yiinnan ^ ]^ railway
shall be completed, it will largely promote the interests of this
Province.

Open Ports. — In Szechw'an, there is but one port,
Ch'unghHng Fu ^ ^ J^, open to Foreign trade.

Notes. — 1°. Szechw'an was formerly part of the State of
Shu ^, hence its present literary name. It was for the purpose
of connecting more easily this State with the Ts'in ^ kingdom,
that the first road mentioned above, and known by the name of
the "roctd of the goMen ox" ^ ^ ^, was constructed at such
considerable expense. Popular tradition however assigns another
reason for it, as we have previously stated [see p. 45).

2°. JA T'aipeh ^ ;j{c 6> the most famous poet of the T'ang
^ dynasty, was born in this Province A.D. 705-762.

3". Mount Omei or Ngomei |I|^ ^ llj, which lies to the W.
of Kiating Fu ^ ^ ^, is a pilgrim resort for Buddhists, who
flock there especially in Summer. The country around is excee-
dingly beautiful and well wooded. On the sides of the mountain,

118

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REOION.

the extraordinary number of 56 pagodas has been erected, the
highest being situated at an elevation of 10,000 feet.

References

La Mission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1898. (I^re par-
tie, liv. II et liv. Ill, c. I et 1 — IP partie,
lere serie. Rapport sur le Se-tchoan; 2«
serie. Mines du Se-tohoan. Kapportsuria
soie. Appendice. Note snr les operations
chinoises 3, Tohoung-king).

Richthofeti. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
(p. 115-14.3. Province of Szechw'an).

Bulletin du Comit6 de I'Asie Franpaise. —
1903, p. 21. (La situation economique du
Se-tchoan 'a la fin de 1901).

Meyners d'Estrey. — Notes de Voyage
au Setchouan et au pays des Man-ze.
(Soc. Geog. 1894).

Von Rosthom. — Eiue Eeise in westli-
chen China. Wien, 189-5.

Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (p. 100-102).

■Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. Ne^\ -
York, 1861. (Vol. L p. 125-157).

VignerOn. — Deux ans au Se-toh'oau.
Paris, 1881.

MadrOlle. — Itineraire dans I'O. de la
Chine. Paris, 1900.'

liegendre IK A. F. — Deux annSes au
Setohouen. Paris, 1906. (Oh. XV. p. 145-
194. Description Geog. de la Province de
Setchouen. — Ch. XLVI. p. 489-502. Sol
et sous-sol, productions. — Ch. XLVII. p.
503-526. La transformation economique
du Setchouen).

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Vol. I. p. Ill-

113).
Gutzla IT. — China opened. London, 1838

(Vol. I. p. 165-168).
Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.

(Vol. III. p. 41-45).
Grosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. p. 93-97).
Bishop M" I. — A Journey in Western

Szuchuan. (Geog. JournaL 1897. Vol. X.

p. 19-50).

Bishop M"* I. — The Yangtse Valley and

Beyond. London, 1899.
Gill W. — The River of Golden Sand.

London, 1883. (Ch. VI-VIII. p. 82-168).
Bart V. — Westem China. Boston, 1888.

Parker E. B. — Chinese Revenue, Sze-
chuan(N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1895-96. p. 136-39).

Parker E. H. — Up the Yangtse. Hong-
kong, 1891.

Litton. — Journey to N. Ssu-ch'uan. (For-
eign Ofaoe Miscell. N° 4f:7. 1898).

Pratt. — To the Snows of Tibet through
China. London, 1892.

Baber E. C. — A Journey of Exploration
in Western China. (Roy. Geog. Soc. Sup-
plementary Papers. London, 1882.. Vol.
I. P' 1. p. 1-152).

.Manifold O. O. — The Problem of the Up-
per Yangtze Provinces and their Com-
munications. (Geog. Journal. 1905. Vol.
XXV. p. 589-620).

Logan Jack R. — Two trips to the N. of
Chengtu. (Geog. Journal. 1903. Vol.
XXI- p. 282-288).

Von Ro&thom A. — The Salt Adminis-
tration of Szechw'an (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.
1892-1893. p. 1-3-!).

Vale J. — Irrigation of the Chengtu Plain
(N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1899-1900. p. 105-
119).

Vale J. — Irrigation of the Chengtu Plain
and Beyond (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1905. p.
36-50).

Hosie A. — Three Years in W. China.
London, 1890.

Rosie A- — Journey through Ssuchu'au,
Yunnan and Kweichow. (China Blue
Book. N° 2. 1884).

Hosie A.— Journey in Central Ssuohu'an.

(China Blue Book N° 2. 1885).
Hosie A. — Report on the Province of

Ssnoh'uan. (China. N° 5, 1904).

CHAPTER n. SZECHW'AN.

119

Blackbam China Mission. — 1896-97
Ssuch'uau. (Ch. III. p. 29-72).

China. Imperial Marit. Oustoms. Decen-
nial Report, 1892-1904. Shanghai, 1904.

(Chungking. Vol. I. p. 133-179).
tittle A. — The Par East. O.xford, 1905.
(Szeohuan. Oh. V. p. 69-77. The Cheng-
tu Plateau. Ch. VI. p. 78-90).

CHAPTER III.

THE KEGION OF THE MIDDLE
YANGTZE

(HUPEH ^ ;|b AND HUNAN ^ ^)-

Hupeh and Hunan constituted formerly only one Province,
called Uukwang ^ ^, which under K'anghsi ^ ,^, was divided
into two. These two Provinces are nowadays administered by
one and the same Viceroy, styled the Viceroy of Huhwang or
lAanghu f^ ^. He has his residence at Wuch'ang ^ ^ ^.

Both Provinces, occupying the centre of China, have the follo-
wing common features : both slope towards the Yangtze J^ ^
f£, where are also their lakes and plains. Both have their great
river penetrating deeply into the interior : the Han-lM ^ ^ in
Hupeh fj^ 4fc, the Siang-kiang ^ i£ in Hunan fj^ ]^. Both
have likewise their more hilly portions on the W., and in regard
to both, the Yangtze serves as a connecting link.

But there are also several cJiaracteristics wherein they differ.
Hupeh ^ 4t 'i^s in its lower part only lakes of moderate size,
while a great lake extends on the frontier of Hunan jj^ '^. Hu-
pefi fj55 4fc ^^^ ^^® great plain almost as vast as its mountainous
region ; Hunan ^ ]g, save on the borders of its great lake, is
mountainous throughout. Hupeh t^ ;|t is wealthy, owing espe-
cially to its industry, its commerce, its cotton and rice fields ;
Hunan ^ 1^, because of its coal-mines, its tea and its forests.
Hunan }^ -^ and Hupeh ^ J^ are in close relation with Sze-
chw'an pg }\\, and the region of the lower Yangtze ^ ^, but
Hupeh is chiefly in communication with the Northern region,
while Hunan ^ ^ is connected rather with the Southern.

CHAPTBR III. HUPEH. 121

1°. Hiipeh m^t

Area. — 71,428 square miles.

Population. — 35,280,008, or 495 to the square mile.
As to the density of its population, Hupeh is the third Province
in China, and is almost equalled by Fokien |g ^.

Name. — Hupeh ^ 4fc signifies : "JV. of tlie Txike". The
lake meant is obviously the Tungt'ing lake ^|^ ^ J^.

Boundaries. — Hupeh is bounded on the

N. — By Honan fpj "^ and Shensi ^ |f,
W.— By Shensi ^ 'g and Szechw'an ^ ;||,
S. — By Hunan ^ ^ and Kiangsi ^ 5,
E. — By Nganhwei -^ %^.

Capital City.— WUCH'ANG FUf(,;^ f^, upon the right
bank of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL, and opposite the mouth of the
Han-ho ;^ Jpf-

Other Prefectures. — These are nine in nwnber.
To the y., descending the Han-ho ^ Jpj :

1" Yuenyang Pu il! Pi M,
2° Siangyang Fu K Fi ;SF,
3° Nganluh Fu ^ |^ ;f •

To the B. of yganluh Fu ^ ^ )^ :

i" Tehngan Fu li 5 Jff.

Descending the Yangtze ^ ^ ^ :
5° Ich'ang Fu 1: 1 ^,
6° Kingchow Fu M ffl if,
7° Hanyang Fu g| I® ;f ,
8° Hwangchow Fu M Wl ;ff.

To the S. W. :

9° Shinan Fu Jfe ^ iff.
There is besides in Hupeh rnie independent Cliow ^ : King-
min Chmv ^J f^ j^].

Aspect and Cliaracteristics. — Hupeh -^ 4fc is an elon-
gated Province, and extends from W. to E. It is rather narrow.

122 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RE&ION.

■where the Yangtze ^ -f- ft, runs through the rapids, and where
it winds afterwards and flows with a slight descent. A beautiful
river, the Banrho ^ fpj, ioins it to the W . Between the two
streams, from Kingchow Fu ^J j^H ^ downwards, the country is
dotted with lakes and marshes, and possesses rich fields of cotton,
rice and poppies. Below Hank'ow ^ P, the mountains hem in
the river more and more £is it advances towards the E. At the
confluence of the Han-ho ^ fpf with the Yangtze ^ •^ fL, there
is a natural trading-mart admirably situated, a great attractive
and distributing centre. As the largest steamers can reach it, it
is the principal emporium for the products of the country, and the
chief place of supply for the central Provinces of China. Three
large cities, forming almost one, are built there, and develop
unceasingly. We have called it so far, and will still continue to
give it the name of its most active and populous part : HanJ^ow

m p-

Geological constitutioii. — One half of Hupeh is made up of an alluvial plain.
These lowlands were in prehistoric times the bed of an immense inland lake, and are
even at the present still covered with lagoons and swamps. The other half of the
Province is mountainous. To the N. and W. as well as on the banks of the Hau-ho,
sandstone and limestone predominate, interspersed in places by schist, granite, conglo-
merate and marl.

Orography. — To the N., two branches of the EoBlem

K'ttenlun g ^ hem in the Han-ho ^ Jpf. On its left is a pro-
longation of the Fwn4M-ghan ffe 4^ (Ij , the HwaUung-slutn fH
H ilj and the Hwaivan&stmn ^ ^ ]\i, known also as the
MuMinff }^ ^. This latter chain, the average height of which
is 2,940 feet, slopes gradually towards Hupeh f^ J^, and affords
several easy passages, one of which, that of Hank'ow ^ P to
Sinyang Chow It H jHi, in Honan f^ ^, has been utilized by
the Peking-Hank'ow railway line.

On its right, the Min-Bhan ||g^ ([j continues through the
Xaparghan :»C G Ul or Kiuffiao-simn % ^^ ^, and rises to
11,500 feet. The Wutang-stmn i^ # lU, on the right bank of
the Han-ho -^ fpf, reaches an altitude varying from 8,000 to
9,500 feet.

CHAPTER Iir. HtJPBH. 123

To the W., is a rather irregular mountain mass, the altitude
of which attains nearly 3,-900 feet. It is a prolongation of the
Kweiohow ;^ jt( table-land, and we shall call it the Chinan Fu
^^ M »^»We. from the principal city in the vicinity.

The rest is but an immenae plain, about 100 feet above the
sea-level, and only a few yards above the level of low-water in
the river. A few mounds and hills are the most that can be seen.

Olimate. — The climate of Hupeh is pretty much the same as that of Shanghai,
but is less moist. The sea-breeze is however absent to cool the Summer atmosphere.
At this season, the nights are sometimes almost as warm as in the day time.

Hydrograpliy. — Two principal rivers irrigate this Pro-
vince : the Yangtze ^-f'fL and its tributary, the Han-ho ^ JpJ.

We have already described the Yangtze [see Section II.
Oh I. p. 93-98). Besides the Han-ho ^ ^, it receives also nu-
merous rivers flowing from the Hwaiyang-shan ^ ^ [{j, Tapa-
shan :;^ El ill, and Chinan Fu J| ^ j^ mountains.

The Haitr-ho :^ fpT, or more exactly the HanrBhMi ^ ;jc,

or HanrhUtng -^ ^, according to Chinese maps, rises in Shensi
^ If, near the frontiers of Szechw'an pg ^||. The Han is now
navigated by small steamers as far N. as Siangyang Fu g ^
^, a distance of 300 miles, and during the Summer freshets,
by junks and small craft, up to Hanchung Fu ^ 4" ^'ffi in
Shensi |^W > ^^^ miles further. Throughout the whole of Shensi
^ "g, it is obstructed by rapids, and navigation thereon is
difficult and dangerous. Above Hsingngang Fu ^ ^ jj^, and
till it leaves Shensi ^ |f , it traverses abrupt gorges, and its
bed is strewn with rocks. It becomes really navigable only at
Laoho-k'ow :^ fpf P , where it widens out rapidly and attains
2,600 feet in breadth. Further on however, it narrows in, and
at its mouth has a width of only 200 feet in low-water season.
In this part of its course, it has a peculiar feature, already
noticed when speaking. of the Hwang-ho ^ f^T : its bed is
higher than the neighbouring plain, and this has necessitated the
construction of embankments. During the Summer freshets the
level of the Han-ho ^ ^ rises 22 feet, and sometimes more,
beyond the surrounding plain.

124 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

The Han-ho ^ fpj has a threefold direction in Shensi ^ If,
arid a little further on, runs from W. to E. At Yuenyang Fu
Mi5 ^ ^1 it takes a South-Easterly course, while midway
between Nganluh Fu -^ ^ /j^ and Hanyang Fu ;^ |^ J^, it
assumes its primitive direction. In this last part, it runs at its
highest level above the plain, and its windings are most nume-
rous.

In April and May, its waters begin to rise, and large junks
can then sail on it. In Winter, numerous sand-banks extend
between Shayang fp ^ and Siangyang Pu ^ ^ jj^, and leave
only one channel open for navigation. To travel from Hank'ow
:^ P to Hanchung Fu ^ ffj ;j^, 60 to 100 days are required,
and 15 days at least to make the down-river trip.

The Han-ho ^ |pj receives on the left two affluents, both
important, 'especially the second. These are:

The Tan-kiang ;fj- ^, which comes in from Eastern Shensi
^ If above Laoho-k'ow ;g fpj P ; and the Feh-ho Q ^, swollen
by the T'ang-ho jg Jpf, from Honan fpj ^. It empties its waters
into the Han-ho ^ fpf, opposite Siangyang Fu M ^ M-

The first river is navigable only during part of the year,
and the two others the whole year round [see Sect, I. Oh. III.
p. 59. Honan).

K.akes. — Aseries of lakes extends between the Han-ho ^
fpf and the Yangtze ^ ^ ^. Their volume varies according
to the season, and they are connected by a network of rivers.
Flotillas of small junks and boats ply unceasingly on their wa-
ters, and fish is found in Ihem in abundance.

Fauna and Flora, — The fauna and flora of Hupeh are those of the Central
Region, but they are richer and more abundant in the S.than in the N. throughout the
Han-ho valley. The floi-a of the mountains to the W. of the Han-ho is the richest
and most remarkable of the world. It probably includes more than .5,000 species,
and comprises plants of the semi-tropical, temperate and Alpine regions.

Agricultural Wealth. — The staple productions are :
cotton, rice, corn and tea. Cotton is cultivated principally in
the Han-ho J^ '^ plain. The chief producing centre is Mienyang

CHAPTER III. HUPEH. 125

Chow Ji5 |5^ >)\] ; Hwangchow Fu ^ ^ ^ produces also a crop
much esteemed in Szechw'an 0 jl|- Rice is grown, but to lit-
tle extent, in the Han-ho valley, save in some places enjoying
good exposure. On the mountains, to the W. of the Han-ho ^
^, mushrooms are extensively gathered. They grow on the
dead or decaying wood of the oak, and are called by the natives
;^C ^ muh-eul (wood-ears). They fetch a high price in the
market, and are sold throughout the whole Empire.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Hupeh }^ :|[^
is inconsiderable, except to the S. of Wuch'ang Fu ■^ ^ ]^-,
where coal, iron and chalk-stone exist. In other places are found
iron, zinc, rock-crystal and coal, this latter near Siangyang Fu
ft I^ jff- ^^^ ^'he greater part of the coal used in the Province
comes from Hunan jj^ 'f^.

Gold-washing is carried on, but in small quantity, in the
Han-ho.

Population. — The population of Hupeh is dense in the plain. The people are
gentle, peace-abiding, and engaged for the most part in agricultural or fishing pursuits.
Some of the inhabitants of the W . have migrated to Nganhwei. ^

Ijnnguage. — Nothing very special to mention. The Mandarin dialect is spo-
ken throughout the Province.

Cities and Principal Centres.

The Hank'ow group. — This comprises three cities: one
on the right bank of the Yangtze % ^ fL- Wuch'ang Fti -^ ^
jj?f, capital of the Province; the two others, on the opposite
bank: Hanli'ow }^ P , on the left bank of the Han-ho f^ Jpf,
and Hanyang J"** ^ jfj jjj, on the right.

fFUCH'ANG fUj^g^j^. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants.
A large walled city, well constructed and inhabited chiefly by
officials. The Viceroy of Hukwang f;^ ^ resides there. The city
has a military academy and an agricultural school.

Hank'ow j|| p. — Population, 870,000 inhabitants. This
city, reckoned as one of the four emporiums H (Ch^n) of the
Empire, is governed by a special official of Taot'ai rank, who
is Superintendent of Customs and resides there.

126

SECTION 11. THE CENTRAL REOION.

WUCH'ANG ^ g, HANYANG ^ ^ AND HANK'OW H p.

CHAPTBR in. HUPJSH. 127

Besides the Chinese quarters, the city has .also several
Foreign Settlements: English, Russian, German, French and
Japanese. Hank'ow is the most commercial of the three cities.
Opposite it, the river is 1,300 yards wide, and the largest stea-
mers can come alongside its docks. It is connected either direc-
tly or indirectly with the most important waterways of the Em-
pire. Through the Yangtze ^ -^ ^ and the Han-ho ^ ^,
Hank'ow receives : rice, sesamum, tobacco, sugar, medicinal
plants, tea, coal.... Musk and furs come from Tibet; petroleum
from the United-States, Russia and Sumatra; cotton piece goods,
cotton-yarn and sugar from Hongkong ; opium and silk fabrics
from Szechw'an 0 j||. Its chief export article is «ea, two-thirds
of which is produced in Hupeh fj^ ;][; and Hunan ^ '^, and
one-third in Kiangsi JC S- This tea is re-exported chiefly to
Russia.

Hanyang Fu ^ |p^- — Population, 400,000 inhabitants.
The real Hanyang Fu is about a mile and a half distant, but the
place on the banks of the Han-ho ^ ^ seems more and more to
take this name. The city is principally industrial. It has its
forges^ blast furnaces and foundries, which supply largely the
material required for the Peking-Hank' ow railway. It manu-
factures also fire-arms, has started cotton-mills and silk-filatures,
and possesses immense timber-yards.

The river, as it flows along these three cities, and especi-
ally at the mouth of the Han-ho j^ J^, exhibits the greatest
activity, and is covered with long rows of junks and steamers,
which load and unload their cargoes. The same activity and
bustle are noticed in the streets of the three cities, but especially
in those of Hank'ow ^ p. Next to Shanghai J: ^, Hank'ow
is the most important port of the Yangtze ^ ^ iL', oi which it
is the chief emporium, while the railway connecting it with
Peking, imparts to it still more value.

Shanghai has undoubtedly far more importance, but it is
rather a seaport than a river-port, and thus Hank'ow depends on
it, and will continue to depend on it for a long time to come.

128

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.
HAUK'OW. Table of Shipping. 1900-1905.

TEAR

1.100
1901
1902
1903
1901
1905

Steamei-s

1,152
1,273
1,342
1,377
1,«7
1,609

Euteretl Inwards.

Total.
No. Tons.

Sailing
Vessels

236

254

219

1.631

1,241

1,291

1,388
1,527
1,561
3,008
2,658
2,903

1,106,511
1,310,298
1,456,002
1,63.5,926
1,684,453
1,987,899

Steamers

Cleared Outvi'ards.

Total.
No. Tons

1,162
1,265
1,349
1,366
1,430
1,602

Sailing

Vessels

901
973
1,161
1,635
1,236
1,298

2,063
2,240
2,510
'3,001
2,660
2,900

1,101,162
1,367,948
1,.543,191
1,634,012
1,687,360
1,986,840

Besides, under Inland Steam Navigation Rules, there entered
and cleared at the port during the year 1905, 2,760 small
steamboats, transporting 65,653 tons.

The number of Foreign firms doing business in the port,
during the year 1905, was 114 : 32 British, 25 German, 18
Japanese, 12 American and 27 of other nationalities. Foreign
residents totalled 2,151 : 537 Japanese, 504 British, 500 Ame-
ricans, 162 Germans, and 448 of other nationalities.

Along the Yangtze ^ ^ iL, descending the river :

leh'ang ^ j^ ^. — Population, 45,000 inhabitants. A
commercial port, situated below the rapids of the Yangtze.
This position gives it importance, both as an emporium and as
a centre for transhipping cargo. It has the advantage over
Shashi ^ Tjr, of being protected from the current during 8
months, owing to the proximity of an island.

Shashi ^^ T]i. — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. Shashi
is a great commercial mart, and its docks occupy on the right
bank of the river a length of two or three miles. It is practi-
cally the port of Kingchow Fu ^J ^ f^, and the great cotton-
market of the country.

Hwangchow Fu ^ iH1 jjj.

Upon the Han-ho ^ fpj", going down-stream :

fAioho-k'ow ^ fpf p. A considerable port and market-
town. It owes its importance to the fact that the river begins

CHAPTER HI. HUPEH. 129

to be easily navigable there, and to its being at the junction of
two roads, one coming from Shensi [^ H ^^y ^^^ Han-ho ^ jgj-,
the other from Shansi [Ij W k'y the Tan-kiang f^- f£.

Sumgyang J?** M ^ M' — I* owes its importance to its
situation at the confluence of the Han-ho ^ jpj and the Peh-ho
^ Jpf. This latter river is the great commercial waterway for
trading with Honan Jpj"^- It is less important however than
the towns lying on the opposite bank of the Han-ho : iMngkin
11 ^) PO''t situated at the mouth of the Peh-ho, and Fan-
cJt'etiff ^ 1^. Both of these places hold large fairs, and carry
on petty manufactures, such as ribbon and silk-making, ivory
and bone-carving.

Industry and Commerce.— Besides the industries already
alluded to, the manufacture of cotton cloth deserves a special
mention. There is scarcely any place in Ilupeh Jjg 4(^, where
the people are not engaged in weaving cotton cloth for expor-
tation. A special kind, called broadcloth (^ .^ hwang-pu), is
chiefly manufactured. All this cloth is exported to Szechw'an
gg j||, Kweichow -^ j^ and Yiinnan p ]§.

Trade is jrincipally carried on through Hank'ow ^ P,
and we have already seen in what it consists. Upon the Han-
ho ^ fpf , the chief imports are coal and timber, both of which
come from Hunan Jjjg ^. The main easport article is raw cotton,
which is despatched to Szechw'an pg )\\ in large quantity.

Hlgliways of Commnnlcatlon. — Besides the rich network
of streams, especially throughout the whole plain, «7te prindpai
roads are:

1° The road from Peking ^ '^ to Hank'ow ^ P . This
road crosses Honan fpj f| Province, and after reaching Hank'ow,
proceeds to Yohchow Fu -g ^ ^ (in the Province of Hunan),
and finally leads to Canton.

2° The roaa from Nganhnuei ^ i^ to Bank'ow g| P,
passing through Hwangchow Fu J| j^ }^.

3» The road which comes from Bonan ^ ^, via Siang-
yang Xu ^ ^ }^. A little to the S. of this latter place, it
branches off into 2 : one going via Kingchow Fu ^J ^ ^^^ and

9

130 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Shashi ^ f^, to Ch'angteh Fu *g* ^ )^, in Hunan fj^ ^ ; the
other leading to Hank'ow ^ P , via Nganluh Fu -^ ^ ]^. — The
main highway continues also to the N. of Skinffyang Fu ana
leads to Southern Shenai |^ If. — The land-road from Hank'ow
^ □ to Hanchung Fu :^ t^ jj^^ (Southern Shensi), is much
shorter than the water route on the Han-ho ^ fpf. Travelling
by the latter, there are 1,120 miles from Hank'ow to Hancliung
Fu, whereas the land-road running between the two, reduces
the distance to 620 miles.

(For Railways, see Sect. V. Ch. VI).

Open Porte. — Hupeh f^ :[[; has three ports open to
Foreign trade : Hank'ow ^ P , Ich'anff g ^ and Sliashi ^j; Tj]"
(this latter depending on Kingchow Fu M ^ }^)- There are
besides, «wo ports of caU: Wuhsueh ^^, depending on Hwang-
chow Fu ^ ')\\ )^, and Luhk'i-k'ow ^ }|| P, depending on
Hanyang Fu ^ ^ jjj- — Ports of caM are those in which only
passengers and luggage may be embarked.

CHAPTER III. HUNAN. 131

2". Hunan M it

Area. — 83,398 square miles.

Population. — 22,169,000 inhabitants, or 265 per square
mile.

Name. — Hunan ^ |^ means "South of the lake", and

in fact nearly the whole Province is situated to the S. of the ,
Tungt'ing lake ^|5| ^ j^.

Bonndarles. — Hunan is bounded on the
N. — By Hupeh ^ :|fc,

W. — By Szechw'an gg )\\ and Kweichow ^ >)]],
S. — By Kwangsi ^ H and Kwangtung ^ ^,
E. — By Kiangsi f£ ^. '
On the N., the Yangtze ^ ^ iL forms during a short por-
tion of its course, the boundary line between Hunan ^ "^ and
Hupeh ^ 4t) that is, from Yohchow Fu ^ jHI Jjlf to a distance
of nearly 60 miles further down.

Capital. — CB'ANGSHA FU ^ ^ ;j^, on the right bank
of the Siang-kiang ^ ^.

Otlier Prefectures. — These number eight, and are:
On the N. W.:

1° YTingslnm Fu ^ HH W-
On the Tuen-hiang •(% ^ :

2° Yuenchcw Fu i^ )>H ^,
3° Ch'enchow YuMMI^,
i" Ch'angteli Pu ^ B S

On the Txe-kianff ^ fX. '■
5° Paok'ing Pu ^ S flif.
Ofi the Siang-kiang ffg ft, descending its course:

6° Yungchow Pn 7it ffl if,
7° Hgngchow Pu if #1 }ff,
8° Yohchow Pu S ffl ;aF.
There are also in Hunan four independent Chows ^] : lA

Chow [ft ;H1, Kweiyana Chmv |^ |^ ^j, Tsing Chow jif ^
and Cfe'Mflr Chmu ^^ ^— and five independent T'ings Jg ; Tung-

132 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGtlON.

hwang T'ing M. M ^i Y'ungaui T'ing ^ ^ 0., JSienchow
T'inff ^ iJtl J^, Bwangchow T'ing ^ >]\\ ^„ and Nanch(nv
T'ing ^ ffl jg.

Aspect and Characteristics. — Hunan is a mountainous
country covered with forests, while tea-plantations and rice-fields
are found in some valleys. The country is deeply carved up by
the Siang-kiang j|g f£ and its affluents, all flowing into the
great Tunglfing lalee ^ ^ ^, which overflows its banks in Sum-
mer, but is nearly half empty in Winter. All activity converges
towards this lake, and conveys thither : coal, tea and timber,
which constitute its principal wealth. Through the S., the Province
has easy communications with Kwangsi ^ "^ and Kwangtung
^ y^, hence its importance as a transit centre for all goods pro-
ceeding to these Provinces."

CSeOlogical constitution. — Bed sandstone predominates in the mountainous
part, intersected here and there with limestone, conglomerate and granite, and overlying
almost everywhere thick coal measures. The portion bordering on the Tungt'ing lake,
belongs like the great plain of Hupeh, to the alluvial formation deposited by the vast
inland sea which once covered the whole of this region. The bottom of the Tungt'ing
lake is formed of micaceous sand. A similar formation gives rise in the Siang-kiang
(Siang river) to quicksands, which are very dangerous for boats.

Orograpby. — The mountainous part of Hunan is excee-
dingly and wonderfully broken up. As one approaches Hengchow
Fu ^ Jfl J^, the mountains form a less compact mass, and
branch off into a considerable number of low hills. It is towards
the S.W. and W., that the highest altitudes are found, but these
seldom exceed an elevation of 3,250 or 4,000 feet. The Hhig-
shan llf [[j, one of the five sacred mountains, which is situated
to the N.W. of Hengchow Fu ^ l^ ^, has scarcely an elevation
of 3,000 feet.

Beyond the banks of the lake, there are hardly any plains,
the only ones of importance being those of Leiyang hsien ^ ^
in and H6ngchow Fu |g jH| |^.

Climate. — The climate of Hunan resembles that of Hupeh. In the mountain-
ous region, it is rather like that of Kweiohow, where it is moister than in Hupeh. At
Yohchow Fu, the thermometer ranged in 1902, from 23° to 95° Fahrenheit.

Hydrog;rapliy. — A river traverses the Province from S.
to N., the SUmg-leiMmr j|g j^, which receives on its left two

CHAPTER III. HUNAN. 133

considerable affluents: one, the Tste-kiang ^ ^, before flowing
into the lake ; the other, the Tiien-kiatiff \jc, iL^ before it issues
from the lake. The waters of the Yuen-kiang and the Siang-
kiang, even at flood-season, can be distinctly traced as they
flow through the lake, and so the Yuen-kiang may be really
considered as an affluent of the Siang-kiang.

The Siang-kianff |fg ^ rises in the N. of Kwangsi ^ ^.
It is navigable for large boats up to Hengchow Fu ^ ^ f^,
and for small craft up to the frontier of Kwangsi ^ '^. One
of its affluents, the Lei-ho ^^, is also navigable to the frontier
of Kwangtung ^ ^. In Winter, junks with a draught of five
feet, sail up as far as Yohchow Fu •§■ W ^ ! those drawing
three and a half, can go up to Siangyin hsien }|g |^ J||, and
those requiring two and a half feet can reach Siangt'an hsien
fW W- M-- Three Steamship Companies have opened regular
services between Hank'ow JH P and Oh'angsha Fu ^ ^ jjj.

The Tze-kiang ^ ;fll is navigated with difficulty, on account
of its numerous rapids, which have deserved for it the name of
T'an-ho ^ ^ (river of rapids). Only small craft can ply on
its waters.

The Ttien-Tciang \it iL rises in Kweichow ^ J'|'|. There,
it receives on the right its longest tributary, the TsHng-ahui ^
7J^. The rapids, which commence 35 miles above Oh'angteh Fu
-^ ^ ji^i render navigation on it rather difficult. Nevertheless,
thousands of small boats traffic unceasingly upon its waters and
those of its principal affluents, even up into Kweichow ^ ji\,
and to the S.E. of Szechw'an gg j||.

In the N.W., the lA-shni \% ;!J;, which is navigable in its
lower portion only.

The Tuiigt'ing lake '^% M. M '^ about 75 miles long, by
60 broad in Summer, while in Winter, it is but a marsh through
which flow several streams. In Summer, the overflow of the
Yangtze ^ ^ flC runs into it, forcing back the waters which it
receives from the Siang-kiang '^Ql and its affluents. In Winter,
the lake pours its waters into the Yangtze, with which it com-
municates through the Yohchow Fu ^jHlfl'f canal. Modifying its

134 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REftlON.

aspect according to the seasons and the rise of the waters, it is
however the centre of a very active movement of boats, owing
to a system of sluices which adapts it to navigation in all sea-
sons. Thousands of junks carrying rice, timber, coal and salt,
traverse it unceasingly. Immense rafts composed of an assemblage
of beams and planks, attaining sometimes 330 feet in length, in
fact floating villages with their huts and inhabitants, traverse
its waters. A network of canals surrounds it, but the land
is too low and inundations too much feared, to entice anybody
to settle down near its banks. The few villages found in the
environs are all enclosed within high embankments, which pro-
tect them when the waters rise.

In the N. the T'ai'pfing ^ 2p canal, much longer than that
of Yohchow Fu ^ ^H^ ^, but less important, connects the lake
with the Yangtze ^ -? aii a little to the S. W. of Shashi \^
■j^ (dependent on Kingchow Fu j^J jN'] jjj, in Hupeh jj^ ;[[^). The
canal of Ngeuch'i-k'ow ^ -Jlfe P, more to the B. , is better and
moreover is navigable nearly the whole year round.

Fauna and Flora. — Nothing deserves any particular mention save that the
mountains of the W. are wooded, a circumstance pretty rare in China. In the forests,
some gigantic trees are still found. Notwithstanding the excellent climate, there is
little sili, sugar or opium produced in the Province.

Agrlcnltnral Wealth. — This consists chiefly oitea, which
is one of the best in China, and supplies in part the demand of
the Hank'ow jg P market. Besides, Hunan jgg ^ produces
rice, cotton, tobacco, oranges and oily tea. Among the trees,
we may mention the pine, oak, cedar and camphor-trees.

The best tea grows at Nganhwa hsien ^ -ffc Hg, Ch'angsha
Prefecture :ft ^ ^, to the S.W. of the lake, while it is exten-
sively cultivated in the region of the lower Siang-kiang j^ ^,
up to HSngchow Fu ;^ ffl ;jj and beyond. The W. of Hunan
produces no tea.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Hunan consists
principally of coal. When ascending the Siang-kiang j|| ^, the
coalfields commence near Siangt'an hsien j|fg J? fg, and extend
to the E. as far as Kiangsi % gf , also to the W. to a distance

CHAPTER III. HUNAN. 135

as yet unascertained. Goal is chiefly extracted at P'inghsiang
hsien ^ lip JH (Yuenchow Fu ^ >}[\ J^), in Kiangsi ^ W. upon
the Li-ho jS ^, but it is transported on the Siang-kiang -Jig ^.
The largest coal-beds are found to the S. of the confluence of
the Li-ho }& ^ with the Siang-kiang -[^ i£. Its extraction is
easy, and the mines have been worked for a long time. This
coal is despatched even to Shanghai J: ^. In the Southern
part, anthracite coal predominates, but further to the N., between
Siangt'an hsien ^19 jg |i and P'inghsiang hsien J^ ^ fg, the
coal is bituminous. As anthracite coal is principally exported,
it is called Hunan coal.

Hunan jjjg ^ has also rich deposits of gold, silver, iron,
copper, lead, zinc, antimony and sulphur, but the mines are
not much worked, and await the advent of scientific enterprise.

Populatiou. — The population is concentrated especially along the Siang-kiang,
and in the lower course of the Yuen-kiaug. Many officials are natives of this Prov-
ince, which was once famous for its schools. The people of Hunan have always betrayed
a violent anti-foreign feeling towards Westerners. They are renowned throughout
China for their military spirit. — In the S. E. are found immigrants from Kiangsi.
The S. W. is inhabited by the semi-independent tribe of the Miaotee"^ ^{shoots,
sons of the soil), or Yaohu ^ p (jackals), of whom we shall speak again when descri-
bing the Southern Provinces and the different races of China. They form '/g of the
whole population of Hunan.

Iianguage. — The Miaotze have their own peculiar dialect. Everywhere else
Mandarin is spoken, but the local accent with which it is pronounced renders it less
distinct than that of the N., and makes it hard to be understood.

Cities and Principal Centres. — CM'ANGSXLd. FV ^

'i'P M (long sands). — Population, 500,000 inhabitants. The city
is principally engaged in the manufacture of furniture, paper
and various gold articles. Besides, it is an important commer-
cial place, situated in a rich and fertile region, which allows it
to absorb alone one-third of the foreign imports which are
brought into the country.

Along the Siang-klanff -JH f£, proceeding down-stream :

HMgchow Fu ^ jHI ^- — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.

An important trading mart and transit centre at the junction of

two highways: one coming from Kwangsi ^ 'g, the other from

Kwangtung ^ '^- — Upon this latter, and on the banks of the

136 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Lei-ho ^ fpf, is IMyang hMen ^ |^ j^. It has a population
of 4,000 to 5,000 inhabitants, and is the centre of a mining
region.

Siangt'an hMen \^ ^ f^. — Population, 300,000 inhabi-
tants. A great depot where commission agencies are esta-
blished. The shops are thronged with customers, even more
than at Oh'angsha Fu. The city extends to a distance of nearly
4 miles along the Siang-kiang \^ fl_, whence originated the
idea that it was more populous than it is in reality.

Siangyin hsien \ll^ |^ J^. — Population, 20,000 inhabi-
tants. It is a rather important port. The town is transformed
into an island in the flood-season.

Tohchow Fu ^ ^ ^. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
A trading city which prospers, thanks to its site. It is built
on the canal which connects the waters of Ihe lake with those
of the Yangtze ^ •? ^ river.

On the Tueti-Jciang t^ iL-

Ch'angteh Fu ^ ^, J^. — Population, 300,000 inhabitants.
Situated at the mouth of the Yuen river, it is the great central
mart of N.W. Hunan fjjg ^. It exports to Kweichow -^ jHI and
Szechw'an 0 j||, cotton-yarn and piece-goods from Hupeh
fjg 4t, also foreign-made cotton goods ; and imports from Hupeh
and Hunan : salt, opium, oils, varnish

Indnstry and Commerce. — The extraction of coal, tree-
growing, pottery and brick-making to the S. of Ch'angsha Fu
^ iP }& constitute important and thriving industries. This
latter city has also its special products, which we have already
mentioned.

Commerce. — The export articles are : coal, tea, wood,
pottery and bricks, silver, antimony-ore, hemp, hides, beans
and preserved eggs. The imports are : cotton and woollen
goods, copper, salt, opium, sugar and petroleum.

The commercial movement of the Province is important.
Through the canal of Yohchow Fu ^ jfH Jiif alone, the annual
number of junks sailing to the interior reaches 26,000.

CHAPTER III. HUNAN.

137

Hlgliways of Coiuiunnlcation. — The principal highways
are the water routes already mentioned, especially the Siang-
kiang ^ fC. The tnoat important roads are :

1° The Wuch'ang Fu "^ ^ ^ road in Hupeh i^ 3^.
This runs along the Siang-kiang, and passes through Yoh-
chow Fu ^ iH'l J^j Ch'angsha Fu ;§ ^ ^, Siangt'an hsien
iffi T? 11^ and Hengchow Fu ^.j >}^ }^. Here, it branches into
two : one keeping to the W. and passing through Yungshun Fu
^ M }H' towards Kwangsi ^ 'g; the other to the E., running
through the Lei-ho ^ |py valley. It then goes over the CheMing
^ ^ pass, and continues into Kwangtung ^ '^. Between
Ichang hsien fit # Mt terminus of navigation upon the Wu-shui
•g^ 7jC. and Ch'eng Chow ^ •]'\\, the head of navigation on the
Lei-ho ^ M' ^ '^o^d connects the two basins. This is a very
ancient route, and is paved? It is 30 miles long, and furnished
from end to end with inns, warehouses and cattle-sheds, all
bespeaking the great activity that prevails throughout it.

2° The road which goes from the S. of the Yangtste ^ ^
fX_, opposite Shashi ^"f|f, in Hupeh, to Kweichow ■f^'j'l], passing
through Ch'angteh Fu f ^ J^, Ch'enchow Fu Jg >)]\ ]^ and
Yuenchow Fu 1% 'M M-

Open Ports. — In Hunan '{^ gf, there are two ports open
to Foreign trade : YohcJimv Fu -^ j^\\ ^, and Ch'angsha Fu

n m M-

References :

PBOVINGE OF SVPEH.

Mission Lyonnaise.— Lyon, 1898 (2« par-
tie. Notes sxirle Commerce deHan-k'eou.
p. 357, le centre de fabrication de Cha-
clie. Voir auBsi I"- partie. Liv. Ill.oh.IV).

David. — Journal de voyage. Paris, 1875.
(Vol. II, ch. 20, 21, 22. Le Hau et Han-
k'eou).

Roussct. — A travers la Chine. Paris, 1878.
(oil. 8-11, and ch. 18).

Du Ualde. — Description o£ the liir.pire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 98-100).

GutzIaflT. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 108-

112).
Parker E.H. —Chinese Revenue, Hupeh.

(N. C. B. B. A. Soo. 1895-9G. p. 11.5-117).
Little A. J. — Through the Yangtse Gor-
ges. London, 1898. (Ch. II. p. 15-3C.

Shanghai to Ichang. — Ch. III. p. 37-50.

Ichang and its Environs. — Ch. XI.

Hankow).
Little A. -J. —The Far East. O.\£ord,1905.

(Ch. IV, p. 91-96. Hupeh).

138

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Roeher. — Notes de voyage en Chine Cen-
trale. (Bulletin de la Soo. Geog. Comm.
Paris, 1898).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 120-122).

Grosier. — General Description of China.
(Vol. I. p. 69-73).

Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese
Empire, (p. 83-86).

Murray's China. - (Vol. III. p. 28).

Gill W.— The River of Golden Sand. Lon-
don, 1883. (Ch. IV. p. 4G-5G. Hankow and
Shasi described).

Allan O.W.— Hankow.(Eastof Asia Maga-
zine. Shanghai, 1903. Vol. II. p. 265-273).

Comaby W . — Morning walks around Han-
yang. (Bast of Asia Magazine. Vol. I. p.
262-268. Vol. II. p. 279-283. Vol. III. p.
232-237).

Stnhlmann P. — Shasi. (East of Asia Ma-

gazine. 1902. Vol. I. p. 119-206).
Woodbridge S.I.— Kuling. (East of Asia
Magazine. 1903. Vol. II. p. 327-330).

Bulletin du Comite de I'Asie Fran^aise.
1902. (p. 246-253. Han-k'eou).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen-
nial Reports. Shanghai, 1904. (Hankow.
Decennial Report, 1892-1901. p. 293-32t.
— Ichang. Decennial Report, 1892-1901.
p. 179-219. — Shasi. Report, 1896-1901.
p. 221-250).

Riehtbofen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
(The Han River, p. 13-10).

Parker E. H. — Up the Yangtse. Hong-
kong, 1891.

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Re-
turns of Trade, 1905. (Hankow trade Re-
port, 1905. p. 144-181. — Ichang trade
Report, 1905. p. 102-112. — Shasi trade
Report, 1905. p. 113-123).

PBOriNGE OF HUNAN.

WUliam.s. — The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.

I. p. 122-123).
Grosier. — General Description of China.

(Vol. I. p. 69-73).
Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese

Empire, (p. 83-86).

Murray's China. — (Vol. III. p. 28).

DuIIalde. — Description of the Empire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 100-102).

Gutzlaff. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 108-
112).

Parker E.H.— Chinese Revenue, Hunan.

(N. G. B. R. A. Soc. 1895-96. p. 114-115).
Barclay Parsons W. — Voyage tjirough

Hunan. (Geog. Journal, 1902. p. 711-733).
Richthofen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.

(Hunan, p. 1-13).

Gill W.— The River of Golden Sand. Lon-

don, 1883. (Tnngting lake described. Ch.
IV. p. 52-53).

Carles W.R.— The Yangtse Chiang.(Geog.
Journal, 1898 Vol. XII. p. 235-237).

Preston T. J. — Progress and Reform in
Hunan Province.fEast of Asia Magazine,
1905. Vol. IV. p. 210-2J9).

Wing-ate A. -Recent Journey from Shang-
hai to Bhamo, through Hunan. (Geog.
Journal, 1S99. Vol. XIV. p. 039-616).

little A. J. The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
(Hunan, p. 96-99).

China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decennial
Repoits. Shanghai, 1904. (Yochow.Report
1809-1901. p. 251-291).

China. Returns of Trade, 1905. (Ch'augsha
trade Report, 1905. p. 123-133.— Vochow
trade Report, 1905. p. 134-143).

CHAPTER IV.

THE REGION OF THE LOWER
YANGTZE

(KIANGSI a ®, NGANHWEI ^%, AND KIANGSU ^ H)

These three Provinces are governed by the same Viceroy,
styled the lAMn^-lciarig ^ fC Viceroy, -who resides at Nanking
1^ M <"" Kiangning tC ^. ■F'or fhis reason, we s^aii siudy
t/iem together. Kiangsi fx. M /las however this particular feature
that its Governor has the charge of nearly all civil affairs, and
depends on the Viceroy only for military matters.

M^iangsi differs -widely from the other two Provinces. It is
nearly all covered with mountains, has but one lake which irri-
gates its extreme N., only one highway of communication, and
one navigable route which traverses it from S. to N. The other
two Frovinees, on the contrary, are covered with immense plains,
intersected with canals and navigable rivers, and watered by
several large lakes. The whole Northern part of Nganhwei ^ ^
and Kiangsu ^ ^ borders on the basin of the Hwang-ho ^ fjij,
and partakes of its characteristics, while to the S. of Kiangsi fx.
!§■, the climate, productions and even the dialects resemble
those of Kwangtung ^ '^.

The three Provinces have this in common, that the same
river flows through them, and their productions are to a great
extent the same. All three have greatly suffered from the T'ain
p'inff rebellion, which 50 years ago devastated them and reduced
their population.

140 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

1°. Kiangsi JI H

Area. — 69,498 square miles.

Popnlation. — 26,532,000, or 382 to the square mile.
Name. — Kiangsi fX '^ means "West reach of the liiang".

This Province is in fact to the W. if we consider the Kiangsu
and Nganhwei -^ '^j Provinces, sometimes styled collectively
Kiangium ^ ■^, or Provinces S. of the Kiang ^, a name which
would better suit Kiangsi, as it lies entirely to the S. of the
Yangtze f^ ^F ftl river.

Boundaries. — Kiangsi is bounded on the

N. — By Nganhwei ^ ^ and Hupeh fjjg 4t,

W. — By Hunan ^ |t,

S. — By Kwangtung ^ ;^,

E. — By Fokien j^ ^ and Ohekiang ^ f£_.

ea,ltita\. — NANCWANG jFI/ ^ ^ /j^p, on the Kan-kiang
^ J51, to the S. of the P'oyang f) |# lake.

Otlier Prefectures. — These are 12 in number.
Proceeding from the 'Sangtze ^ ^ fL towards Kwang-
tung ^ %, through the lian-kiang ^ 2X valley :

1° Kinkiang Pu A it }(f ,

2° Nank'ang Fa ^ ^ jfl=,

3° Linkiang VvL^icKf,

i' Kihngan Fu « S if ,

5" Kanchow Pu if ^1 m,

6° Nanngan Fa ^ $ iff.
On the Western affiniennU, going from S. to N. :

7° Yuenchow Pu ^ jm iff,

8° Shuichow Pu ^ «| iff.
On, the JUastern affl/iients, going also from S. to N. :

9° Kiencli'aiig Pu ?t g flj,

10° Puchow Pu » jHI iff,

11° Kwangsin Pu M # iff,

12° Jaochow Fa M )m iff.
There is also in Kiangsi f£ W »"« independent Chow ^:
Ningtu Chow ^ ^ jHI •

CHAPTER IV. KIANfiSI. 141

Aspect and Cliaracteristlcs. — Of all the Provinces in
China., there is none which is so simple in structure. Hunan
^ ^, its neighbouring Province, is the one which resembles it
most. Kiangsi fl If, entirely mountainous, except in its low
part (to the North), is traversed from S. to N. by a great valley
through which flows the Kan-kianff ^ f£, and into which run
all the affluents of the same river. These affluents, or nearly
all of them, rise within the Province. A great lake occupies the
low-lying part of the Province, and fulfils the same duty as the
Tungt'ing lake if^ ^ ^, overflowing like it in Summer, and
becoming empty in Winter. Junks likewise ply on its waters.
Tea, rice, cotton, silk, as well as porcelain ware, constitute its
principal riches. Its mineral wealth has not been so far availed
of. At the present day coal-mines begin to be worked in the
Western part, but the export takes place chiefly through Hunan

Geological constitution. — The geology of Kiangsi has so far been but little
explored. Ited sandstone seems to predominate in the W. It overlies, as in Hunan,
rich coal measures. In the E., although red sandstone is abundantly found, still as
one advances in the same direction, it is replaced by granite and porphyry. The
sandstone wonderfully broken up, offers in this Province the same picturesque fea-
tures which we have already mentioned in Hunan. It imparts great variety and
charm to the country, otherwise so rich in limpid streams, and also in trees and
shrubs.

Orograpliy. — With the exception of the great plain
which surrounds the P'oyang §[) |^ fjjfl lake, and extends to the
S. as far as Linkiang Fu ^ ^ J^, the country is covered with
mountain chains and ridges running in the general direction
S. W. — N. E. To the E., the high mountains of Fokien ^ ^
interpose a powerful barrier between the two Provinces. Else-
where, their altitude reaches 1,600 feet and seldom surpasses
3,200 feet.

Climate. — The climate of Kiangsi generally is hot in Pummer. During Winter,
the lakes between Kiukiang and the mountain-background are occasionally frozen.
In the neighbourhood of the P'oyang lake, the climate resembles much that of Hank'ow
and Hupeh. In the 5., as evidenced by the flora, it is tropical like that of Canton.

Hydrograpliy. — The water system of Kiangsi is compo-
sed of a large river flowing into the Tarii/tze ^ ■^ &1, a large

l42 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

tofee which receives this river before it reaches the Yangtze, and
numerous affluents flowing from both sides into the Kan-kiang

The Kan-hiung ^ fC rises in the 8. B. of Kiangsi, and is
then called the Kimg-ahui ^ 7jC- O" ^^e W., it flows up to
Kanchow Fu ^ jHI ^i and receives there the Chanff-shMi ^
^. It runs subsequently to the N. E. as far as the P'oyang
^ ^ lake, into which it empties its waters through several
mouths. Above Kihngan Fu ^ ^ jjlf, it has a certain number
of rapids which are called the Shihpah-fan -f* A ^ (eighteen
rapids). In the flood-season, it is however navigable for small
steamers up to Nanch'ang Fu ^ ^ ;j5F ; for junks of middling
tonnage up to Kanchow Fu ^ jftj Jj^, and for small craft up to
Nahngan Fu ^ ^ flSf.

The F'oyang lake IB |^ fiS is 90 miles in length and almost
20 in breadth. It is very deep like the Tungt'ing lake j|^ ^ fiJS,
especially in its Southern part. In the flood-season, it rises to
nearly 30 feet above the ordinary level, and overflows into all
the neighbouring marshes. It is dotted with numerous islands,
while its Northern banks, though rather steep, are covered with
trees and villages. Its violent storms are greatly feared.
Numerous small steamboats convey passengers across its
waters. The Huk^ow fj^ p canal connects it with the Yangtze
%^ iL river.

Throughout the Province, there are numerous ponds which
are used for rearing fish.

Fauna and Flora. — The fauna and flora of Kiangsi are peculiar, as they
belong like those of Hunan to the semi-tropical region. The specimens of the fauna are
rather meagre through lack of extensive forests. Even the birds are not very numerous,
except the palmipeds or web-footed, which abound in Winter on the lakes. A few
kinds of serpents are found, but they are not of a dangerous sort.

The country is well wooded and possesses tall firs, camphor-trees, oaks,
banyans, camellias, kidney-bean trees and azaleas. Trees of large girth are rarely
found, and this necessitates the importation of wood for building purposes.

Agricnitnral Wealth. — This consists chiefly of rice,
cotton, tobacco and hemp. The Province has also the ordinary
crops of the N. : corn, barley, millet, sorghum and indigo.
The tea-plant is confined mostly to the N. W.

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSI. 143

Buffaloes and zebus, or humped oxen, are largely employed
in tilling the ground, but few horses and asses are found, and
so goods are transported either by water or on the backs of
carriers.

Mineral Wealtli. — Goal is extensively found in the N. W.
and also in the E., at Lohp'ing hsien ^ ^ J^. Excellent Kaolin
(Kaoling "^ ^, literally high ridge or pass — Decomposed
granite made into paste, and forming an important ingredient in
all kinds of porcelain), abounds in the N. E. and is used in the
manufacture of the famous Kiangsi porcelain.

Population. — The population is especially crowded in the N. of the Province
and in the valleys. The country was formerly much more populated, but like its neigh-
bours, it suffered severely from the .devastation of the T'aip'ings. A large number of
immigrants poured in from Hupeh to cultivate the vacant lands. The people rival in
business-ability those of Shausi, but the majority are engaged in agricultural pursuits
and lead a rather secluded life.

Jjungiiage.— Mandarin is spoken in the B. and S., but intermingled with various
dialects. In the extreme E., a peculiar dialect is spoken, which resembles much that of
Fokien.

Cities and Principal Centres. — NANCB'AIfO FU f^

^ f^. — Population, 300,000 inhabitants. It stands in the
centre of an alluvial plain, and was originally built on the
shore of the P'oyang lake, which has since receded 30 miles
Northward. During the T'aip'ing rebellion, it successfully
withstood a long siege, until the arrival of the Imperial troops
from the N. compelled the rebels to retreat. Of late it has
risen from its ruins, become an important trading town and has
also some manufactures.

To the N. of lake F'oyanff :

KiMkiang Fu j[^ ^ ^. — Population, 36,000 inhabitants.
One of the Yangtze ports open to foreign trade in 1861. It is
12 miles distant from the outlet of the P'oyang lake. It has
considerable commerce in tea, which it exports principally to
Hank'ow ^ P and Shanghai J: %. There are two fine granite
quays along the river front, which widens out there to 5,000
feet. To the rear of the city are the Lu-shan ^ iJj mountains,
which attain a height of 4,000 feet.

14^1 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Kivling f\_, ^ (nine ridges). — An excellent health resort
and sanatorium open for Foreign residence since 1895. The
Summer is delightful and the climate pure and bracing. It is
5 hours' distance from Kiukiang, and the journey may be made
in a sedan-chair.

JTaochow Fu ^ jHI }^- — Built on the Eastern bank of the
P'oyang lake, it is with Nank'ang Fu ^ ^ }^, the great empo-
rium for the sale of the porcelain manufactured in the Province.

Kingteh cliin ^^.^ (mart of brilliant virtue). — A centre
manufacturing highly esteemed porcelain. It extends in a plain
along the banks of the river Ch'ang ^ ^, and is flanked by high
mountains. It was established A. D. 1004, under an Emperor
of the Northern Sung j^ ^ dynasty, whose title of reign it
bears. The kilns destroyed by the T'aip'ings have been rebuilt.
Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out is far
from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At the
present day, it has but 160 furnaces (instead of 500), and employs
160,000 workmen (instead of 1,000,000). The finest porcelain
manufactured there, is despatched annually to Peking for the use
of the Emperor. A small amount of fancy articles is exported
to Europe and America. The remainder, consisting especially
of rice bowls, is sold cheaply throughout the country, but it
possesses the practical qualities of hardness, solidity and useful-
ness. The value of export sales amounts annually to about
3,000,000 taels, or £ 480,000 sterling.

Industry and Commerce. — The principal industry is
the manufacture of porcelain. The weaving. of silk and cotton
cloth, the preparation of tea for esport purposes, a few soap
and glass manufactories, match and paper-making occupy a
large number of hands.

The chief earports are : porcelain, paper, tea and tobacco,
while the imports include cotton cloth, linen fabrics, petroleum
mulberry-trees, sugar, salt and fans. The traffic through the
Province, principally with Canton and the Northern region, is
considerable. From 20,000 to 30,000 junks visit annually the
port of Kiukiang.

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSI. 145

nigkways of Coiniunnlcatlon. — Besides the navigable
waterways already described, a single but very important route
deserves to be particularly mentioned : it is that which follows
the Kan-kiang ^ f£^ valley and proceeds to Canton J| ^. It
is the way formerly known as ^'■Ambassadors' route", and by
which several embassies journeyed from Canton to Peking ;|t
Tjf. It runs to the S. over the Meilinff i^ ^ pass, which owes
its name to the numerous plum-trees that grow in the neigh-
bourhood. It was over this pass, that the embassies to the Court
of Peking of Lord Macartney and Lord Amherst passed Avhen
returning to Canton, the former in 1793 and the latter in 1816.

In the N. W., a sJiort railway line conveys the coal from
the P'inghsiang hsien ^ ^P f| mines to Liling hsien ^ )^ j|^,
in Hunan ^ "^.

Open Ports. — In this Province, there is but one port
open to Foreign trade : Riukiang % jiH ^. Further on, Hu-
h'mv hsien fj^ D ^ is a port of caU.

Note. — To the W. of the P'oyang lake % % ^ Are the
vale and grotto of the White deer (pehluh-tung ^ j{| j|^),
where lived and taught Chuh^ ^ ^ (A. D. 1130-1200), the
disciple and commentator of Confucius. The spot is a celebi-ated
place of pilgrimage for Chinese literati.

References :

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New

York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 91-93).
GrOsier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. p. 46-51.
WinterlJOtham. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. p. 66-79.
Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 18!3.

(Vol. III. p. 26-27).
Da Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Vol. I. p. 79-''3).
GutzlafT. — China opened. London, 1838.

(Vol. I. p. 84-90).
David. — Journal de Voyage. Paris, 1875.

(Vol. II. Ch. 23-28).
Rocber. — Notes de voyage en Chine

Centrale. 1898.
Topography of Kiangsi (Chinese Reposi-
tory. Vol. XI. p. 375-386).

Parker E.H.— Chinese Revenue, Kiangsi.

(N. C. B. K. A. Soo. 189.5-96. p. 120-123).
Davis Sir J. F. — Sketches of China,

London, 1S41. Ch. 14.
Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 2905.

p. 99104.
Clennel W. J. — Region of the Poyang

Lake, Central China. (Geog. Journal.

19061.
Decennial Report of the Trade of Kiu-

kiang. 1892-1901. (China. Imperial Marit.

Customs. Vol. I. Yangtee Ports, p. 325-

,S66).
Returns of Trade for Kiukiang, 1905. (Imp.

Marit. Customs, p. 184-196. With sketch-
map, of the Poyang lake,by W.J.Clennel).
Geogr.Notes on the Province of Kiangsi.

(China Review. Vol. VII. N" 2-5).

10

146 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

2" . Nganhwei ^ #c

Area. — 54,826 square miles.

Population. — 23,672,300 inhabitants, or 432 to the
square mile.

Name. — The name of this Province comes from the
combined names of two of its principal towns : JTgrawk'ing Pu
^ ^J^, and Biocfchow Fu ff ^ )^.

Boundaries. — Nganhwei is bounded on the
N. — By Honan fpf ^,
W. — By Honan fpf ^ and Hupeh ^ 4fc,
S. — By Kiangsi ^ U and Chekiang J^ fX.<
B. — By Kiangsu ^ ^.

Capital. — NGANK'ING FU ^M.M^ to the S.W. of the
Province, and on the left bank of the Yangtze ^ ^ fL river.

Otber Prefectures. — Tliese are seven in number.

To the N.W.J one; and to the JE., another:

1" Yingchow Pu MM)^,

2° Pungyang Fu M H W.
A little to the N. of lake Ch'ao ^ :

3° Luchow Fu M i>H flf .
To the S. of tlie Yangtze, proceeding down-atream :

4° Cli'ichow Fu m ffl M,

5" T'aip'ing Fu jfc ^p )f .

To the S. of T'aip'ing Fu ^ ^ ^ :

6° Ningkwoh Pu H H ii^F,
7° Hweichow Pu IS jHI jff.

There are also in Nganhwei ^ %^ five independent Clunv
^ eUiea: Kwangteh Chow ^ ^, j^, Ch'u Chow -^^ ^, Ho
Chow ^ ^, TMhngan Chow iz ^ ^ and Sze Chow ffg ^.

Aspect aud Cliaracteristics. — Nganhwei ^ 1^ compri-
ses three quite distinct regions. On the S. of the river, the
country is mountainous, rich in tea, cotton and industries. In
the centre, between the river md the Hwai'-ho ^^, it is partly

CHAPTER IV. NGANHWEI. 147

mountainous, partly flat and marshy, and dotted with lakes as
Kiangsu fx. M ^'^ approached. The people are not so rich as to
the S. of the river, and productions are less abundant, though
tea is still grown . In the JST., beyond the Hwai-ho ^ fpf , there
is a vast plain with a few hillocks. It is the prolongation of the
Great Northern Plain, with its dense and impoverished population,
its cold dust storms, its waggons and its monotony of vegetation.
Throughout Nganhwei ^ ^ however, communications are facili-
tated by numerous navigable waterways, even in the mountainous
region of the S. Nganhwei ^ ^ combines in the same Province
the characteristics of three regions : of the N.. the Centre, and the
Coast Region of ChSkiang jfj ^ and Kiangsu iL ^- All three
are found in its vegetation and animals, in the character of its
inhabitants, and even in its language.

Geological constitution. — The Great Northern Plain extends into the upper
part of the Province. The soil is a mixture of alluvium and loess, and the surface is
diversified by the prolongation of the last spurs of the K'ueulun range. These moun-
tains terminate not far from the Hungtseh lake, and are composed of sandstone,
marble and granite. In the S., we find a prolongation of the mountains of Pokien and
Chf'kiang. Their formation is chiefly of granite, limestone and schist, while alluvial
lauds are found at the bottom of the valleys and along the Yangtze river.

Orograpby. — To the N. of the Yangtze ^ ■^ ^, contin-
uing the Hwaiyang-shan ?|| ^ lU and skirting the N. of
Hupeh j^ 4b) ^i"^ the Hoh-shan ^ j[j riMninUiins. These
extend from S.W. to N.E. between the Yangtze ^ ^ ^ and
the Hwai-ho ^ jpf. They afford beautiful sites, have difTicult
passages, and rise in places to an elevation of 6,500 feet. Their
average height varies from 1,600 to 3,300 feet.

To the S. of the river, is the Mwang-shan ^ ^, which
follows the same general direction, and reaches at times an
altitude of 6,560 feet. It is however a very confused chain,
especially in the Hweichow ^vi %, ^ M region. Its numerous
valleys seldom exceed a few hundred yards in breadth.

Climate. — Nganhwei enjoys a climate similar to that of the Northern Eegion,
especially in the plain N. of the Hwai-ho. In the mountainous tract of the Centre, the
cold is intensely felt in the "Winter season, and snow at times blocks up the roads.
Snow is also found occasionally on tjje mpflntwni? of the gpvtthern part, but the olimfttg
}S Tdpder there jn generaj, ■<

148

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Kydrography. — The rivers of Nganhwei ^ ^ run in
three distinct basins :

1" In the N. — The Hwai-ho fj| fpf, commonly called the
Hwai. This stream rises in the S. of Honan fpf^, and is navigable
there below Sinyang Ohow 'fl ^ jHI- When it reaches Ngan-
hwei ^ ^, it is already a large river. It is in this Province
however that it receives on its left bank its principal affluents :
the Sha-ho )l>^ ypf, Fei-ho 5|)|g fjif , Ko-ho \^ fpj' and Huirho -^ ^.
The Hwai-ho f^ fpf runs in Nganhwei ^^ from S.W. to N.E.,
and flows into the Hunfftseh §fc*^ lalce. Formerly it received a
part of the waters of the Hwang-ho ^ }p[, through the Sha-ho ^
j(J, which is still its principal affluent. The Hwai-ho is from 500
to IjSOO feet wide, and is subject to violent floods which inun-
date the surrounding country to a distance of from 10 to 20 miles.
It is navigable, as are also the greater number of its tributaries,
but canals connecting them together are sorely needed. Yii ^
the Great, it is said, had formerly opened several, but they have
been allowed to silt up, or are obstructed by fish preserves.

2° In the centre. — The Yangtze §^01, which is very wide
and deep throughout all this part of its course. It receives on
both banks numerous streams, of which several are navigable.
In Summer, it overflows its banks, especially the left, in the
flood-season. It then forces iDack, even as far as lake Ch'ao ^,
the waters of the rivers which flow into it. We have described
above (see ch. I p. 98) the different branches through which it
flowed formerly through the S. of the Province.

3° In the extreme S., near Hweichow Pu ^ jHl ^, the rivers
run partly towards the P'oyang lake fg ^ Jgg, in Kiangsi; and
partly towards Hangchow FuJ^j^)^ bay, in Chfikiang Province,

I^akes. — Lakes abound in the Province, especially along
the Northern bank of the Yangtze. The principal are: the
Hunfftseh lake ^ ^ f^, which we shall find again when
describing Kiangsu {£, ^, and the Ch'ao-hu ^ jjg.

The Ch'€io-Jm ^ }^, to the S. of Luchow Fu ^ ^ )^, fills
the bottom of the basin formed by that region. It teems with

CHAPTER IV. NGANHWEI. 149

fish, and is navigable for large junks. Its circumference is

about 125 miles. Rivers flow into it from every side, except

on the E., where it empties itself into the Yangtze ^ ^ ^

through a large canal.

Fanna and Flora . — The fauna and flora of this Province vary according to
the three regions of which it is composed. Meagre in the North, they become more
numerous and rich in the centre, especially in the mountainous part, where there are
still some tracts pretty well wooded. The Southern region abounds in splendid forests,
though some ai-e more denuded since 18C0. In these forests are found beautiful speci-
mens of the camphor-tree, the thuja, the cunninghamia and the yew-tree. The fauna is
also rich in deer, wild boars and panthers. It is said even that there are some monkeys,
which have probably crossed over from the mountains of Ch^kiang or of Pokien. In
the N. are found numerous aquatic birds : swans, cranes, bustards, pelicans, storks and
herons.

Agricnitnral Wealth. — Agricultural products diminish
from S. to N. In the S., besides the productions peculiar to
the N., tea, rice and cotton are extensively cultivated. In the
N., rice and tea are lacking, and only wheat, beans, sorghum
and millet are found. In the Central part, tea and rice grow,
but much less than in the S. The best tea is that of Luhngan
Chow -^ ^ >)W, sometimes called Sunglo H^ ^ (pine range) leaf,
from a mountain of the country. The Hweichow Fu f|5[ jH-l ^
tea is also much esteemed. If the timber of the same district
were exported, it would be likewise a source of prosperity for
the country. The poppy is cultivated more and more throughout
the whole Province, chiefly in Yingchow Fu ^ j^] jjj, and Lii-
chow Fu 0 jifl )ff.

Mineral Wealtli. — Coal is extensively found in the S.,
but the mines are little worked up to the present. Iron-ore
is extracted at Hoh-shan H [Ij, and it seems that formerly
gold, silver, copper and lead mines have been worked in the S.

Population. — The poorest portion of this Province, that of the N ., is also the
most populous. The inhabitants are very simple, but robust and hard-working. They
reckon but few scholars from their ranks. In the Centre, the population is still denser,
except in the mountainous part. This region produces a few more scholars. The South-
em part is the one that suffered most from the T'aip'ing rebellion. It is now however
being gradually repeopled, owing to immigrants from Hupeh and Honan.

The people of Hweichow Fu.in the extreme S.,form a category by themselves.They
are shrewd business-men, and living in a place abounding in resources, have succeeded
in making large fortunes. During a considerable portion of the year, the men travel

150 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REOION.

on business, and leave their homes in charge of immigrants and slaves from Ngank'ing
Fu. The former constitute one-third of the population, and the latter nearly one-sixth.
Langaage. — Mandarin, but more or less altered, is spoken everywhere, except
in the S. The Northern dialect much resembles the language of Chihli. Hweichow Fu
has a tongue so peculiar that it seems to form a dialect by itself.

Cities and Principal Centres. — NGJilfK'ING FV ^^

)^. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants. Capital of the Province,
and a port of call on the Yangtze. It has a military academy
and a provincial mint. The city is beautifully situated and
has a certain commercial importance. The suburbs extend on
both sides along the Yangtze.

On the right bank of tTie river :

Wuhu hsien |^ jgj ||. — Population, 137,000 inhabitants.
A treaty port and important city exporting rice, wheat, cotton,
tea, opium, furs, timber, sugar, paper and feathers. The prin-
cipal export articles are : rice, cotton and tea. All other goods
are imported and distributed throughout the Southern Region.
There are also a few industries, such as a flour-mill and an
egg factory. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Hk. Tls. 24,542,783; in 1904, Tls. 23,223,383; and in 1905,
Tls. 30,623,809. The new General Foreign Settlement was
opened on the 16''' May, 1905.

T'aip^ing Fu -jjn ^^ )^. — A scholarly and military town.
It has however some steel and copper works, and manufactures
vermilion.

In the extreme S, i

Hweichow Fu ^ Jfl )ff. — Centre of the tea-packing dis-
trict. It is also famous for its Indian ink. The country around
is one of the richest of Nganhwei, and furnishes timber and
bamboo, which are largely exported.

To the N. of iMke Ch'ao :

Hohfei hsien -^ flfi ^ (dependent on Liichow Fu). — The
native home of Li Hungchang, China's great modern statesman
(1823-1901).

To the N.B. :

Fungyami Fu %^^ ^ (Rising phoenix). — Birthplace
of the Mings ^. The first Emperor of this dynasty, Hungwu

CHAPTER IV. NGANHWEI. 151

^ ^, resided there in A. D. 1368, 'before he transferred the
seat of Empire to Nanking ^ ^jT. in the neighbourhood, 5
miles to the S.W., the mausoleum which he erected upon his
father's burial place is still to be seen.

To the N.W. :

Foh Chow ^ j]\. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A
large city, where an important trade in hides is carried on.

Industry and Commerce. — The most important indus-
trial region of the Province is Hweichow Fu !^ ji] f^, famous
for its "Indian ink", its engravings on copper and its varnish ;
each of the district cities of this region has its special branch
of trade. In other places, silk is manufactured, and iron-works
carried on.

Nganhwei -^ ^ exports: tea, rice and cotton, and imports;
furs, sugar, opium, cotton fabrics and paper.

Highways of Commnnlcation. — Besides the numerous
navigable rivers, some of which are practicable only for 6
months, the principal highways are.

To the N. of the Yangtze :

All the roads radiate from LUclunv Fu ^ >]\\ ^, and lead
thence :

1° To the N.B., towards Shantung [Ij ^, via Hwaiyuen

hsien ^ ^ li, and Suh Chow ^ %.

2" To the N.W., towards Honan fpj |g, via Chengyang-kwan
jE I^ H, and Yingchow Fu ^ Jfl ;ff.

3" To the «. W^., towards Hupeh ^ "Jt, via T'ungch'eng
hsien W\^M^ and T'aihu hsien -js. ^ %. At T'ungch'eng
hsien a branch-road runs to Ngank'ing Fu ^ ^ ;^.

A road distinct from the others, coming from Peking, and
formerly one of the finest of the Empire, starts from Fungyang
Fu M- ^ ^- and proceeds via Ch'u Chow j^ jHI to P'ook'ow
ti Q, opposite Nanking ^ ^. A cross-road connects it with
route n" 1, mentioned above.

To the 8. of the Yangtze :

1° A road coming from Nanking fg jjv skirts the right
bank of the Yangtze, passes through Wuhu |i riS SI ^"d

152 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL BBOION.

Ch'ichow Fu ^ ^ )^, and terminates opposite Ngank'ing

2° Several roads start from Hweichow Fu ^ ^ ^. All
of them are kept in a state ot good repair, and they connect the
district towns with each other.

To tlie N. of the HwairJio fH }pf , the roads are wide and
carls travel on them. Everywhere else conveyance is performed
by carriers and pack-animals. A great number of ponies, mules
and asses are employed in this transport.

Open Ports. — In this Province there is but one port
open to Foreign trade: Wnhu'^^^. There are besides two
ports of call! NganlcHng Fu ^ ^ }^ and Tat'una ^ jj, in

the Prefecture of Oh'ichow Fu jj^ ^ ^.

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSU. 153

3" . Kiangsu tC i^

Area. — 38,610 square miles. Next to Chekiang ^ ^,
Kiangsu is the smallest Province of China.

Population. — 23,980,230 inhabitants, or 620 to the
square mile. It is, especially in the S., the most densely popu-
lated Province of the Empire, and comes immediately after
Shantung [Ij %.

Ufame. — The name of this Province is derived from the
combination of the names of two of its principal cities : Kiang-
ning ¥\i ia^^ ov Nanking ^ :^, and Soocho^ ^^M i^M-

Boundaries. — Kiangsu is bounded on the
N. — By Shantung (Ij %,
W. — By Honan ^ "^ and Nganhwei ^ ;gj,
S. — By Chekiang ^ tC,
E. — By the Yellow Sea ^ % (Hwang-hai).

CKpitvA. — NANKING ^ M or K*an«nlBg Fu tt^ jj^.
Former Capital of the Empire, and nowadays the residence of
the Viceroy of the Liang-kiang % ^, or two Kiangs. It is built
at a short distance from the Yangtze % ^ fL river.

Otlier Prefectural Cities. — These are 7 in number.
On the Orand Canal :

V SOOCHOW FU m W Hf.
To the S. E. of Soochow Fu :

2° Sungkiang Pu K tt flf .

Along the Orand Canal, to tlie N. W. of Sooclunv Fu :

3° Ch'angchow Fu :» ffl W,
4o CMnkiang Fa H iE iff.

Along the Orand Canal, proceeding from S. to N. :

5° Tangchow Fn % )^ iff,
6" Hwaingan Fu Ji 3c ffl^.

To the N. W., near the former bed of the Hwang-ho ^ ^ :
7" Suchow Fu tjs jW iff.

154 SECTION 11. THE CENTRAL REGION.

There are besides in Kiangsu fL ^ 3 independent CImw
jifl cities : Hai Cliow % ft\j T'ung Chow jg, ^ and T'aita'ang
Chmv 5fc -^ ^'H ; and onejndependent T'ing J^ : Haimhi T'ing

Aspect and Cliaracteristics. — Like Nganhwei ^ ^,
Kiangsu is traversed in its lower part by the Yangtze ^ ^ fL
river, and is divided into S regions: — Tlie first or Northern

extends almost to Hwaingan Fu J^ ^ jj^. This tract is poor,
densely inhabited, and has all the characteristics of the Northern
plain. It has however no navigable river like Northern Nganhwei,
and the former bed of the Hwang-hx> ^ fp]" runs through it
from N.W. to S.E. This bed is half filled up in the flood-season.

The second or Central extends from Hwaingan Fu ^ ^ f^
to the Yangtze ^ ^ fL- It is a region covered with shallow
lagoons, swamps, and canals, very poor also, though in Summer
rich crops of cotton, maize, wheat and rice are raised. Fish
abound, and afford it a resource which is lacking in the Northern
region. TTie Grand Canal, the numerous lakes and canals, the
rivers which traverse this part, render communications very easy.

The third or Southern one comprises all that region which
lies to the S. of the Yangtze ^ ^ fX, river. A little mountain-
ous to the W., it exhibits towards the E. a long and inextricable
maze of lakes, rivers and canals. The Grand Canal runs through
it, and it is the most fertile part of the whole Province. Rice,
silk, cotton and fish are plentiful, while the neighbourhood of the
great commercial and industrial city of Sluingliai i, ^ contributes
much to increase its prosperity .

Geological constitution. — Kiangsu is largely a low, wide, alluvial plain,
formed by the silt of China's two great rivers : the Hwang-ho in the N. and the Yang-
tze in the S. Loess however covers a rather large part of the country, both to the N.
of the Yangtze, and also to the S., down to Ch6nkiang and Nanking. In the hills ex-
tending along the S. of the Yangtze, the predominating formations are : sandstone or
quartzite, then limestone and conglomerates. Around Nanking, volcanic rocks betoken
that the region was formerly the scene of violent eruptions.

Orography. — From end to end, except to the W., Kiangsu
fC II is a vast plain broken merely by a few undulations. To
the S. W., in the environs of Nanking ^ j^, hills are found,

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSU. 155

and attain along the river an elevation of from 500 to 1,950 feet.
Several hillocks also dot the country on the banks of the T'ai-
1^" 5k JiS or great lake, and extend to within some 20 miles to
the S. "W. of Shanghai, In the N., the Shantung [^j ^ hills
continue in a series of low undulations.

Climate. — In the N., iu the Prefecture of Siichow Fu, the climate is that of the
Hwang-ho region with its rather severe Winters, its dry heat, and its cold wind covering
the whole country with dust. Everywhere else, the climate of Shanghai prevails with
its almost mild Winters, snow falling seldom and melting quickly ; its N. W. wind in
Winter, its S. W. in Summer ; its moist and unhealthy heat during the latter season
and finally its beautiful Autumn period. Owing to the proximity of the sea, the differ-
ences of temperature are less felt than in the interior.

Bydrograpliy. — Besides the Yangtze ^ ^ ?I, of which
we have already spoken (p. 93-102), there is no other stream
to be mentioned, except the Bwangp'oo ^ -j^, or Shanghai
Jl ^ river, which is a large, deep and useful waterway. It
rises to the S. W. of Sungkiang Fu ^ ^ ^. Ships of heavy
tonnage can sail up to Shanghai, and the river is connected
with a very important network of canals and lakes. When
the tide rises, all these canals are filled up, and when it falls,
they are almost dry, except a few large ones which are always
navigable. At high-water, the whole volume rushes up the
Hwangp'oo ^ •}]§, making thereby this river the great thorough-
fare for all boats that come up and descend with the tide.

To prevent inundations (such as the one that occurred on
the 1" and 2"^ September, 1905, and caused such terrible
havoc), embankments have been built on the E. to oppose a
barrier to the inroads of the sea.

The canals of the Central region are less numerous, and
receive their waters from several quarters. The larger ones
alone are navigable, and on the whole, do not render to the
country the same services as those of the S. Two embankments,
running from N. to S., protect the lowlands situated to the E.
of Yangchow Fu ^ jfl jj^ and Hwaingan Fu f]| ^ jjj, from the
waters which flow from the W. and threaten to inundate the
country. The first of these embankments is formed by the Eastern
bank of the Grand Canal ; the second known by the name of
"Fankung-ti" |S^:J| (Duke Fan's dike) is parallel to the first,

156 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

and about 40 miles distant from it. The whole country to the
E. of the Grand Canal is called the Hsia-ho f M' °^ region
below the level of the Canal.

(On the Grand Canal, see Section V. Ch. VI.).

Tjdkes are numerous both in the N. as well as in the S.
The most important are :

In the 8. : the T'ai-hu :fc fjJS or Great lake, situated to the
W. of Soochow Fu j|^ •)\\ }^. It is an immense sheet of water,
as large as the P'oyang fR ^ lake at high-water season, but
less exposed to the same great variations of volume. Some ten
islands, three of which are inhabited, and several islets dot its
waters. Small steamboats can ply on parts of it. It is infested
with pirates. Fish abound in it, and numerous fishermen draw
therefrom their livelihood. In Winter, it pours its waters into
the Grand Canal, while in Summer its current varies according
to the rainfall of the surrounding country. When the rain is
heavy, its overflow runs off into the Grand Canal, but should
the season be dry, the Yangtze ^ ■? ^ sends down to it the
excess of its waters.

In the JV. ; the Hungtseh ^ ^ laJee, which is almost as
large as the T'ai-hu. Its waters lie partly in Nganhwei ^ '^
and partly in Kiangsu f£ j|^. Heavy-laden junks can cross it
in its entire length, and navigation is very brisli on its waters.
The Btvai-ho \^ f^ runs into it on the W. The country which
lies to the E. of it being very low, a stone causeway has been
raised to protect it. The lake teems with fish. Channels con-
nect it on the N.E. with the Grand Canal, and on the S.E.
with the Kaoyiu "^ ^ lake, which is situated to the W. of the
Grand Canal.

To the E. of the Kaoyiu 1^ ^ lake and of the Grand
Canal, is found the Tatsung ^ ^ lake.

Fauna and Flora. — In regard to the fauna and flora of Eiangsu, the same
observations are to be made aS for the Province of Nganhweii The Northern region,
around Siichow especially, ia in nowise different from that of the N. of China. It is
even less rich and has but sparse clumps of bamboos, while the willow, poplar and
a few acacias are the only trees that afford a little verdure to this impoverished tract.
The mulberry is scarce, and the country has neither rice nor the tea-plant. There are

CHAPTER IV. KIAN6SU. 157

a few fruit-trees, and the fruit is excellent, especially the peaches. The Central region
is not much superior to the Northern, hut its canals and lakes teem with fish, and the
cotton which grows there is of excellent quality. The Southern region is the most
favoured, cotton, rice and the mulherry constituting with the ordinary cereals the
staple products. The hamboo thrives well, but the tea-plant is backward. The hills
are completely denuded. In the Yangtze river, as well as in the canals and lakes, a
great variety of fish is found.

On account of its general configuration, the absence of forests and the universal
density of the population, this Province is one of those which has the least number of
wild animals.

Agricultural Wealth. — In the yorthem part, the poppy
is extensively cultivated, and the cereals found there are those
of the Northern region. In the centre, cotton is the staple
crop, while rice and the other cereals of the N. are also grown.
The enterprising population of Haim6n ^ p^, accustomed to
make the best of their marshes, are constantly reclaiming new
lands from the sea. In the Southern part, rice, cotton silk
and vegetables, form with the ordinary cereals an abundant
source of wealth. Owing to the fertility of the soil and the
warmth of the climate, as much as 3 crops are produced an-
nually.

Around Nanking ^ j^, and in the Northern part of the
Province, donkeys abound ; elsewhere the services of the water-
buffalo and of the zebu or humped ox are availed of. Horses
and mules are less rarely found.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Kiangsu ^ ^
is not considerable, and so far has been little worked. In the
N., are found coal and iron. In the S., marble was formerly
quarried near Nanking, and even at the present day some lime-
kilns still exist. In the Central and Southern parts of the Pro-
vince, the extraction of salt is actively carried, on along the
seacoast.

POpalatiOn. — The population is very dense throughout the whole of this
Province, especially in the Haim6n promontory, Ch'ungming Island ^ 81 (locally
pronounced Z'ungming) and around Shanghai. The Island of Ch'ungming alone has
more than one milliouof inhabitants, or about 500 to the square mile.

The inhabitants of Siichow Fu, in the extreme N., differ vastly both in general
characteristics and in manners from the rest of the Province. The latter are of
gentle disposition, polite, scholarly, and slightly effeminate; the former are rude,

158 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL RBaiON.

sturdy and turbulent. Many of these Northerners have a rather prominent nose,
sometimes even aquiline, while the cheek-bones do not protrude, and the eyes are not
almond-shaped, all which characteristics distinguish them from the population of
Shanghai. The inhabitants of Haimt'U are also more robust than those to the S. of
the river.

Language. — Tvpo languages are used in this Province. In the W. and N. the
ManiJarin dialect is spoken. In the HaimCn promontoiy, the Island of Ch'ungming,
and along the S. of the Yangtze as far as ChSnkiang, the SungJciang or Shanghai
dialect is spoken. Great variations however prevail even in these two languages.

Cities and Principal Centres.

NANKING ]§ ^ (Southern Capital) or JKiangning Fu

iL% M- — Population, 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants. The
city is built on the Southern bank of the Yangtze ^ ■? ;^, and
at a short distance from its waters. It was formerly the Capital
of the Empire under the first Emperors of the Ming |^ dynasty.
The tombs of these monarchs are still seen in the vicinity
of the walls. Those walls have a circumference of 24 miles,
thus making the city larger than Peking ^{j ;^, the Northern
Capital. It is however inhabited only in the Southern and
Western parts. Like the Northern Capital, it has its Tartar
City, occupied by about 4,000 Manchus, and also its Red or
Forbidden City. In 1853, it was taken by the T'aip'ing ;ij 2p
rebels, who withstood there a 10 years' siege before it was
retaken by the Imperialists in 1864. For long years afterwards,
the city was but a heap of ruins, from which it rises but slowly.
The Viceroy of the Liang-kiang ^ XL or two Klangs, resides
there, as well as the Tartar General-in-chief. It has a
military academy. Trade is very backward. The principal
industry is the manufacture of satin and velvet ribbons. The
exports are: silk piece-goods, unmounted fans, raw cotton,
hemp, hides, feathers, groundnuts, medicines and sesamum.
The imports comprise copper (for minting), machinery, cotton
and woollen goods, flour, umbrellas and opium. Hsia-lcwan
"T^ H is the port of Nanking. Steamers stop there, and the
Custom-house imparts a little activity to the place. The total
net value of trade for the year 1905, reached to only Tls,
10,573,545, or one-tbird that of Wuhu li fiS M-

CHAPTER IV. KIANfiSU. 159

SOOCHOW FV H i^ ^. — Population, 500,000 inhabi-
tants. A vast and populous city renowned for the beauty of its
site and its canals, which have won for it the title oi" Venice
of the East". The Chinese have a proverb: "Heaven above,
and below Sooehow and Hangchow". It is 60 miles W. of
Shanghai, with which it is connected by rail, and 40 miles S.
of the Yangtze. It is built in the form of a rectangle, being 5
miles long by 2 1/2 to 3 in breadth. Former Capital of the Wu
^ Kingdom, overthrown A. D. 473, it is at the present the home
of scholars and expectant mandarins, but perhaps it is better
known for its silk-looms(7, 000), brocaded satins and gauzes, which
are in great demand throughout the cities of the Empire. It has
besides, some cotton mills, and carries on an important trade
in rice. Originally it was on the banks of the T'ai-hu ^ fjjg
or Great lake, but the lake having receded, it is to-day 12 miles
distant from its banks. The Grand Canal passes through it,
and thus affords it all the advantages of easy communications.
At the close of the Chino-Japanese war, 1896, it was opened to
Foreign trade. The Settlements (Japanese and General-Foreign),
are located to the S. facing the Grand Canal.

To the K. W. of Sooehow :

Wusih hsien ft ^ |g. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
This city is growing every day more important, both as the
general mart for the country round about, and also as a centre
for the rearing of silkworms. It has supplanted Sooehow, as
a depot and transit place for goods coming from the W. and
destined for the Shanghai _t M market. Between these 2
cities, all exchanges are now carried on directly by rail.

To the S. E. of Sooehow :

Sungktang Fu i^tLM-~~ Population, 50,000 inhabitants.
Situated about 25 miles S. W. of Shanghai, it is renowned for
its square pagoda and the grave of General Ward (an Ameri-
can who fought against the T'aip'ings, and died in the year 1862).
The BiUs, the principal of which are Fwnghwang-shan M, ^ ill
(hill of the rising phoenix), 8haohHang-0han 1^ # ill (hill

160 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

for burning incense) and Sh^-shun ^ jlj (locally pronounced
Zosai), are but a few miles distant, and form an agreeable plea-
sure-resort for Shanghai residents.

At the junction of the Grand Canal tvith the Yangtze :
Chenkiang Fu ^ f£ ]^. — Population, 168,000 inhabi-
tants. A prosperous treaty port and commercial centre, which
owes its importance to its position at the junction of the Grand
Canal with the Yangtze % ^ jz river. It is about 40 miles
from the capital of the Province, and 160 miles from Shanghai.
The Chinese suburb (between the English Concession and the
city) has been recently lighted by electricity. It has silk fila-
tures, an albumen factory and a flour-mill. It exports : rice,
cattle, groundnuts, beans and peas; and imports : coal, sugar
(in large quantity), petroleum, cotton goods, metals and glass.
The total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 34,439,
707; in 1904, Tls. 32,323,204; and in 1905, Tls. 33,344,208.

On the Bwangp'oo ^ -j^ ri/veii- :

Sliunffluti J:^J||. — Population of native city, 300,000; of
the Settlements, 540,000 inhabitants. The number of Foreign re-
sidents is about 13,000. Situated on the left bank of the Hwang-
p'oo, and 12 miles from the Yangtze, it is the largest port, the
most important trading mart, and in fact the Commercial Capital
of China. The city is continually extending in both directions
along the river, and has even passed to the opposite side. It
comprises several parts, which, commencing on the S.,lie in the
following order : Tungkadoo 3| ^ ^, tlie Chinese eUy still sur-
rounded with its walls and moat, the French Concession and the
InternaUonal Settlement, vi'ithin which is comprised Hongkew^
P (Hungk'ow),the so-called American Settlement. The European
City monopolizes the tea, silk and cotton trade of N. China.
Incessant activity reigns on the wharves which border the river.
In the long streets running far inwards from the river, the same
animation may be observed. Up to comparatively recent time,
there have been but docks and "godowns" (from the Malay
go-dong, a warehouse for the storing of goods) on the right bank;

CHAPTEn IV.

KIAN6SU.

161

11

162 SECTION II. THE CENTRAL BEOION.

of late however, industry has been started there and this attracted
a large number of hands. If the work continues, in a few years
hence, the quarter will be as populous as on the opposite side.
Commercial activity is exclusively confined to the city on the left
bank. Here are found the consulates, city halls, banks, hotels,
the custom house, markets, churches, hospitals, schools, mills,
factories, warehouses and splendid shops. The streets are
crowded with carriages, jinricshas and native wheel-barrows.
The motor-car has been recently introduced, and an electric
tramway line will be completed this year. The city has also its
public garden, its racecourse, clubs, theatre, library, museum, its
foreign and native newspapers. The weather forecasts are due to
the Sicawei ^ ^ jg (SiikJabwei) Observatory. Shanghai is in
daily communication with the principal cities of China. Steamers
ply continually between the port and Japan, Manchuria, Korea,
Southern Asia, Europe and America. It is the great importing
and distributing centre of the whole Yangtze ^ ^ i£. valley, and
even to a large extent of Northern China. The total trade of the
port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 118,812,899; in 1904, Tls.
145,480,170, and in 1905, Tls. 176,979,193 (£ 26,550,000
sterling). (For other details : Woosung bar, shipping and tonnage,
inland navigation, see Section IV. The Coasts. Shanghai).

In Northern Kiangau, near the mouth of the Tanfftze i
T'ting Cliow 55 j|t|. — 100 miles below Ch^nkiang. The
place has recently made great industrial progress. It has cotton
and silk-spinning and weaving factories, a mill for extracting
oil from cotton-seed, a dyeing factory for cotton and silk fabrics,
a canning factory for meat and fish, a printing establishment
for books and maps, a soap factory, and will soon have a dock-
yard for building and repairing small steamers.

Further N., alonff the Grand Canal :

T^inghiantip'oo Jf in W- — Population, from 50,000 to
80,000 inhabitants. Formerly the Director-General of the Grain
Transport resided there, but now the General-in-chief of North
Kiangsu jH 4(; (Kiangpeh) takes his place, Ts'ingho hsien ^}bI||,

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSU. 163

the walled city, is almost deserted, all activity extending along
the Grand Canal, where a brisk commerce is carried on. The
first locks are about a mile from the city, so part of the boats
stop at this port, whence goods are conveyed by waggons to
Northern Kiangsu, Honan and Chihli. Small steamers ply daily
between the place and Chfenkiang ^ ^ J^-

Tangchow Fu ^>}i])^. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
A famous old city, former capital of the Yang Kingdom, and the
residence of numerous scholars. It is 20 miles N. of Chenkiang.
Long rows of junks travelling on the Grand Canal impart to the
place a certain amount of animation. It is however neither an
important industrial or commercial centre.

Hwaingan Fw ?# ^ jjj. — Chiefly important as a salt-
manufacturing -centre. The salt is evaporated from sea-water
and is a government monopoly.

S&clww Fu ^ ^\\ ^. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants.
This is another ancient city, deriving celebrity from its being
built on a beautiful site, and on the former banks of the Hwang-
ho ^ f^. When the river changed its course, it left behind
only a bed of sand, and so this city is now one of the poorest
Prefectures of North Kiangsu ^ ;|fc (Kiangpeh), hence the local
proverb: "vegetables and gold hairpins are scarcer than meat
in Fokien" (Fokien being largely a fish-eating Province).

Industry and Commerce. — The principal industrial
centres are confined to the following cities : Shanghai Ji %,
Soochow ^ iHl. Chenkiang ^ ^ and Nanking j^ ;^. Manu-
factures consist chiefly of satins, reeled silk, cotton-yarn,
nankeens, oils and household furniture. The general commerce
of the Province differs but little from that of Shanghai, through
which, as well as through the Grand Canal, most business is
carried on.

Higbways of Commnnlcation. — Nearly all communi-
cations are carried on by waterways : the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^p
X£, the Hwangp'po ^ |§ river, the Grand Canal, lakes and
several canalized streams, and so the land routes or rather
pathways are little kept in good repair. The only road deserving

Iff4 SECTION 11. the' fcENTRAL REGION.

mention, is that which coming from Nganhwei ^ ;gj, leads
to Shantung ]Ji\ ^, via Siichow Fu j^ ^Hl ijff-

In the extreme N., near Siichow Fu ;^ ^ f^, there are
no canals, and so carts are employed, but the tracks they follow
are scarcely existent. In the E. of this region, caravans of camels
are sometimes met with, winding their way along the Grand
Ganal, as far as Hwaingan Fu f^ ^ }^. Further Southwards,
the camel is never seen; the ass, horSe, mule and water-buffalo
being the only animals used for transport. (For railways, see
Section V. Oh. VI.).

Open Ports. — The Province of Kiangsu f£ j|^ has 5
ports open to Foreign trade: Shanghai Jl^^, Nanking ^J^,
CfhSnkiang ^ iL f^, Soochow ^ ')W )^ and Woo8^mff ^ \i^.

Notes. — 1" In former times, Kiangsu fL ^ and Nganhwei
^ ^ constituted one Province, but were separated in 1667,
under the reign of the Emperor K'anghsi J^ ^. In the early
part of 1905, Kiangsu fX. j^ was divided into two: Southern
and Northern Kiangsu or Kianghwai fX. jfl, but this step having
proved unpopular, the division, after lasting about 3 months,
was revoked. Since then, N- Kiangsu X£ 4b (Kiangpeh) has
been administered by a General-inchief who resides at Ts'ing-
kiangp'oo t^ f£, '^, and fulfils the duties of the short-lived
Governor.

2" The Grand Ganal traverses this Province from N. to S.
It crosses the Yangtze river at Ch^nkiang, 160 miles above
Shanghai.

3° The Yangtze delta is steadily growing seawards, and
every year sees new lands reclaimed from the sea and cultivated
in polders. In the neighbourhood of Shanghai, the water-
courses are filling up, and the volume of the Hwang'p'oo river
has now diminished by one-third. In the next century, the
place, iilready distant 45 miles from the sea, will be beyond
tidal influence and thus become relegated to the position of an
inland mart.

CHAPTER IV. KIANGSU.

16B

References ;

PBOVINCE OF NGANHWEI.

Ilavret. — La Province du Ngan-lioei.

Chang-hai, 1003.
Topography of Nganhwei. — Chinese Re-
pository. (Vol. XI. p. 307-317).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. 4""

Edit. New-York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 89-91).
G rosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. p. 28-45).
Winterbotham. — Historical and Geogr.

View of the Chinese Empire. London,

1795. p. 53-66.
Murray's Cbina. Edinburgh, 1843.

(VoL III. p. 23-25).
China. I. M. C. Returns of Trade, 1905.

(Wuhu trade Report, p. 197-208).
Du Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Vol. I. p. 76-
78).

Gutzlaflf. — China opened. London, 1838.
(Vol. I. p. 71-8 1\

Parker E. H. — Chinese Revenue. Ngan-
hwei. (N. C. B. H. A. Soc. 1895. p. 102-
lOt).

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
p. 71-84.

Pierre A. — Carte du Ngan-hoei. 1888.

Richtholen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
(Ch(5kiang and Nganhwei. p. 40-55).

China. Imp. Marit. Customs. Decennial
Reports. Shanghai, 1904. (Wuhu trade
Report, p. 367-404. With map of the
Anhwei Province and plan of Wuhu city).

PBOriNGE OF KIANGSU.

Broullion. — La Mission du Kiang-nan.
(1842-1855). Paris, 185.^.

Le Kiangnan en 1869. Paris, 1869.

I'alatre. — Relations de la Mission de
Nan-kin. CUang-hai, 1875-76.

Gaillard.— Nankin, Port ouvert. Ohang-
hai, 1901.

Gaillard. — Nankin. Aper^u historique
et giographique. Chang-hai, 1903.

Faavel. — Histoire de la Concession Fran-
jaise de Chang-hai. Paris, 1899. (extrait
du Correspondant).

Pinon. -La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris, 1900.
(Appendice II. La question de la Con-
cession Pranjaise de Chang-hai).

Imbault-Huart. — Fragments d'un
voyage dans I'interieur de la Chine. (Sou-
tcheou, les environs du T'ai-hou. R. A.
Soc. 1883. p. 55-140).

Havret. — L'lle de Tsong-ming. Chang-
hai, 1902.

Cordier. — Origine de deux Etablisse-
raents Pranfais: Chang-hai, Ning-po.
Paris, 1896.

Carte du Kiang-nan. (by the R. C. Mission
of Shanghai).

Topography of Kiangsu. (Chinese Reposi-
tory. Vol. XI. p. 210-222).

Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. (Vol.
I. p. 80-89).

Grosier. — General Description of China.
(Vol. I. p. 28-45).

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. (Vol. I. p. 73-76).

GndoflTre. — Le Pays des Canaux. Essai
sur la Province de Kiang-sou. (Revue de
Geographic. 1902).

Deschamps. — Shanghai. (Tour du Mon-
de, 1905. p. 265-288).

Raqnez. — Au Pays des Pagodes. Chang-
hai, 1901.

Tschepe A. — Histoire du Royaume de
Ou. Chang-hai, 1896.

Gandar D. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang-
hai, 1903.

trission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1898. (11° par-
tie. Conclusions : le mouvement com-
mercial du port de Chang-hai. — Dans
I'appendice : I'organisation commerciale
de Chang-hai).

Li fong-pao. — Carte du Kiang-sou (in
Chinese).

166

SECTION II. THE CENTRAL REGION.

Heude. — Conchyliologie fluviatile de la
Province de Kiaug-sou et de la Chine
ceutrale. Paris, 1880.

Heude. — Notes sur les MoUusques ter-
restres de la Vallee du Fleuve Bleu.
Chang-hai, 1882.

Gutelaff. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 71-
84).

Parker E. H. — Chinese Revenue. Kiang-
su. (N. C. B. E. A. Soc. 1895. p. 123-125).

Little A. — The Par East. Oxford, 1905.

- (Kiangsu. p. 104-109).

Fortune. — Wanderings in China. Kiang-
su. (Ch. Repository. Vol. XVI. p. 569-
576).

Michie A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (Shanghai. Vol. I. Ch.
IX. p. 124-160).

Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics of
the Far East. London, 1895. (Outposts
of Empire, Shanghai, p. 8-36).

Jemigan T. R. — China's Business Me-
thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1905. (Shang-
hai, p. 377-406).

Pryer W. B. — Entomology of Shanghai.
(N. C. B. K. A. Soc. 1867. p. 74r79).

Dechevrens M . — The Climate of Shang-
hai. (N. C. B. E. A. Soc. 1881. p. 231-
246).

de Moidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of
Shanghai. (Oriental Press. Shanghai,
1904).

Ilampden du Bose. — Beautiful Soo.
Shanghai, 1899.

Gundry R. S. — Excursion to Nanking.

N. C. Herald Office, 1876.
Historical Sketch of Shanghai. — Ch. Ee-

positoty. (Vol. XVIII. p. 18-22).

Description of Shanghai. — Ch. Reposito-
ry. (Vol. XVI. p. 529-576).

Notices of Shanghai. — Ch. Eepository.
(Vol. XV. p. 466-472).

Schmidt C. — Extracts from the History
of Shanghai. (N. C. B. E. A. Soc. 1873.
p. 31-44).

Walks about Shanghai. — Ch. Repository.
(Vol. XVII. p. 468-477 and 530-536).

lang H. — Shanghai considered socially.
1875.

Clark J. D.— Shanghai by Day and Night.
Vol. I. (Shanghai Mercury Office 1893).

Fink O.— The Sicawei Observatory. (East
of Asia Magazine. Vol. I. p. 350-377).

Trip to the Hills. — Ch. Eeposftory. (Vol.
XVIII. p. 181-186).

I/ittle E. S. — The Saddle Islands. (B. of
Asia Magazine, 1905. p. 183-193).

Darirent O. E. — The Taihu. (E. of Asia
Magazine, 1902. p. 333-349).

China. Imp. Marit. Customs. Decennial
Reports. Shanghai, 1904. (Trade of Nan-
king, 1892-1901. p. 405-438. — Trade of
Chenldang, 1892-1901. p. J39-464.— Trade
of Shanghai, 1892-1901. p. 465-542. —
Trade of Soochow, 1896-1901. p. 543-557).

Blackburn Chijia Mission, 1896-97. (Trade
of Shanghai. Part I. p. 1-13. Part II. p.
1-14. — Taxation in the Settlement of
Shanghai, p. 107-112.— Taxation at Ports
supplied by Shanghai, p. 112-124. — Trade
of Chenkiang. Part I. p. 14-18. Part II.
p. 15-20).

China. Returns of Trade,11905. (Shanghai
trade Eeport. p. 235-298).

SECTION III.

THE SOUTHERN REGION.

CHAPTER I.

THE SI-KIANG W it VALLEY, AND THE COAST-
EIVEES OF FOKIEN AND CHIIKIANG.

Characteristics of tliis Region. — Compared with the
regions which we have studied so far, this is rather diversified
and more difficult to describe distinctly. We shall simply dwell
upon a few prominent features, leaving each Province to he
studied more in detail.

1. The region is mountainous, the only exception being the
low-lying plain of Canton.

2. It is for the greater part a semi-tropical region.

3. It is a region where the Chinese race is scantily repre-
sented.

4. It is a region where mineral wealth abounds, and holds
as much importance as agricultural products.

5. It is a region where the Government of the country is
more difficult than anywhere else in China, because of the variety
of races, and the enmity which exists between them. Fohien
T^ ^ and Ch&hiang ^ ^ are however exceptions.

168 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Provinces comprised in tliis Region. — Proceeding
from W. to E., then from S. to N., we find them to be the
following: :

Yunnan g ^,

Kweichow ^ jlfl,

Kwangsi ^ 'gf ,

Kwangtung ^ ^,

Fokien ^ ^,

Chfikiang §f ft-
Of these Provinces, the three last border on the sea, and
are the most populous and the richest ; the three first, extending
inland and of difficult access, afford neither the same resources
nor the facilities for subsistence.

All, except the two last, are watered by the Si-kiang ff
f£ ; Yiinnan p ^ also by the Yangtze ^ ^ f£, the Red
river and the great rivers of Indo-China. Kweichow ;# ^ too
is watered by the affluents of the Yangtze. Did these Provin-
ces and the races inhabiting them not enjoy a semi-tropical
climate, they should be comprised rather in the Central than in
the Southern Region.

Geological Constitution. — In Fokien j^ ^ and Che-
kiang ^ ^, and also in the Kwangtung ^ ;^ region, porJ)li,yr-y, ■
granite, schist and sandstone are predominant. Elsewhere, large
tracts of limestone of the secondary period cover the primary
formation, which but rarely emerges veined here and there Hvith
granite and porphyry. The limestone, curiously excavated and
furrowed, imparts to this region a peculiar and characteristic
aspect. There is no yellow land or loess, and few alluvial
deposits except in the Si-kiang 'g fj[_ delta.

Orograpby. — To the W. is a series of table-lands sloping
from W. to E. Along, the sea-coast, a well-mjarked chain of
mountains establishes a definite limit between the tributaries of
the Yangtze ^ ^ fL and of the Si-kiang If fj^ on the one side,
and those of the coast-rivers on the other. In the N., is the
Nan-Shan '^ ]\] or Nan-ling ^ -^ range.

CHAPTER I. THE SI-KIANG VALLEY AND THE COAST-RIVERS. 169

GEOLOGICAL SKETCH-MAP

OF THE CHINESE PROVINCES BORDEHING ON TONGKING.

From M. A. Leclere.

r.o'wer Jurassic.

Triassic antl
Upper Permian.

' Upppr Carhoniferous Shale.
I Middle and Lower Permian.
I Carbotiiferous.
[ Devonian.

\\\^

Silurian and
Cambrian.

Granite.

17G SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Climate. — The climate, semi-tropical in the low-lying
valleys and the low regions, becomes mild and liable to few
variations upon the high table-lands of Yiinnan ^ ■^. In general,
it is damper than in the two other regions, and the Summer
rains are more prominent there. However the variation is great
according to the altitude, and frequently even in the same Pro-
vince, as we shall see when describing Yiinnan.

Hydrograpby. — A large number of rivers are found in
this region, but one only deserves a special study: the Slr-kianif
"g^ f£^, for it waters four Provinces of China. We shall study
the others when describing the Provinces which they traverse.
The Min-kianff f^ ^ belongs so particularly to Fokien j^ ^,
that its description will naturally have its place there. The
T'M.entfang-kiung ^ ^ iL belongs likewise to Ch6kiang ^ f£,
and will be described there. All these rivers have this in
common, that as they traverse woodless tracts, where storms
and sudden rains are frequent, they have a torrential character,
and are rapidly swollen and quickly dried up.

The Si-kianff ® ^ or West river rises in the Eastern
part of the Yiinnan table-land where it bends at first towards the
S., then takes a Northerly direction towards the frontiers of Kwei-
chow ^ jifl. So far, it is called Pahtah-ho /\ ^ fpf. It
rext shirts the S. of Kweichow, separating that Province from
Kwangsi ^ 'g' for a distance of nearly 160 miles; it afterwards
flows towards the S. E., passing through the centre of Kwangsi
^■gj and of Kwangtung ^'^. It is called Hung-shni ^ 7)^ or Red
river till about 60 miles from the boundaries of Kwangsi. Hence-
forward, it is called the Si-kiatiff U 2C. A little beyond Chao-
k'ing Fu ^ ^ fl^, it splits into several streams, and traversing
an immense delta, flows through numerous mouths into the
South China Sea. The Northern river of this delta, which passes
through Canton, is called the Chw-kiang ^ ^, or JPearl river.

Its principal affluents are

On the right :

The Ytih-kiang 1^ JJ, which rises in Yiinnan ^ '^. It
follows at first a course nearly parallel to the Si-kiang "gf ^,

CHAPTER I. THE SI-KIANG VALLEY AND THE COAST-RIVERS. 171

172 SECTION HI. THE SOUTHERN RE&ION.

and receives a little beyond Xanning Fu ^^^ the Tao-'kiang
^ iti coming from Tongking ^ ]§C-

On the left :

1° The lAu-hiang i^^ ^, which comes from the E. of Kwei-
chow ^ ^, and joins it towards the middle of Kwangsi ^ ^.

2" The JCwei-kiang ^ ^, which comes from the N. E. of
Kwangsi^ U, and flows into it near Wuchow Fu ^ ^ j^.

3" The Peh-kiang ^ ^, coming from the S. of Hunan
JIU pg, and joining it near the extremity of the delta.

4° The Tung-kiang ^ fz, which comes from the N. E. and
flows into the delta.

The volume of the Liu-kiang and of the Yuh-kiang is
superior to that of the Hung-shui, and so they are sometimes
taken, one or the other, as the main stream. For the sake of
clearness, we shall call Si-kiang, the river which begins at
the Pahtah-ho, and continues as the Ilung-shui and the Si-
kiang. It is the longest, and extends more to the W. Its total
length is about 1,250 miles.

Us course is very rapid till it reaches Siinchow Fu ^^ ^.
Its volume is exceedingly variable ; thus -vvhile during the dry
season it is only 7 feet deep, no sooner have the rains set in,
than it rises to 25 and even 30 feet. It runs fiemmedinhy long
narrow gorges, till it reaches the delta, and it seldoms widens
out. The title is felt to a distance of 185 miles from its mouth.

In the flood-season, the Si-kiang If ft is navigable for
steamers having a draught of 16 feet, but in ordinary circum-
stances, only ships whose draught is C '/j feet can navigate it up'
to Wuchow Fu ^ ^ llp. Beyond this place, the rapids prevent
navigation; junks or small flat-bottomed boats may however
sail up to the S. of Hingi Fu ^ H Jj^, near the frontier of
Kweichow J|; jfl.

Among its affluents :

The Yuh-kiang ^ Jl is navigable for steamers, up to Kwei
hsien ^ |^, (in Siinchow Fu J^. ji] )^) ; for junks, up to Pohseh
or Pehseh T'ing "g -fi J^ ; for small craft, up to Pakngai or

CHAPTER I. THE SI-KIANG VALLEY AND THE COASTRIVEBS. 173

Pohai ^J 1^. — The Tso-kiang ^t Jl' '*^ tributary, is navigable
for junks, up to Lungchow T'ing tl jHI j^ ; and for small craft,
up to Caobang, in Tongking y^ ^r.

The Liu-kiang ;jvp|I jlX is navigable up to Sankioh H l^i 'i
Kweichow ]^ lH^.

The Kwei-kiang ^ ^ is navigable up to the N. of Kweilin
Fu ^ ^ )jj, where a canal connects it in the flood-season with
the great river of Hunan JJ^ ^•

The Peh-kiang 4b tE 's navigable up to the N. of Shaochow

The Tung-kiang ;^ jlX 's navigable throughout the greater
part of its course.

References

Imbault-Huart. — lie Si-kiang ou Fleuve

de rOuest. 1898. (bibliographie abon-

dante).
Schumacher. — Der Westfluss (Si-kiang)

and seine Wirtschaft liche Bedeutung.

189S.
Lecldre. — Geographie generale des Pro-
vinces voisincs du Tonkin, ((reograpliie.

1900. Vol. I. p. 2G7-288).
Lecldre. — Etnde Geologique et minifere

des Provinces voisines du Tonkin. Paris,

1902.
illadrolle. — Guides (Chine du Sud. —

Chine du Nord. — Indo-Chine) Paris, 1902

and 1904.
Madrolle. — Sud de la Chine-Hongkong.

— Canton. — Macao. — Le Si-kiang.
A. Laonay. — Atlas des Missions de la

Society des Missions-Etrangferes. Liille.

(Yunnan, Koei-tcheou, Koang-si, Koang-

foDg).'
Course o£ the Pearl River. (Chinese Kepo-

sito'i-y. Vol. XX. p. 105-110 and 113-122).

The West Biver or Si-kiang. — China Ee-'
view. Hongkong, 1874. (Vol. III. p. 46-
49).

Kingsmill T. W. — A'sketch of the geo-
logy of a portion of Kwangtung Province.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 18G5. p. 21-38).

Vt^illiams. — The Middle Kingdom. New
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 127-128. The Chu-
kiang or Pearl River. — p. 129. The Si-
kiang delta).

Colquhoun A. — Across Chryse. London,
1S83. From Canton to Mandalay.

Colquliouil A,— Exploration through the
S. China Borderlands, from the mouth
of the Si-kiang to the banks of the Ira-
waddy. (Proceedings of the Geogr. Soc.
1882).

Colquhoun A.— The Overland to'China.
London, 1900. (Southwest China. Ch.
XVII. and XVIII. p. 309-418).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen-
nial Reports. 1892-1901. Shanghai, 1905
(Southern Ports. Vol. II.).

CHAPTER II.

THE REGION OF THE UPPER
SI-KIANG

(YUNNAN ^ ^ AND KWEICHOW M iW)-

Ytinnan and Rweichow are governed by the same Viceroy,
who bears the title of Viceroy of Tunkwei ^ -j^, and resides at
YiXnnan Fu ^ '^ ^•

These two Provinces have in common that they are both
situated on high table-lands, in the basins of the Yangtze ^ ^
f[_ and of the Si-kiang If jx.i ^i^d that they are inhabited partly
by Chinese and partly by alien races. Both hold relations with
Szechw'an P9 )\\. Both also partially enjoy a tropical climate.
They have but few navigable rivers, and in both, comm-unications
are difficult.

If Kweichow ^j^ may be styled a sea of mountains, Yilnnan
^ ■^ exhibits the aspect of an immense staircase in the N. E.,
while in the W. and S., it is a vast fieM furrowed with long
and deep ravines.

These two Provinces abound in opinim and minerals.

Kweichow ^ j^ however has neither the altitude nor the
varieties of climate and race peculiar to Yiinnan * ■^. Neither
has it its lakes, nor its long and deep gorges, nor its relations
with Burma and Tongking ^ ^. On the other hand, it enjoys
better communications with the rest of China, either through
Szechw'an pg ]\\ or Hunan ^ ■^, or through Kwangsi ^ |f,
and it is not so isolated as YiXnnan ^ f^, wedged in between
Tibet, Burma and Tongking ^ ^.

Both Provinces have suffered from the Mahomedan rebellion
(1856-1872), but YiXnnan ^ ^ the more, its population especially
hstving been considerably reduced,

CHAPTER II. YUNNAN. 175

1" . Yunnan g ^

Area. — 146,718 square miles. It is next to Szechw'an fg
)\\ the largest Province of China.

Population. — 12,721,500 inhabitants, or 86 to the square
mile. After Kiangsi JIM ^^^ Kansu "H*;^, it is the least popu-
lous Province of China.

Name. — Yiinnan § ■^ signifies "clwudy South". If its
low-lying tract of the North, which is first encountered when
coming from Szechw'an 0 )\\, is almost continually covered
with clouds and fogs, the air breathed by the inhabitants of its
high table-lands is however very pure.

Boundaries : — Yiinnan is bounded on the
N. — By Szechw'an 0 ;||,
W. — By Tibet or Sitsang U |^, and Burma or

Mientien ^ ^,
S. — By Burma and Tongking ^ ^,
E. — By Kiangsi ^ "^ and Kweichow -^ >J^.

Capital. — TVyyAN FU ^ ^ )^, often called Yiinnan
Seng, is situated a little towards the N.E., in the region of the
table-lands.

OtUer Preffectures. — These are 13, and are situated as
follows, in the order of distance from the Capital :

To the N. SL :

1° K'iihtsing Fu ft :^ ;if ,
2° Tungchw'an Pu Ig jl| W,
3° Chaot'img Pu 8S 5i ;!?=,
To tlie S. E. :

i" Ch'togkiang Pu it tt iP,
5° Kwangnan Yn.M'^lff,
6^ K'aihwa Pu IB « fl5F.

To tlie 8, :

7° Linngan fvL^SiJ^.

176

SECTION III. THE SOUTH«ftN RE(HON.

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•nj uijtaAiii

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S

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■H OOZ Sf-

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■■»t«i n^x

s

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C8

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B
S
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u
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CHAPTER II. YUNNAN. 177

To the S. W. :

8' P'ueul Pu tf jl m.
To tJm W. .• .

9° Ch'uhsmng Fu ^ ig ;ff,
10" Shunning Fu Jifi ^ ;ff,
11° Yungch'ang Fu jjc B ;ff-.

To the N. W. :

12° Tali YvL^m^,
13° Likiang Fu 1 tt iSF.

There are besides in Yunnan ^ ]g three independent
Chow jH'l dtiea : Kwangsi CIiow ^ 1^ )W, Wuting Chow ^ ^
^, Tuenkiang Choiv \% &[ ')H; ^'"d five independent THngs ^:
Kingtung T'ing -^ ^^ ^., Mhighwa iHng ^ f^ J^, Yungpeh
T'ing ^ :|jj j^, CTiSnyuen T'ing ^-{ji, ^ stnA Ch^pienfu-i T'ing
« JS «!l * «■

Aspect and Cliaracteristlcs. — Tliree different regions
may he distinguished in Yiinnan :g /^ : The first, to the N. E.,
near the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ fl.. This tract is low. damp and
unhealthy, interspersed with peaks, gorges and torrents, and is
scarcely inhabited.

The second, to the E., has large and verdant plains, now
encircled with boundless horizons, now studded with mounds
and hills, but everywhere abounding in marshes, lakes and rivers.
Its sky is pure, the temperature mild and pleasant, while the
population is concentrated in the valleys and near the lakes.

The third, to the W. and N.W. This is a series of high
but narrow mountairi-ridges, separated by deep gorges, at the
bottom of which the air is heavy and suffocating. The popu-
lation is for the most part savage, and the country difficult of
access, on account of the hostility of the natives and of the lack of
communications;

Gettlosical oonstltutlon. — Strata of the secondary period still cover a large
portion of this Province, leaving however exposed vast tracts of primary formation,
while here and there eruptive ro'clcs (gi'anite, greenstone and porphyry) are apparent.
-Traces are found of volcanic eruptions, which must have been formerly considerable.
Limestone, wonderfully folded and broken up, predominates. Sheets of rain-water
have wholly or partly filled up the numerous lake-basins of this region. They are the
only traces of recent alluvial formation.

12

178 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Orograpliy. — Throughout the Eastern part, are found
vast table-lands varying in elevation from G,500 to 9,800 feet,
and sloping gradually towards the E. Rocky peaks soar into
the air, covered with fir-trees in the limestone regions, with
splendid forests in those of schist formation, but denuded
and barren in marly districts. To the W. are high ridges,
separated by deep gorges, in which run foaming torrents, while
many passes attain an altitude of 11,000 feet.

Lower TUnnan ^ ^, towards the N.B., is one great
mountainous mass, rising peak after peak, and exceeding
sometimes an altitude of 6,500 feet.

All these mountains are the prolongation towards the S.B.
of the Tibetan buttress, which expands in the table-lands, and
divides to the W. into chains like the fingers of the hand, while
its spurs extend into the S. of Tongking.

Climate. — Iq Lower Yunnan there are continual fogs, and rain falls every day.
At the bottom of the valleys, the climate is tropical, suffocating and insalubrious.

On the high table-lands, the sky is pure, and the temperature mild and agreeable.
If the thermometer goes up to 82°, it seldom falls below 32° or at moat 25° Fahrenheit.
The dry season extends from the end of September to the middle of May ; the wind
then blows from the S. W., increasing after sunrise and decreasing at sunset. The rainy
season is from the middle of May to the end of September; the dampness however is
not excessive.

At the bottom of the long and deep valleys of the S. and W., the climate is damp,
scorching and insalubrious.

Hydrograpliy. — Several large rivers water Yunnan ^
^. The most of them run from N. W. to S. E. They are,
proceeding from N. to S.:

The Tangtze-Jciang ^ ^ fl.. The Yangtze makes a great
bend towards the N. and is called the Kinaha-hiang ^ f^ ^
(golden sand river). It receives on the left the Yalung-kiang
3ift ® tt.1 and constitutes during a long part of its course, the
boundary-line between Szechw'an 0 ]\\ and Yunnan g ^. In
all this part, the river is but a torrent, hemmed in between
high mountains, which exceed at times 16,000 feet in elevation.
It may be crossed in some reaches, but is unsuitable for navi-
gation. It receives on the right numerous torrents, none
of which seem to be easily navigable. One of these, the

CHAPTER 11. YUNNAN. 179

Mularir-ho ^ ^ ^, affords throligh its valley the best road
for a railway-line from Yiinnan ^ "j^ to Szechw'an pg )\\.

The Pahtah-ho A. ^ fpf or Upper Si-JcUing "^ fL, and
the YU-Teiang ^ fx, rise in the high table-lands of the E. The
first makes numerous bends and waters rich valleys, but neither
the one nor the other is fit for navigation in this part of their
course.

The SunffJcoi or Hung-ho ^ JpJ', called also the JRed Siver,
is more important. It almost cuts in two the entire Province,
running through it from N.W. to S.E. It is navigable for boats up
to Manhao g ^, and for canoes up to Yuenkiang Chow yc ^
jifl, at cei-tain times of the year. It is the great artery of
communication between Yiinnan ^ "^ and Tongking [^ ^,
and the new railway-line runs partly in its valley. Throughout
nearly the whole of Yiinnan, it is but a torrent, running in
deep gorges and intersected with rapids. — A parallel direction
is followed by the Slack river, one of its tributaries on the S.W.

The Mekong or iMnts'ang-kiang i^ '^ iL flows in the
same direction, but more to the W., and crosses Yiinnan from
N.W. to S.E., intersecting it like an immense ditch. This
channel has a depth of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, while its banks are
at times covered with thick forests and at others denuded. The
river has an average width of 400 to 500 feet, and is very
deep. Its current is rather weak and occasionally obstructed
with violent rapids. Some boats venture to cross it, but none
can traffic on its waters. Its temperature is very high, and the
air breathed on its banks suffocating.

The Salween or iM-kiang Jg§ ^ has the same features as
the Mekong, but it is larger. It crosses the Western extremity
of Yiinnan. Two affluents of the Irawaddy irrigate also this
region.

Numerous laltes dot the neighbourhood of Yiinnan Fu ^^
J^ and Tali Fu -X^M^ ^"^ ^'^^y '^*^® "°* ^^^ same importance
as those of the Yangtze ^ ^ valley. Two deserve to be
mentioned :

The Tien-hu \%^, situated to the S. of Yunnan Fu, It is

180 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN HKfllON.

crescent-shaped, and lies at an elevation of 6,300 feet.- Small
boats can sail on it, but not in the middle of the day, for the
wind is then too strong. It runs into the Yangtze-kiang. ^ ^
f£ through the F'utu-ho ^ ^ fpf-

The Xhtlhai \^ % lake, to the E. of Tali Fu. this i§ also
crescent-shaped, but its altitude is a little higher, and reaches
about 6,500 feet above the sea-level. Fish abound in it, and
numerous fishing-boats are stationed on its waters. Its overflow
is drained off by a tributary of the Mekonff.

These two lakes are from 35 to 40 miles long, and from 6
to 10 miles wide across the middle.

Fauna and Flora. — Yunnan, owing .to the diversity of its surface and climate,
has the richest fauna and flora of China. Whilst the deep valleys of the W. and S.
abound in luxuriant vegetation, and possess the wild animals, panthers especially, of
Indo-China and Burma, the high mountains display every variety of the Northern
regions, until all traces of vegetation disappear beneath everlasting snows. The region
of Lower Yunnan is the poorest and least favoured, except in the valleys bordering on
the Yangtze river. Here grow trees ; the caoutchouc, cactus and fftn-palms, all of
which are rarely found outside the tropics.

Agricultural Wealth. — In TMwier VHntmn^'^, maize
is chiefly cultivated, and also a little wheat, barley, tea and
tobacco. Rice is an exceptional crop.

On the hiffh table-lands, rice and the poppy are principally
raised, also wheat, barley, oats and maize. Fruit and vegetables
abound. There are numerous buffaloes, goats and sheep, which
constitute an additional source of wealth for the couptry. To
the S.W. is a kind of tea, particularly esteemed and called JP*m-
«rf ^ }5 tea, although it is cultivated throughout the whole
region. The sugarcane grows in the neighbourhood of IHengtze
hsien ^ g JH, and the rearing of the silkworm is a fairly
remunerative industry.

Mineral Wealtli. — Minerals are abundant and consist
chiefly of copper, argentiferous lead, zinc, tin and coal. Valuable
salt-mines are also found in several places thrcJughout the
Province. i

Population.— The population of Y tinnan is the most miscellaneous and Ihe most
dispersed into small groups of all the Provinces of China. This is due to the situation

CHAPTRR II. . Yunnan. i&i

amd geological constitution of the country, where only the ancient lake-beds and valleys
are suitable for oultivfbtion. It is upon the high table-lands th(it the population,
composed of Chinese, Lolos and jdiaoiee tribes, is the most numerous. In the S. and
W., several tribes occupy the country. They come from the Laos States, Burma, and
in the N-W., from Tibet. Among the N. Y'. tribes, the inost important is t^hat of the
Miisus, who formerly occupied a kingdom extending over part of Eastern Tibet and of
actual Tiinnan. Further to the S. is the Lisa tribe.

Language. — The language of Yiinnan varies with its races and tribes. The
JlffwidajTO dialect IS spoken by only a small number, and especially upon the high
table-lands, where a large number of immigrants from Szechw'an have settled down.

Towns and Principal Centres. — tDnnan FTJ p ^

J^. — Population, 45,000 inhabitants Formerly a very populous
city, but ruined ever since the Mahomedan rebellion. Commerce
is carried on in three or four large streets. Its suburbs extend
far beyond the city. It owes its importance to its central posi-
tion, communicating with the highways of the Province. It is
situated to the N. of a fertile and thickly inhabited plain.

Tali Fu ^ 3g ^. — Population, 6,000 inhabitants. A city
formerly very populous, but ruined likewise by the rebellion
above mentioned, and by a plague (1872-1873), during which a
great number of its inhabitants perished. It trades chi«fly with
Bhanvo, and every year a great fair is held therej The plain
which bounds it, is very fertile and has more than 100 villages
inhabited for the greater part by the Minchiat, a tribe whose
capital was formerly Tali Fu. .

To the N.E.:

Tuttgchto^an Fu ^)\\f^- — Population, 20j000 inhabitants.
A town lying in the midst of a very rich mining region. Its
almost only industry is carpet-weaving, but it holds a certain
importance as a place of passage.

Chaot'unff FU WQ jj fff. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.
It is a commercial and administrative centre. Cattle-rearing,
but in small quantity, is carried on in the country around.

To the S.I1. :

Mengtxe ItMen "^ g J5I|. — Population, 12,000 inhabitants.
A great commercial centre. Its trade with Tongking ^ ^,
Canton and Hongkong, is largely in the hands of Szechw'an 0
in, Canton and Kiangsi fl[ |f people.

182 SECTION in. THE SOUTHERN RBGION.

Manhao ^ ^. — This is but a mere hamlet. Its only
title to special notice is that it is the terminus of navigation on
the Red River, and a trading mart. It is situated at the
bottom of a gorge the sides of which reach 6,500 feet in
height. The climate is oppressive and malarious, and one cannot
remain long there without risk of sickness.

Szemao T'ing ,f, ^ J^. — Population, 9,000 inhabitants.
A pretty little town in a fertile and well watered plain. Il is
the largest mart of Yiinnan for the tea, opiuni and cotton trade.

To the N. W. :

Atentze. — A large village, situated at an elevation of 11,000
feet. It is the centre of trade with Tibet. Chinese merchants
exchange woollen goods, skins, wax, honey and musk fyom Tibet
for blue piece-goods, tea and tabacco, from China. Near to this
are the three peales of DoJcerla, surrounded by a magnificent
circle of glaciers. The mountain attains nearly 19,700 feet in
height, and is considered as sacred by the Tibetans, who crowd
there to perform pilgrimages.

To the S. W.:

Tenfryueh T'ing 0 j^ J^ or Momein. — Population, 12,000
inhabitants. It borders on a fertile and populous region, and is
the centre of trade with Burma. Margary was murdered there
in 1875.

Industry and Commerce. — The extraction of ores,
tanning, the preparation of tea and opium, working copper,
iron and tin, occupy a large number of hands, though few
indeed if we consider the great riches of Yiinnan ^ ^. Trade
with Szechw'an pg j||. Canton, Hongkong, Tongking, Tibet
and Burma consists principally of the following imports: cotton
yarn and cloth, petroleum, timber, matches and furs, while the
exports are : tin, hides, tea, Chinese medicines and opium.

Wighiways of Comm,tmication. — Numerous routes radiate
from Yunnan Fu :^ '^ jjj, the Capital. Starting from the city,
the following deserve to be mentioned :

1" The road, to Kweichow ^i^, via K'iihtsing Fu ftig^.

CHAPTER II. YiJNNAN. 183

2" Ttie road to S»echw'an gg )\\, via Tungchw'an Fu %
;i| ^ and Chaot'ung Fu Rg jf ;fl=.

3" The road to Burma, via Tali Fu ;;^ Jf| ^ and Yung-
ch'ang Fu 5^ ^ ^. — A road forks off at Tali, and leads io
Tibet, via Atentze.

4" The road leading to the Imos country, viti P'ueul Fu
W \% M apd Szemap T'ing ,@, ^ j^.

5" The road to TongMng ;^ ;^, via Mengtze hsien ^ g
fl and Manhao g ^.

C" The road io Kwangai ^"^j via Kwangnan Fu ^^^J^-

The new railtvay line, which will bring Yiinnan ^ ^ into
direct and rapid communication with Tongking y^ J5r, starts
from Laokai ^ ^ (Laokiai), follows the Namti valley, and has
its 'terminus at Yiinnan Fu ^'^f^, via Mengtze hsien ^ § /^o
and Ami Chow PSJ ^ jHI-

Open Ports. — In Yiinnan, four cities are open to Foreign
trade: Mengtze hsien ^ g ||, in Linngan Fu ^ ^ fl^^, Uo
U'mv m P, in K'aihwa Fu P| -fjj /jj, Ssemao T'ing ,@, ^ ||, in
P'ueul Fu ^ jj| ^, and Tengyueh iHng M M M o^ Momein
in Yungch'ang Fu jj< g /^. The treaties provide also for the
opening of Yungch'ang Fu ^ ^ }^-

Note. — Yiinnan * j^' has long been tributary to the Chi-
nese Empire, but was finally incorporated to it only in the
XVII''' century. The Musulman rebellion, which lasted 16
years, was well nigh wresting it from its allegiance. This
revolt ended in 1872 by the taking of Tali Fu -)<iM M^ the
last stronghold held by the Musulmans.

IS'i SECTION III: THE SOUTHERN REGION.

, 2" Kweichow'M ^

Area. — 67,182 square miles. _,

Population. — 7,650,000. inhabitants, or 114 per square
mile. , . . ,

Name. — Kweichow ^ j^ means "Precious tract or
Segion." The Province deserves this name on account of its
mineral wealth. History states that the conqueror Hungwu
gt ^, who organized the country under the Ming Bfl Dynasty,
gave it this name through vexation, exasperated as he was by
the obstinacy of its inhabitants.

Boundaries. — Kweichow is bounded on the
N. — By Szechw'an 0 )\\,
W. — By Yunnan ^ f^,
S. — By Kwangsi ^ H'
E. — By Hunan ^ ^.

Capital. — KWEITANG FV ^^ }^, in the centre of
the Province.

Ottaer Prefectures. — Jlieae are eleven in number.

To the N. of ^Kweiyang Fu, a little towards the E. :

1° Tsnni Pu ® « ^.
To the^'N. W. of JSweiyang Fu:

2° Tating Fu :^ S ^.
To the S, W. of Kweiyan^ Fu :

3° Nganslmii Pu S M Jf,

4° Hsingi Pu S ^ ;(f .

To the 8. K of Ktveiyang Fu :

5" Tuyun Fu tP^ M,
6° Lip'ing Pu m^f-M.

To the N. E. of Kweiyang Fu :

7" ChSnyuen 'PuM^Kf,

8° Szechow Pu ,f. M J(f,

9o Shihtsien Pu ;S Ff M,
10° T'ungjfin Pu ^ -fc fflP.
11° Szenan Pu ,f . m ».

CHAPTEH II.. KWBICHOW. 185

;^ There are besides in Kweichow mie independent Chow
^i^i^invUeh Chow iji ^ ^Hl ; and three indei)endent THngs
H : Sungt'ao T'ing fe /|^ Jjg T'unffan T'ing ^ ^ j|| and jrhi-
hwoA Ving t ® 18

Aspect and CUaracterlstics. — This Province has the
appearance of a mountainous sea, as already stated above (p. 174).
Seven-tenths of it are mountainous, says the Chinese proverb. These
mountains, though rising from a table-land, are however less
elevated than those of YiXnnan ^ ^, and the climate is moister
and more unhealthy. On account of this marked mountainous
structure, Kweichow ^ j^ is probably with Kansu -^ J||-, the
Province in which the means of communications are the most
difficult. Kweichow ^ ji[ is inhabitated for the greater part, per-
haps its three-fourths, by an alien population. The same variety
of races however is not found there as in Yiinnan ^ ^. Its min-
erals would afford it an abundant source of wealth, were they
properly worked, but they are too much neglected. Its soil
produces scarcely anything except opium and timber. As this
Province is one of the most picturesque in China, it is on the
other hand, one of the most wretched, owing to its unproductive
soil.

Geological constitution. — Kweichow is a vast table-land of primary {orma-
tion covered over with layers of the secondary period, more or less folded and disclosing
occasionally to view the primary strata. Limestone is the predominant rock. Here
and there, it underlies alluvial basins of recent formation, or is veined by seams of
porphyry and granite. Schist and red sandstone are also frequently encountered.

Orography. — Kweichow "j^ 'J\\ is a large table-land
covered with mountain masses and peaks, which assume the
characteristic shape of sugar-loaves. The South- Western part
is the highest, even the valleys lie at an elevation of from 5,000
to 6,500 feet, while the summits rise to 8,000 or 9,000 feet.
This table-land has a great number of basin-shaped depressions,
and is intersected by rivers, which run in narrow and deep chan-
nels. Towards the S., the table-land descends abruptly, and it
is through a series of steps that a passage is effected from one
valley to another. The table-land itself, or rather the moun-
tainous group, has a mean altitude of about 4,200 feet {see p. 176).

186 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Climate. — Moisture and dense fogs prevail throughout the whole Pi'dvince of
Kweiohow, but particularly in the deep valleys of the S. Here, out of,5 Winter months
(from October to Febniary), scarcely more than 25 days of fine weather can be found.
The climate is also very changeable. This is due to the peculiar configuration of the
Province, and to the fact of its being wedged in between Yiinnan and'Kwangtung. In
Summer, the thermometer rarely reaches 86° Fahr. upon the table-land, while in
Winter, it falls to 18° or 14° Fahrenheit.

Bydrograpliy. — The waters of Kweichow -^ jlt| flow
partly into the Yangtze J§ ^ f£, partly into the Si-lciang ® ^,
which shirts the Province to the S., and bears the name oi Huny-
shui ^I ^ or Red river-

The .following rivers discharge their waters into the Yatig-
fse^ ^ tL river.

On the 2f. : the Wu-Jciatiff ,^ f£, the principal river of
Kweichow ^ ffl, which traverses the Province in a S.W. — N.E,
direction, then bends to the N., at S^enan Fu ,@, '^J^. The Wu-
kiang ,^ ^ flows through deep and narrow gorges at a depth of
2,300 feet, and. becopies navigable from Szenan Fu ,@. "^ )^
in the .flood-season. It flows into the Yangtze, near Feu Chow
I^Jfl, in Szechw'an 0 j||.

. On tlis lf.JB.: the Hohrkiang {^ f£. It js navigable up to
Tap'ingtu ^ 2p ^, not far from Jenhwai T'ing -t: 'K M- This
river forms in the upper part of its course the boundary limit
between Szechw'an 0 )\\ and Kweichow ^ j'\\.

On the XI. : the Tuen-Iciang fjt (t . This is the great water-
way through the Eastern part of the Province. The river is
navigable for small junks up to Chenyuen Fu ^ ^ ^j^:. Ligh-
ter craft may however, go further up whep the water rises, but
rapids are numerous. It empties itself into the Tungt'ing ^ ^
lake, in Hunan }^ ^. ...

The afflMcnta of the Si-kiang 'g JC are :

On the S. W.i the Hiva-kianff ffc f£, which with its
tributaries, carves through the table-land, narrow and deep chan-
nels. It is navigable from Pehtseng Q ^ for small boats.

On the S. E. : the JAu-kiang ^ fx., navigable from
Sankioh H M^ where it attains 330 feet in breadth. Soon
afterwards, it is contracted, and flows between narrow and

CHAPTER n. KWEICHOW. 187

steep banks. It joins the Si-kiang H ^ towards the centre of
Kwangsi ^ ]f .

The Si-hUmg ^ ^, scarcely navigable in this part of its
course, flows between high hills of sandstone, and is obstructed
with rapids and rocks.

Fauna and Flora. —The fauna of Kweiohow bears a close vesemblatioe to that
of Kwangsi ^ ® (see K-n'augsi ; fauna and flora), and varies much with the altitude.
In the low and deep-lying valleys, it is tropical, as evidenced by the palm, orange and
banana-trees which grow there. It is also much varied throughout the rest of the
country, rice and sugar-cane being cultivated in places. The varnish-tree (rhus
vemioifera) grows especially in Kweiohow, as well as the tallow (stiUingia sebifera),
gum-lac, wood-oil (aleurites cordata), vegetable wax (fraxinus chinensis) and camphor-
trees. The oak and fir are the species the most widely diffused. Among the wild
animals, suffice it to mention the tiger, panther, bear, wild-boar, wolf, fox and monkey.

Agricultural Wealth. — In regard to agricultural wealth,
this Province produces principally the opium-poppy, varnish,
oil, wild silk and timber. The North-Eastern part is relatively
well wooded, as also the South-Eastern portion. In this same
South-Eastern region, excellent tobacco is grown in the neigh-
bourhood of Lipo hsien M ^ M--

The other agricultural products are : wheat, maize, beans,
hemp, buckwheat, rape, barley, indigo, tea, cotton and gall-
nuts. A special breed of ponies is also reared.

As to fruit trees, Kweichow ^^ ^ possesses the peach,
apricot, plum, cherry, orange and arbutus. Strawberries are
raised in a few parts of the Province.

Mineral Wealth. — Besides quicksilver, (which is found
principally at Pehmatung g M M^ ^° ^^^ N. of Kweiyang Fu
:ft ^ ^, in the N. E. near Wuchw'an hsien ^jl||i,,and in the
S.W. near Hsingi Fu J^ ^ jj^) ; iron, coal, copper, zinc and
argentiferous lead abound throtighout the Province, Sulphur
and nitre are very common, and fine marble quarries are also
worked. As there is no salt in the Province, it is imported by
the Northern rivers from Szechw'an pg )\\.

Kweichow ^ ^ has also mineral waters, and those of
Shihts'ien Pu 5 jS^ )^ are visited by thousands of bathers.

1S8 SECTIOlJ IlIJ;- THE SdllTftBHW'SEGION.

i Populatioili i-i— The N:E. and N.W. of Kweichow are thinly p'dpulatedibtiit
the rest of the country is even more so, especially the B. and centre. The population
is composed of very heterogeneous elements. The Chinese form but a fourth of this
population, and occupy especially the N. and E. and also the towns throughout the
rest of :the Province. They are active and engaged in trading. Among them-iS a large
number of immigrants from Szechw'an and Hupeh.

The rest of the country is inhabited by the aboriginal Miaotue S J" tribes, the
Ikias ^ ^ (barbarian race) or Chungkias t}i ^ (old Chinese race) and the Lotos
UK Ijf. The IHas are principally confined to the low-lying valleys jof tlie. S.W. ; the
Miaotxe occupy the W., the centre, and S.E.; and the Lolos the S.W. (see section V.
ch. II. Population).

The Miaotee, having taken advantage of the Mahomedan rebellion in Yiinnan;
rose up against the Chinese, {jut were massacred in large numbers by the Imperial
troops, and this considerably diminished the population of the country. They are even
at present largely kept under military rule, especially in the S.E. The insurrection
which they started, lasted from 1860-1869. — The Miaotze are divided into a great
many tribes, numbering it is said, more than 50. They are often called from the
colour of their dress : Peh-miao ^ ffi (white Miaos), Hehr-miao SR Si (black Miaos),
and Swa^miao ^ {$ (flowery or civilized Miaos).

The Chungkias are the descendants of former soldiers, who settled down in the
country in the X"" century A.D., when Kweichow was subdued by China, They are
nearly all of high statiire and form a sturdy race. Their completion is'darfcer than thai
of the Miaotze. Various names have been given to them : Ts'ing Ghungkia n 'P^
(blue-gowns), T'ujen i.)\ (sons of the soil), or what they like better iap Fe,nkia
^ ?!> 3t ttlie old stock). They style themselves Pudiqi or Pudiei. Like the Miaojize,
they wear the queue and Chinese jacket, but discard the long gown. The females wear
a dress different from that of the Chinese women. '

The Chinese themselves are divided into old and modem Chinese. ..The old
Chinese are sub-divided into many tribes whose customs are similar with one another.
The modern Chinese are of recent immigration and came from -Kwangsi, Hukwang
(tft-day.JSupeh and Hunan) and especially from Szechw'an.

The Miaotze and Chungkiatze are, generally speaking, suspicious of strangers^
addicted to lying and drunkhess, but are good workmen. They live also at variance
with one another, but there is still more antipathy between the Chinese and the Miao-
tze. Those latter have a special administrative organization. ,.

Iianguage. — Each of the non-Chinese races speaks its own dialect, which
varies much according to the tribe. The Chinese "speak Mandarin. The Chungkidtee
speak a dialect resembling that of Siam (Shans)i but it is not fixed by any written
characters.

Towns and Principal Centres. — KWEIYANG JSV -j^

^ jff. — Population, 100,00.0 inhabitants. All the roadS; af ithg
Province (Converge towards thistown, which is situated at an
altitude of 3,300 feet, and.is built in the largest .plain of Kwm
chow "fi;-ffl- This plain is about 40 miles in length, and, 4 Jn
breadth. The city derives its importance chiefly from theiipre*

CHAPTER n. KWEICOHW.. 189

senoe of the High Provincial Officials. Its commerce is- of 'little
value. .

,j. To the K. of the Capital :

- Imtni Fu M ^ )ff— Population, 45,000 inhabitants. A
pretty busy town on account of its trade in wild silk, its manu-
facture of cloth, and its paper, industry.

To the N. W. of the Ckipttal :

Fiht»ieh ftaien H fj f^.— Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
Principal centre of the Western region, but, the surroundings
alone are populated. Cloth is manufactured there.

To the S. W. of the Capital :

Naanshun Fu $ jl^^- — Population, 50,000 inhabitants.
It lies in a beautiful plain and is the secqnd important city of
Kweichow.

Haingi 2i%« ^ ^ ^. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants.
Before the. Mahomedan rebellion, the town, was said to contain
over 70,000 souls. It is now rising from its ruins, and enjoys
a certain prosperity, owing to the poppy, which is extensively
cultivated in the neighbourhood. The city stands at an altitude
of 4,250 feet. . ,

To the 8.E.:
^ ^ KucJiow T'lHff -^ j^ J^,. — A very small town, but head-
quarters of a military circle, A Taot'ai resides there and
controls all relations with the native population.

Sankioh ^ 0. — A pretty little town, at the termintts of
navigation on the, Liu-kiang j^ f£. It is an emporium of
Chinese goods for the Miaotze "gf ^ tribes. Timber is floated
from this place down to the Si-kiang |f f£.

Jn the R :-

Ch&nyueri Fi* ^ ^ J^.-^A. city which draws its impor-
tance from being the principal «erw*i»M» of navigation oh the
Yuen f^ river, the centre of a well populated region, and a
large market place for the distribution of goods.^ Two-fifths of
the exterior commerce of Kweichow ;§ ^ are = carried '; on
thTOugh this place. .--■■■ i

190 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Industry and Commerce. — Besides the extraction of
quicksilver and coal, and the worhing of forests, we may

mention as industries of the Province, the manufacture of cloth,
which employs a large number of hands at Pihtsieh hsien §
1^ ,^, in Tating Vvi :k % M'' silk-weaving in the N.E., and a
few paper mills.

The principal eacports are : opitmt, and varnish, raw silk,
pongees, timber, beans, indigo and camphor. The chief imports
are : piece-goods from Hupeh ^ J^, cotton -ysLvn, woollen goods,
salt, kerosene and matches.

Higliways of Communication. — Communications are
difflcult in this mountainous country. Navigable waterways are
not wanting, and we have mentioned them, only they do not
penetrate far into the interior, but rather serve especially for
communications with other Provinces. The country being too
broken up, is ill-suited for carts, though these are used on
the high table-lands of Yiinnan ^ '^. In Kweichow -^ ^
however, all transport has to be done by carriers or pack-
animals. The prindpeU roaOs, starting from, the Capital, are
the following :

1° The rood to Ch'ungTtfing Fu g ^ j^ in Szechw'an
m jll, via Tsuni Fu ^ ^ ;^.

2° The road to Pihtsieh hsien § fj )|^, in the Prefecture
of Tating Pu :k '^ f^, which continues Northward Unvards
Ssechw'an pg JIj ; and Westward towards lAnver Tiintian ^ ■j^.

3° The road to Upper Tunnan, via Nganshun Fu ^ JIJUj^,
and which branches into several routes: one, the Imperial
route, passing through Langt'ai T'ing IP tS jg ; another,
passing through Hsingi Pu ffl ^ ^.

4" The road to Ktvangsi ^ Wi ^'^ Tuyiin Fu ^ ■^ j^
and Sankioh ^ J^.

5" The road to Hunan J^ ^, via Chenyuen Fu ^1 ^ j|^
and Szechow Fu ,g, jHI }^. The road to Kwangsi ^ |f is
connected with this latter at Kweiting hsien * ^ ffls, in the
Prefecture of Kweiyang Fu ;^ |^ ;^.

CHAPTER II. KWEICHOW.

191

Note. — The Province of Kweichow -^ j^ has only been
incorporated with the Chinese Empire for two centuries. The
whole portion to the S. of the Wu-kiang ]^ fx^ (Crow river),
once formed a large kingdom, occupied by the Ikia ^ ^ tribe
in the W., and the Miaolze "gi -^ in the E. China having seized
it, added to it a detached strip of Szechw'an ^g )\\ (the actual
portion of Kweichow lying to the N. of the Wu-kiang), forming
thereby a new Province, with Kweiyang Fu ;^ ^ |^ as
Capital. The S. Eastern portion still remained independent
until the late war (1860-1869), at the close of which, it too
was obliged to submit. Its petty princes continue to govern it
under the supervision of Chinese officials.

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192

SECTION HI. THE SOUTHERN REfilON.

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Carey F. W. — A trip to the Chinese
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Ch. IV. p. 73 93, and Part II. p. 52-54.

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Yiinnan to Hongkong).
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PBOVINGE OF KWEICHOW.

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Eevue Fran^aise d'Exploration. 1809 (des-
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CHAPTER II. KWEICHOW.

193

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tcheou; Shanghai, 1900.
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g4res.l904. (La Province duKouy-tcheou

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Cavalerie. — Chez les Chong-kia. (Anna-
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Mai-Juin, 1889).

Iiesserteur. — Les Y-jen. (Missions

Catholieiues, 1877).
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I. p. 146-148).
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165).
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Hosie A. — Journey through Kweiohow
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Bourne F. S. — Journey in Western
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Kweiohow. — Native made Cotton-cloths
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Clark G. W. — Kweiohow and Yunnan
Provinces. Shanghai, 1894.

Topography of Kweiohow. — Chinese Re-
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The Miaotze of Kweiohow and Yunnan.
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Clark S. R. — - The Miao and Chungohia

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Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics of
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Chinese Frontier. Ch. y. p. 95-102).

13

CHAPTER III.

THE REGION OF THE MIDDLE AND
LOWER SI-KIANG

(KWANGSI ^ M AND KWANGTUNG ^ ^).

Kwawgsi and Xwangtunff Provinces are governed by one
and the same Viceroy, whose residence is at Kwangchow Fu ^
im M °^ Canton. They form the Viceroyalty of lAang-lewang
"^ Jl^ or two Kwanffs.

Both Provinces are irrigated by the Si-kiang UJ^C, and offer
■partially the characteristics of the tropical regions. They are in-
habited for the greater part by different races hostile to one another.

The Provinces differ widely however one from the other.
Ktvangsi ^^ 'g is a mountainous and quite inland region, while
Kwangtung ^ ^ has its vast plain, and an extensive seaboard
indented, with numerous bays. Kwangai ^ If is wild, barren,
and almost a desert, while Kwangtung ^ y^ is well cultivated,
rich and populous. Trade is scarcely possible in Kwangsi ^ U;
Kwangtung ^ '^, on the contrary, is one of the most commercial
and enterprising Provinces of China,

CHAPTER III. KWANGSI. 195

1" . Kwangsi M H

Area. — 77,220 square miles.

Popniatlon. — 5,142,000 inhabitants, or 66 per square
mile. It is the least populous Province of the Empire.

?raine. — Kwangsi ^ If means "West of the Kwang", a
denomination which refers to Kwangnan ^ -^, the old Annam
Kingdom. Others would have it mean the "Broad, West?'.

Bonndarles. — Kwangsi is bounded on the

N. — By Hunan 1^ '^ and Kweichow ^ jjtl,
W. — By Yiinnan ^ ^ and Tongking ^ -ff,,
S. — By Tongking -^ ;^ and Kwangtung ^ %,
E. — By Kwangtung J^ '^.

Capital. — KWIEITjIN FU ^ i^ }^, situated to the N.E.,
on the Kwei-kiang jg fL-

Otiier Prefectwres. — These are 10 in wuntber.

On the Ktvei-Jdanff ^ f£ :
V P'ingloli Fn 2p ^ «=,
2° Wuchow Fu S ffl if .

To the y. of the Sl-kianff, proceeOing Westwards :

3° Liuchow Pu CT iHI !^,
4° K'ingyuen Fa g ^ Jff.

To the 8. of the 8i-Jelang, ascending the basin of the Yuh-

teianff ^ f£, from B. to W. :

5° Siinchow Fu W iHI M,
6° Nanning Fu ^ W fl?",
7" Szengto Fu g S W-,
8" T'aip'ing "E^-k^M,
9° Chenngan Fu H 3c ^,
10° Szech'gug Fu P M ^.

There are besides in Kwangsi J^ U two tndep^ident

Chows >}^ : Kweishnn Chow |§ Jl|| j^, Tuhlin Chow ^ ^ >)•]] ;

and two independent T'im.gs j^; Tehseh J'ing "g" ■£, ^, and

Sftangsze T'ing _t, ,@, ]^..

196 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REfllON.

Aspect and Characteristics.— Kivangfsi is a mountainous^
and desolate region, but well irrigated, and with prospects -qf
becoming wealthy were brigandage effectually repressed. Activity,
as well as the priricipal centres of population., are , confined to the ,
E. and S. E., where waterways abound, and security for life is
better assured.

Geological constitution. — Kwangsi is the continuation of the KweichOw
table-land, but its altitude is much lower. It is of limestone and sandstone fbrmatibn,
and has also schist veined with porphyry and grahulite. Towards the centre, to the
N. of Nanning Fu, is a rather vast granitic mass. In the W., clay-stone abounds.

Orography. — The country is wholly mountainous, but
chiefly to the W. and N. In the S.E., a ridge blocks the Si-
kiang If 2Ci which finally culs through it, and penetrates into
Kwangtung ^ j^. In the S., short and successive ranges of
hills called "the hundred thousand hills", because of their great
number, leave space between them for only narrow valleys. On
thfe N-W. arid N.E., is a succession of hills, crowned vvith those
peaks and knolls which we have already mentioned when des-
cribing Kweichow -^ )\\-

All these mountains run for the greater part from S.W. to
N.E., and rise to an elevation of from 1,600 to 2,600 feet above
the level of the rivers. The table-land itself attains an average
elevation of 1,000 feet.

Climate. — The climate of Kwangsi is tropical in the S., where the heat is
excessive from May to September. This heat is moist and occasions much sickness.
The climate is more temperate in the N., but there are sudden changes of temperature
and the cold is rather severe in Wihter. Even in the S., upon the peaks that form the
boundary line between Tongking and this Province, snow and ice are occasionally foutid,'
but are of short duration. In the Southern valleys, the thermometer never falls below
31° Pahr., and rises in Summer to 100°, and sometimes to 10i° Fahrenheit.

Bydrography. — One large river, the Si-kiang U ^,

traverses the Province from N.W. to S.E., and receives on the
kft two important tributaries, find on the right, a still more
important one («ee Oh. 1. p. 170).

The l^-kianff, under the name of Hunfffshwi ^ tJ^,, marks
the limit, between Kwangsi ^JS and Kweichow ;g; ;H^, down to
Fuhk'ai ^ P§. It flows in this region through deep sandstone

CHAPTER III. KWANGSI. 197

valleys, and being obstructed with rocks and rapids, it is little
available for navigation. Henceforward, widening from 240 to
320 feet, it abandons its direction W.E., and follows a S.E.
course. It is not navigable till a little above Ts'ieiikiang hsien
^ l&Q M:- ^* becomes a large and fine river after receiving
the waters of the Yuh-kiang ^ ^, which come in from the S.
Numerous boats then ply on its waters, and it is navigable for
steamers.

The two tributaries on tJie left aide are :

The LiM-kiang ^ m, which comes from Kweichow ^ ^,
where it is navigable for small boats from Sahkioh ^ f^. It is
navigable for large junks from Ch'angngan-sze ^^^, a little
to the S. of Hwaiyuen hsien '|g j^ J|ji. The Liu-kiang flows
through rather fertile plains, but its usefulness is diminished on
account of its rapids. It is especially availed of for the transport
of tiniber, floated down from Hunan fjjB ^ and Kweichow.;^ jtj.

The Ktvei-kianff ^ j^I- This river comes from the N,,
and is connected by a canal with the Siang-kiang jfg fL, which
rises in Hunan jjjg J^. It is navigable despite its many rapids.
It joins the Si-kiang U gC ** Wucliow Fu ^ ^ ;jj, and attain?
there a width of 330 yards.

The tributary on the right is :

The Yuh-kiang ^ ^, which issues from Yiinnan g ^,
close by Kwangnan Fu^ ^ ^. It is navigable for small
boats from Pakngai or Pohai pj |^, and for large junks
from Pehseh T'ing "g" '^ J^, whence it flows with a conside-
rable descent through very low-lying plains, where however it
is easily navigated. After receiving the Tso-kiang ^ jj, its
bed winds successively through long, narrow gorges, arid vast
plains. In low-water season, a rapid obstructs steam-navigation,
below Kwei hsien ^ %. Two landing places, one above the
rapid, the other below it, render navigation possible during the
whole year, up to Nanning Fu rf ^ JjJ, and even lip to Pehseh
T'ing "0 -g. J^, in the flood-season. The Yiih-kiang ^ f£ re-
ceives on its right, above Nanning Fu ^ $^ ;^, the Tso-kianff

198 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN RE&ION.

^ ^, formed by the confluence of two rivers, which come from
Tongking ^ ^, and unite at Lungchow T'ing f| ;H1 J^, in the Pre-
fecture of T'aip'ingFu p{j2p^. Both are navigable down into Tong-
king, large junks ascending as far as Lungchow T'ing f|^J^,.
Another but less important tributary, the Yung-hiar^f ^ ^,
which joins the Si-kiang 'g ^ above Wuchow Fu ^ jlfl }^,
establishes easy communication with Pakhoi :[t % (Peh-hai).
Goods coming by the Lien-kiang ^ ^, as far as Fomien (fg ^
^ Fohweik'u, to the S.W. of Yuhlin Ohow % ^ ;H-1), are trans-
ported thence upon the backs of carriers to the Yung-kiang ^^,
which is navigable from Pehliu hsien :|fc Jjt H^ and beyond.

Fauna and Flora . — On account of the devastation prevailing in Kwangsi, a
great number of wild animals are found there : the tiger, rhinoceros, panther, tapii-,
wolf, bear and fox. Deer are also encountered, as well as stags, monkeys, scaly ant-
eaters, and a large variety of serpents (the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, green serpent,
adder and aspic). Besides the birds common to the rest of China, there are some that
bear a close resemblance to those of Hindustan.

The flora is luxuriant and largely tropical. Suffice it to mention the sugar-cane,
cinnamon and aniseed-trees, this latter growing profusedly in certain parts. Ground-
nuts are also found, as well as the papaw-tree, the shaddock, the palm-tree, the pine-
apple and orange, the lichee or persimmon, the mango-tree, arbutus, pomegranite, guava
and betel-nut... The maple, ebony, teak-wood and mahogany-trees furnish excellent
timber.

Agricultural Wealth. — Besides fruit-trees and timber,
Kwangsi produces the sugar-cane, rice, cotton, and almost
everywhere maize. The poppy and the mulberry are scarce.
Potatoes are grown nowadays especially in the N. W. The
fruit-trees of the N. : peach, plum, pear and walnut, are also
easily grown. There are scarcely any forests, except in the
N., but a great number of trees are found in the W. There also,
buffaloes and ponies are extensively reared.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Kwangsi is
little worked, though it is considerable, and consists chiefly of
gold, silver, coal and antimony.

Population.— The population of Kwangsi, as we have seen, ia very scanty, and
is centred especially in the neighbourhood of the principal towns, where it finds greater
protection against brigands and evil-doers. It is composed of 3 principal races :
the aborigines or Ikias ^ ^ (barbarians), the Cantonese, and the Hahhas ^ ^
or K'ohkias (alien or guest families, squatters).

CHARTER m. KWANftSI. 199

The Ikias alone form '■'I3 of the population, but their name varies much with the
region which they occupy. Their dress, customs, manners, and the dialects they speak,
closely resemble those of the Siamese (Shans).

The Sakkas are a cross betwen Chinese soldiers and Ikia women, and have
adopted most of the Chinese customs. They mingle with the natives, and being bold
and enterprising, succeed often in supplanting them.

The Cantonese are the least numerous, and occupy principally the S. and S. E.
They are nearly all traders.

Lnngaage. — Besides the Cantonese language, which differs very much from
Mandarin, each of the Ikia tribes speaks its own peculiar dialect.

Cities and Principal Centres. — KWEILIN FU ^ :^

f^ (Cassia grove). — Population, 80,000 inhabitants. The town
is situated at an altitude of 650 feet, and stands in the midst of
an anniphilheatre crowned with madreporite peaks, which give
to the scenery a most peculiar aspect. The Southern quarters,
which are the finest of the town, possess numerous fur and silk-
stores, and clocks are manufactured. Almost all commercial
relations are carried on with Canton, by the Kwei-kiang ^^ fx.-

On the Si-kiang 'g f^ :

Wuchow Fu ^# ^ ^- — Population, 65,000 inhabitants.
The most important city in Kwangsi ^ 'g, and the centre
of all trade in this Province, owing to its excellent position.
Steamers reach it from Canton in two and a half days.

On the Yuh-Icianff ^ f£ :

Nanning lu -^ "^ ^. — Population, 25,000 inhabitants.
A town noteworthy because of its trade, and its position as a
transit centre. Numerous junks proceeding Westward, or des-
cending the river, pass through the place. Western Kwangsi ^
■g being inadequate for its own supply, is compelled to import
rice and other commodities from Canton, and from the country
round Kweilin Fu /g f|c |3^.

Oi% the Tso-hUing ^ J^ :

lAinffchow T'ing f| ^ J^. — Population, 12,000 inhabitants.
This city owes its importance to its custom-house and its trade
with Tongking % ^.

On the lAti-Jciang ^^ ^x ■

lAuchow Fu ;^ iH ^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants.

200 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

It is situated within a bend of the river. Numerous junks «ome
up to the place, and a small trade is carried on, chiefly in
wood, brought from Kweichow ;§; jHl-

Pehseh OPing "g" -fi ^. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
A commercial centre trading with Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kwei-
chow -^ jHI, whence it imports opium in large quantities, and
with which it exchanges cotton piece-goods, woollens, kerosene
oil and matches.

Industry and Commerce. — The country is too agitated
to favour the development of industrial pursuits. Formerly the
silk industry was important, but it exists no longer, and the
manufacture of sugar has supplanted it. Star-aniseed oil is
also found ; groundnut oil and indigo are likewise sources of
industry for the country.

Trade is chiefly carried on with Canton, Pakhoi, Tongking
^ ]5C, Yiinnan § ^ and Kweichow ^ j^. The imports are :
cotton and woollen cloths, cotton-yarn, kerosene oil, opium
and clocks. The easporta are: sugar, star-aniseed oil, false
gambir, timber, cinnamon and indigo. Traffic with the
neighbouring regions is extensive.

Higliways of Commnnication. — The principal means
of communication are the navigable routes, which comprise a
vast network of waterways, and establish easy communications :
with Canton by the Si-kiang B| fx.\ with Hunan }|K ^ by the
Kwei-kiang ^ ^; with Kweichow :fc ^ by the Liu-kiang ig^
^_ ; with Yiinnan ^ ^ by the Yuh-kiang ^ f£ ; with Tongking
jg ^ by the Tso-kiang ^ ^ ; with Pakhoi 4fc % (Peh-hai) by
the Yung-kiang g fL and the Lien-kiang ^ ^.

The land routes are badly kept up, and are nothing more
than unbeaten tracks. Carts travel on their more level
parts.

Open Ports. — Kwangsi has three ports open to Foreign
trade: lAingchow Vin^^ jHI J^, in T'aip'ing Fu ic^flj, Wur
chmv Fuj^^]^ and Nanning F-u -^ ^ }^.

CHAPTER III. KWANOSI. 201

Note. — Kwangsi ^ "g and Kwangtung ^ ^^ formerly
made but one Province. Kwangsi was separated from the latter
by the Emperor Hungwu ^ ^ (1368-1399), of the Ming U^
dynasty, and its administration entrusted to a Provincial
Treasurer.

The present system of governing the Province offers this
peculiarity, that some of its district towns or sub-prefectures
are still administered by hereditary chieftains. These officials
are the descendants of soldiers who received this charge in
return for former services.

202 SECTION III. THE SO0THERN REfllON.

2" . Kwangtuncj M ^

Area. — 100,000 square miles.

Population. — 31,865,200, or 318 per square mile. This
region is the most populous of the whole Si-kiang U Jt basin.

]Vaine. — Kwangtung ^ ^ signifies "East of tJie KwmW,

Kwangnan ^ '^ being the old Empire of Annam ^ f^. Others
render it by the "Broad East".

Boundaries. — Kwangtung is bounded on the

N. — By Fokien^^, Kiangsi ^IJand UvtBan^ ]f ,
W. — By Kwangsi ^ ^ and Tongking Jjj j^,
S. — By the Gulf of Tongking and the South-China

Sea gf ^,
E. — By the South-China Sea.

Capital. — JRWAKGCHOW FV ^ jHI iff or Canton, si-
tuated to the N. of the Si-kiang |f f£ delta, and on the Ohu-
kiang 3^ j!! or Pearl River.

Otiier Prefectures. — These are 8 in number.

To the N. of tlie 8i-hiang, proceeding from W. to E. :
1° Chaok'ing Pu ^ K iff, on the Si-kiang jf ft,
2° Shaochow Pu Sg ffl M, on the Peh.kiang ^ jz, lo the N.,
3° Hweichow Pu ^ jHI ^, o« the Tung-kiang % ft, in its lower

part,
4° Ch'aockow Pa 'M ffl ^, on the Han-kiang ^. ft, not far from
the sea.

To tlie S. of the Si-Mang, proceeding likewise from W.
to E. :

5° Lienchow Pu H ffl Jff, on the gulf of Tongking ^ _g,

6° Leichow Pu ffl ffl ;(J, in the peninsula of the same name,

7° Kaochow Pu 1^ ffl ff , a little to the N. of the Leichow

peninsula,
8° K'iungchow Pu j| #1 if, "' the N. of the island of Hainan

There arc besides in Kwangtung ^ ^ 5 independettt
Chow ^ cities: lAen Chow ^ ^\, Nanhsiung Chow "^ ^ jVi,

CHAPTER III. KWA.NGTUNG. 203

Kiaying CJiow ^ ^ i/fl, K'in Chow ^ ;)fl, Loting Chow ^ ^
^■I-j ,• and 3 independent T'ings ^, : Lienshan X*ing jg [Ij |||,
Tangkiang T'ing |^ ;^ 0, and CTi'ihkH T'ing ^J; |^ J^.

Aspect and Characteristics. — Kwangtung is for the
most part a mountainous region, except in the delta tract; it is
however well watered, and provided with means of communications,
by its canals, rivers and coast. Along the latter, we find nume-
rous islands, of which the largest is Hainan -^ '^, and the most
commercial, Hongkong ^ ^^. As in Kwangsi ^ ^, several
races are intermingled in Kwangtung ^ ^. Enterprising, com-
mercial and industrious, brought into contact for long years with
foreign traders, the Cantonese have exerted great influence over
the neighbouring countries, and even as far as America. Although
situated partly in the tropical zone, the Province, owing to the
monsoon, enjoys in Winter a dry and almost cold climate. These
conditions preserve the inhabitants from that excessive exhaustion
resulting from moist and prolonged heat, and at the same time,
favour the growth of many tropical products, which constitute its
chief wealth. If the Province enjoys no longer, as in former times,
the monopoly of trade with foreigners, nor the privilege of con-
veying ambassadors to Peking ^ ^ (see p. 145), it remains
however the great distributing centre of the Si-kiang ^ fx.
valley, and exchanges its wares with remote regions, and chiefly
with Szechw'an 0 Jlj.

Geological constitution. — More than half of Kwangtung, the W. and N.W.
especially, is of the same formation as Kwangsi, and is composed of sandstone and
limestone interspersed with porphyry and granite. As the coast is approached, granite
predominates. The delta is of alluvial formation, and is broken by hills of red sand-
stone overlying a granite basis. The Leiohow peninsula is of red clay-grit formation,
while the island of FFainan is granitic and schistous.

Orograpliy. — Almost wholly mountainous, this Pro-
vince has however a large plain, extending over the delta of the
Si-kiang 'g' fx.i ^"d the lower part of the Peh-kiang ;J[^ fx^. All
its mountains run in the general direction S.W. — N.E., and are
continued in the sea along the coast, where they attain in some
islands an elevation of 3,000 feet. On the continent, they rise
to a height of 5,000 feet, and even in the N., to 6,500 feet. The

204 SECTION HI. THE SOUTHERN HBOION.

principal peak of Hainan ■^^j attains an altitude of 4i900.
feet. It is part of the large mountain mass, which streteKes
out into ridges and forms a large portion of the island.

Climate. — The climate of Kwangfnng is very changeable and depetids on the
dry N, E. wind, or the moisture-laden one which blows from the S. W. Prom Ogtoljta:
to April, the former prevails, and in the neighbourhood of Canton, seldom causes the
teriiperature to fall below 32° Fahrenheit, but the high ridges do not fare so well, and
areat times covered with snow. The rainy monsoon, which occurs in Summer, occasions
often dangerous epidemics. Macao is famed for its excellent climate, due to its site,
whereby the town is protected from the cold, and from the moist heat of the delta. It
does not escape however the plague and the cholera. Hongkong, less well situated,
is subject to fogs. Both Macao and Hongkong are often visited by typhoons which
cause such terrible ravages oi^ the coast. . ,

Hydrography. — The Si-kiang 'g f£^ , with its two large
affluents on the left : the Feh-kUinff Jjf^ ^ and the Tung-kiang
"M. ^,- drains the greater part of the Province.- The Han-kiang

?$iL and its affluents water the N.W. The S.W., less favoured,
has but a fe\y short rivers, which flow directly into the sea.

The Si'kiang 'g fl_. When this stream enters Kwangtung
^ ng, it is already a fine, large river. At Chaok'ing Fu fl ;^ ^,
it is oyer a niile wide. Further on, it flows through a narrow
gorge, , and is only 270 yards in width. Its course here becoiaes
very impetuous and its depth increases. This gorge, the last'
through which. the Sikiang 'g ^ flows, is three miles long;
After issuing from it,' it widens anew to a breadth of one mrl«.
It subsequently runs, now through vast and well cultivatecl:
plains, now between parallel ranges of barren mountains. In the
flood-season, it discharges its overflow into the Pehkiang ^ ^,
through a canal nearly half a mile in length. At Sanshui hsien
H ?K M^ '' divides into several branches. At this place, the
delta begins. Its Northern branch, called the Chu-kiang J^ f^
or Fearl Iliver, flows past Fatshan ff, [Ij (Fohshan) and Canton
M ^Mi ^"^^ empties its waters into the sea through the Socca
Tigris or Bogue, called also the Gate of the Tiger's Head
^ M n (Huteu-miin), between Hongkong and Maeao. The
Southern branch, less frequented, goes by the name of the Si-
kiang, and terminates S. of Macao. Between these two branchesv^
and in the environs, is a network of canals and rivers, and a

countless number of boats ply on their waters at the rise and
fall; of the tide. Depths are extremely variable, and the sand-
banks shift frequently from one position to another. A number
of embankments have been constructed to protect the lowtlying
lands from the floods caused by the rise of the waters. These
contrivances sometimes give way, and then the flood rushes on,
devasting all before it, until it is stopped by a new embankment.
The vast sheet of water is not drained off until the low-water
season sets in.

The Peh-hiung :|t '{[_, an affluent of the Si-kiang ^ ^,
rises in the South of the Meiling j^ ^ range, which separates
Kwangtung ^ -^ from Kwangsi ^ |f . It is called at first by
tbe. name of Tshig-shui \^ jj^, and becomes navigable for small
craft at Nanhsiung Chow ^ H jHI, but navigation on its
waters is rather difficult, on account of the rapids and the lack
of depth, down to Shaochow Fu fg jlfl ;^. Here it receives
on the right the Wu-shui ^ ^, which comes from the S. of
Hunan ^ ^, and is also partly navigable. It then abandons
its first direction N.E.— S.W., and takes a Southern course,
which it maintains to the end. It passes through wild and
I'icturesque gorges, of which the last is that of Ts'ingyuen
^ ^. Henceforward it flows in the plains, and reaches the
delta near Sanshui hsien ^ 7ii.M> dependent on Kwangchow Fu
M i^ M- ^* 's navigable for large boats from Shaochow Fu
IS >H1 /S'l but the Summer freshets render its current very violent
and hard to ascend ; even the down-trip is not unattended
with danger. — Its principal tributary on the right is the Iden-
ehmv-kianff ^ jHI Jli which is navigable from Lien Chow
^ ^. — The Peh-kiang, formerly very important, as the great
water route not only 16' Kiangsi fx W ^"d Hunan Jj^ |^, but
also to Nanking "^ ^ and Peking ^fj ^, is now but of secondary
iteportance.

The Tung-kianff "^ ^ rises in Kiangsi ^ "gf , and makeS
several bends Westward, the last being near Hweichow Fu Jg
m f^- Here it flows through a small delta into the large-
delta -of the Si-kiang If QC- 'Ph^ Tung-kiang ^ f£ receives

206 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

several affluents, and affords an excellent network of. navigable
streams.

The Han-kiang H ^. — As regards its navigation, this
river has neither the sanie importance nor the same interest as
the preceding ones. Its affluents however, the principal of
which is the Mei-hiang i^fX.i open communications with Fokien
fS s^i while its delta, covered with sugar-canes, possesses at
a distance of five miles from the sea an excellent harbour :
Shant'eu Jjlj 51 or Swat'ow.

In the S.W., the rivers of lAenehow Fu M M M *'***^ **-^
K'in Chow fjj ^fl, although very short, have a certain impor-
tance on account of the large boat-population that lives on their
waters. (For other details on the coast and islands, see Section IV.).

Fauna and Flora. — The faune and flora of Ewangtung are identical with
those of Kwangsi, but the wild animals are less numerous, and the country is nearly
everywhere under cultivation. The N. is pretty well wooded, especially with fir-trees.

Besides the specimens already named, suflice it to mention in regard to the fau-
na : fly-catchers, parrots, the mandarin duck and gorgeous butterflies ; and in regard
to the flora : the fig and olive-trees, thujas and magnolias.

In the island of Hainan, the fauna and flora have a closer resemblance to those
of the tropical region. In the island are found large deer and stags, monkeys and very
venimous snakes. It has also its cocoa-nut groves, arecas, nut-palms and pine-
apples.

Agricnltnral Wealtli. — The mountainous tract is rocky
and unproductive, but that of the plains, of the delta and valleys,
is excellent and well irrigated, and even produces three crops
annually. The principal products are : rice, sugar-cane, wheat,
cassia, tea, tobacco, groundnuts, ginger and oranges. The silk-
worm is also reared in the Si-kiang U ^ delta. The grasscloth
plant is cultivated principally in the N., as well as hemp and
indigo. A species of rush, growing in the recent alluvial soil, is
employed in making mats, which are in great demand.

Cattle are extensively reared in the Province, as also poultry
and bees, while the fish of the rivers and coast provide the
inhabitants with a valuable food-supply.

mineral Wealtli. — Extensive coal mines are found in
the Prefecture of Shaochow Fu gg >}\\ f^, in the district of Hwa

CHAPTER III. KWANSTUN&. 207

hsien ^ )^, in Kwangchow Fu ^ j{\ )^, and near the gulf of
Tongking ^ ^f. Iron-ore mines are worked in several places,
and salt is extracted from sea-water. The Province possesses
also in various localities important mines of silver, copper, lead
and tin.

Population. — The population is especially crowded in the Si-kiang delta and
on the coast, and offers the same diversity of races already noticed in Kwangsi. The
principal of these races are : 1° the Cantonese, called also the Punti or Penti 7^ }fi

(original or native stock) ; — 2° the Sakkas or E'ohkias ^ ^ (squatters, aliens) ; 3°

the Hohlos or Ssiolaos ^ ^ ( people from Pok, or as it is locally pronounced Hok
Province, i.e Pokien Province) ; — 4° the Ikias 55 ^ (barbarians) ; — 5° the Yao or Tii
tribe ^ (jackals) ; — 6° the Tunt/kas or Tungkias M ^ (cave-dwellers). — The Canto-
nese form more than half of the population, and occupy especially the centre of the
Province and the delta. They are active, industrious, and consider themselves the
rightful owners of the soil. — The Hakkas descend from the same stock as those of
Kwangsi. They came very likely from Pokien, and inhabit chiefly the N.E., but are
also found throughout the whole Province intermingled with the Cantonese. They are
excellent cujtivators, and being of strong build are also employed as coolies or carriers.
They furnish the largest number of Pokien emigrants. — The Hoklos, who come also
from Fokieu, are confined to the N.E. and the coast, but are less numerous than the
other races. — The Tungkas are of short stature and are dark-featured. They are
especially given to petty trades, and live on their boats iu the neighbourhood of Canton,
where they form floating villages. They seem to be near akin to the Hakkas, but are
much despised by the other inhabitants of Kwangtnng. — The Ikias or Miaotze are
but semi-civilised, and inhabit especially the N.W. — The Yao tribes, who number about
30,000, are located in the S.VV. They seem to be of Burmese origin, and are much
considered among the other races for their knowledge of medicine. Their Jvengeance
is much dreaded, as it is transmitted from father to son through several generations.

In the island of Hainan, the population is composed of Sais or Sis, who number
about 100,000. In the centre are found 5,000 Meus. The remainder is occupied by 2
million Chinese who have settled especially along the coast.

lionguage. — Each race clings to its own dialect. Cantonese however, on ac-
count of its importance, is spreading more and more. It constitutes the Peh-hwa ^ fj,
or fashionable language, differs much from Mandarin, and has its own literature. —
The Tiakka dialect is near akin to Mandann, being a transition phase between Canto-
nese and the latter. It is spoken by 4 millions of inhabitants. — The Swat'ow region
has its own peculiar dialect, which resembles the Pokienese, and is spoken by 3 million
people.

Besides the Sai and Meu dialects, Hainan has a Chinese dialect of its own, called
the dialect of K'iungchow Fu.

Towns and Principal Centres. — KWANGCHOW FU

M ^ M °^ CSanfoM. — Population, 900,000. Capital of Kwang-
tung, from 1664, at which period it secured this privilege from
Chaok'ing Fu ^ ^ }^. It is a large city, as its name signifies

?08

SECTION UI. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNGi 209

(Kwang meaning broad), and very ancient. It is built on the
l«ft bank of the Chu-kiang J^jl or Pearl River, and its suburbs
extend along the river far beyond its walls, above and below
the city. A fishing population of well nigh 20,000, form on the
river a peculiarly interesting portion of the city. Well situated
for facility of communications, it became the most populous
centre of the delta. Several times the Capital of an Independent
state, it enjoyed, up to 50 years ago, the monopoly of commerce
with foreigners. The rapid rise of Hongkong, and the opening
of other ports have since diminished its importance. It is
nevertheless a great manufacturing and commercial city. Its
principal industries are : silk-spinning, factories of cotton and
woollen cloths, satins and paper. Its articles of household
furniture, tortoise-shell, lacquer and stoneware, its fans and
pottery enjoy a world-wide reputation and are sold far and wide.
Its exports -are chiefly srlk, tea and matting, while it imports
cotton-yarn and piece goods, wooMen-cloth, rice, sugar, beans,
kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery, opium, tobacco and matches. The
total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk.:Tls. 110,5.59,826;
in 1904, Tls. 96,247,076; and in 1905, Tls. 92,243,650.

Opposite the town is Fati ^ J|fe (Hwa-ti), famous for its
gardens, and near by is the island of Shameen ^p^ (Shamien, i.e.
sand-flat), upon- which are established the Foreign Settlements.

Large steamers are unable to reach Canton, but anchor at
Tfhampoa ^ ^ (Hwangpu), 10 miles further down, where
they find sufiiciently deep water and a safe anchorage. Here
also are repairing-docks and vast warehouses for the storage of
cargo. Whampoa itself is a rather large place, extending 2^
miles along an island of the same name, which lies on the right
bank of the Chu-kiang |5^ ^.

On the Sirkiang ^ ^ :

Chdoh'ing Fm |^ ^ ^.' — Former Provincial Capital, now
a decadent city but not without some importance. It has splen-
did houses, well-stocked shops, and its streets are paved. Con-
siderable trade is carried on in tea, porcelain and marble slabs,
which are quarried in the vicinity.

14

210 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

On the PeJir-Jciang ^ ^ :

Nanhsiung Fu ^ ;^ jjj. — An ancient city well situated,
formerly famous, and even still a large transit-place for goods
entering from Kiangsi fC ®, or forwarded through the Meiling
# -^ pass.

Shaochow Fu fg ^H'l ^. — A large town, and a much fre-
quented port, at the confluence of the Wu-shui ^ ^ with the
Peh-kiang 4fc XL-

Sanahui hsien ^ ifi ^ (Samshui). — Population, 5,000
inhabitants. It is separated from the Peh-kiang ;|fc 2C ^Y ^ large
suburb, which is used as its port. This town is agreeably
situated at the foot of beautifull hills, and owes its activity to
its position. Samshui is a port open to foreign trade.

Above Canton:

Fatshan j^ \U M (Fohshan chen). — Population, 500,000
inhabitants. A large town, 12 miles in length, renowned for
its vast silk manufactures, cloth-making, embroidery, cutlery,
matting, paper and porcelain. The town is divided into two
parts by the river, and is not fortified.

On the Tunif-kiang ^ f£, at the head of the delta :
ShilUung ^ ]||. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants. A large
sugar and food-stuff emporium.

To the If.FL, at the mouth of the Han-kiang "^ ^ :
Swatotv Jilj ^ (Shant'eu). — Population, 60,000 inhabitants.
A port situated five miles from the sea, and exporting chiefly
sugar, groundnuts and camphor. Among its imports are bean-
oil cake from Manchuria, employed in large quantity for manu-
ring the fields; also rice, kerosene oil, cotton and woollen cloths.
Numerous emigrants start every year from this place.

To the S. W. :

Falehot :}t ^ (Peh-hai). — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
A port situated on the gulf of Tongking. It is the commercial
outlet, and the mart for a large portion of Kwangtung ^ y^,
Kwangsi ^ |f , and even of Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kweichow ^ ^.
Its chief exports are star-aniseed and star-anjseed oil, hide?.

CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNG. 211

indigo, opium and tin, while its imports are cotton-cloths and
kerosene oil.

In the Island of Hainan ^ "^ ;

R'innffchow Fu ^j^}^. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. —
Hoihow j^ P (Haik'cw) is its port, and trades principally with
Hongkong. It exports pigs, sugar, betel-nuts, leather and
poultry. Its imports consist of cotton-cloths, rice, kerosene oil
and India opium.

Note. — On Hongkong ^ j^ (Hsiangkiang) and Kccvloon ;>!, H (Kiulung),
both British possessions ; Macao S| P5 (Ngaom&n) belonging to Portugal, and liappa
gt fl; (Kungpeh), an island opposite Macao ;K-wangchoTr-wan ^^ j^, belonging
to France, see Section IV. Coasts.

Industry and Commerce. — Canton and FataJian are the

two principal industrial centres. We have seen the principal
articles, and may add thereto the manufacture of matches,
jewellery and glass-ware, sugar-refining and iron-works.

Trade is carried on through Swatow and Fakhoi, but
Canton holds the first place as a commercial centre, its exports
going as far as Yunnan ^ '^ and Szechw'an pg ^. We have
stated their nature when describing the principal ports of this
Province.

XElgliways of Communication. — Communications are
carried on principally by water routes. The Si-hiang 'g' ^

delta offers an excellent network of navigable streams. The
river itself is a convenient outlet towards Kwangsi ^ "gf and
the adjoining Provinces.

The Feh-lciang ;|t ^ has long been the water route towards
the N. The river forks into two at Shaochow Fu fg ij'I'I iff» ^^^
stream leading to Kiangsi fx^ U, via Nanhsiung Chow '^il^if'l'l;
the other on the W., leading to Hunan ^ ^, viH Wushui g^ 7|q.
From Nanhsiung Chow, a land route continues through Kiangsi.
This road is paved, and as it issues from the immense plain of rice-
fields, it winds through quaint and picturesque hills. All along, at
regular intervals, are built sheds to afford shelter to the carriers.
These number about 50,000, and travel unceasingly to and fro,
in two nearly endless files, The boundary-limit of the two

212

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Provinces is at the Meikwan ^ ^ or plum-tree barrier, situated
at an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea level. Between that
place and Nanngan Fu '^ ;^ f^, the journey is still made by
land and then by water. The same process is repeated on the
route through Hunan Jjj^ ^. At Ichang hsien ^ ^ ^ (dei-
pending on Ch'eng Chow |f|5 ^), the Wu-shui :St TJC is abandoned
for a paved road, which leads via the Chehling f§ ^ pass to
Ch'fing Chow on the Lei-ho ^ ^. This road is 30 miles long,
and is bordered throughout with inns and warehouses. The
Chehling pass attains an elevation of about 1,000 feet, and like
the land route is situated in Hunan fgg ■^.

The Tung-kiang ^ ^ supplies an excellent way North-
Eastwards.

The Lienchow Fu ^ >)^ }^ and K'in Chow, §5c '}i\ rivers
open easy commnications between Pakhoi 4t f^ (Peh-hai) and
Kwangsi M H-

A railway connects Samshui ^ ^ (Sanshui) and Fatshan
-g^llj with Canton, and will subsequently be continued to Kowloon
■jl,^. Another is to run between Canton and Macao.

The Peh-kiang ^ Ql valley is the natural course which the
Canton-Hank'ow line will follow.

Carts, though occasionally met with, are little employed.

A regular steamship service brings the principal ports
into constant communication with one another.

Open Ports. — Kwangtung has six ports open to Foreign
trade : Canton or Kwangchow Fu ^ ^ J^, Swatow or Shan-
t'eu uli Bf (in the Prefecture of Ch'aochow Fu ^ j|fj |^), Hoihow
or Haik'ow ^ p (in the Prefecture of K'iungchow Fu j^
il'H M^ Hainan S ^ Island), Pahhoi or Peh-hai ^ ^ (in the
Prefecture of Leichow Fu ^ ']^ jj^f), Samsui or Sanshui
hsien H tK H ('" l^he Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu ^ 'It|
;j^), and Kianffmhi Jl fH (in the Prefecture of Chaok'ing Fu
^ M M)- There are besides three ports of caU: Kanchuh -^
fj- (in the Prefecture of Chaok'ing Fu ^ ^ ;j^), Chaok'ing Fu
^ ^ ;j^ and TehkHng -Ft* ^ ^ft jf , and three custom stations:
Whampoa or Hwangpu ^ j^ (in the Prefecture of Kwang-

CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNG.

213

chow Fu ^ ^'I'l fl^), Jioivloon or Kiulung % f| (in the Prefoc-
ture of Hweichow Fu ]g jffl j^), and Lappa or Kungpeh ^11; :|t
(in the Prefecture of Kwangchow Fu ^ J'H ^).

Three ports have been ceded to Foreign Powers : Macao
or Ngaom^n '^P^, occupied by the Portuguese from 1,553, and
ceded ofTicially to Portugal in '887; Hongkong or Hsiangkiang
§ ^, ceded to England in 1842 (to which must be added the
Kowloon eartension on the mainland, leased in 1898) ; and
Ktoangchotvwati ^ >}]] ^, in the! Prefecture of Leichow Fu '^ j'\\
Jj^, leased to France in 1898.

References ;

PBOVINCE OB' KWANGSI.

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BricUmore A. S. — Kwangtung, Kwangsi
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214

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN HEftlON.

PBOVINGM OF KWANGTUNG.

Imbanlt-Huart. — Le Voyage de I'Am-

bassade Hollandaise de 1656, k, travers la

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sur Canton. (Bulletin de la Soo. Com-

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Imbault-Huart. — Essai sur les gise-

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du Koang-tong.
Francis. — De Canton 3. Long-tcheou.

(Bulletin de la Soo. Giogr., 1899).
Raqnez. — Au Pays des Pagodes. Chang-

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Hongkong).
Oordier. — Les Marchands Hanistes.

(T'oung-pao, 1902). ,
Madrolle. — Les Peuples et les Laugues

de la Chine m^ridionale. 1898.
Madrolle. — Hai-nan. La colonisation

Chinoise, 1894. — fitude sur Pile de Hai-
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1900.
Pinon. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,

1900. (Appendice 3. L'extension de Hong-
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Mission Lyonnaise. — Lyon, 1898. (IP

Partie. lere serie. Rapport sur Hong-
kong et Pakhoi).
Etat-major des troupes de I'ludo-Chine.

Hanoi. (Notice sur le Koang-tong).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom.

(Vol. I. p. 127-145. Canton described, p.

129-140).
Grosier. — General Description of China.

(Vol. I. p. 97-101).
Winterbotham. — Historical and Geogr.

View of China, p. 102-112.
Murray's China.— Edinburgh, 1843.(Vol.

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of China. (Vol. I. p. 113-119. . Canton

described, p. 114-115).
Gntzlaff. — China opened. (Vol. I. p. 129-

152. Canton described, p. 134-144).
ParkerE.H.— Chinese Kevenue, Kwang-

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little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
p. 138-154.

Topography of Kwangtung. — Chinese
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Historical and Statistical Account of
Kwangtung. ibid. p. 309-327 and 477-
485).

Meado-fvs T. T. — Sketch of the Province
of Kwangtung. London, 1847.

Brickmore A. S. — Sketch of a Journey
from Canton to Hankow, through
Kwangtung, Kwangsi and Hunan. (N. C.
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Du Ualde. — Description of China. (Vol.

I. p. 61-6-1. From Siam to China by land.
— From Peking to Canton, ibid. p. .56-60).

OoIquhOun A. R, — Across Ohrys4. Lon-
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XI. p. 60-65. — Canton boatwomen. Ch.

II. p. 13-14. — Wuchow Pu. Ch. III. p.
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Oolqnhoan A. R. — The Overland to
China. London, 1900. (S. West China. Ch.
XVII and XVIIL— Tongking. Ch. XIX.).

Kingsmill T. W. — A Sketch of the Geo-
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(N. C. B. K. A. Soc. 1865. p. 21-38).

History of the Kwangtung Province. (Chi-
na Eeview. Vol. I. p. 32-37).

Gnndry R. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Trade with S. W. China.
Ch. Vni. p. 159-182).

The Manchu Conquest of Canton. (China
Eeview. 1872. Vol. I. p. 86-96, and 228-
237).

Cammiiig. O. — Wanderings in China.
London, 1900. (From Hongkong to Can-
ton.,Ch. IL p. 18-42).

Norman F. M. — Martello Tower in China.
London, 1902. (Canton. Part. II. Ch. VI.
p. 184-204. —Whampoa. Ch. VII. p. 205-
221).

Transit Passes in Kwangtung. (China Ee-
view. Vol. IX. p. 212-219).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London.
1844. (Description of Canton. Vol. II. Ch.

XII. p. 100-125).

CHAPTER III. KWANGTUNG.

215

Description of the City of Canton. Chinese
Bepository (Vol. II. passim).

Walks about Canton.— Chinese Repository.
(Vol. IV. passim).

Bone O. — Canton (East of Asia Magazine.
1903. Vol. II. p. 195-211. — The Floating
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AgassizA.R.— From Haiphong in Tong-

kingjto Canton overland. (Proceed, of the

Roy. Geogr. Soe. 1891).
Canton Plants. — China Review. (Vol. XV.

p. 104-119).
Auber P. — China. London. 1834. (British

Intercourse with China, Canton. Ch.

IV-VII).

Hainan and its Aborigines. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XI. p. 42-50).

Parker E. H. — China Review. (Fauna,
Flora, Zoology and Reptiles of Hainan.
Vol. XIX. p. 369-376 and Vol. XX. p.
167-172).

Loi Aborigines of Hainan. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XX. p. 296-305).

The Aborigines of Hainan. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XXV. p. 247-251).

Th Miaotze of Canton. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XIV. p. 105-117).

Eitel E. J. — Outline History of the Hak-
kas. China Review. 1873. (Vol. II. p. 160-
164).

Piton O. — Origin and History of the Hak-
kas. China Review. (Vol. II. p. 222-226).

China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decen-
nial Report, 1882-91. Shanghai, 1893
(Canton, p. 543-580). — Trade Reports
for 1905. Southern Coast Reports. Can-
ton, p. 396-435.— Swatow. p. 383-395.—
Pakhoi. p. 505-514. — Samshui. p. 470-
479. — Kiungchow. p. 494-504).

The Li Aborigines of Kiungchow, Hainan.
— China Review. (Vol. XIX. p. 38.J-387).

S'winhoe R. — The Aborigines of Hainan.
(N. C. B. E. A. Soo. 1871. p. 25-40).

Mayers W. F. — Historical and Statis-
tical Sketch of Hainan. ( N. C. B. R. A,
Soo. 1871. p. 1-24),

Schaeffer K. l. — The Lois or Aborigines
of Hainan. East of Asia Magazine. 1904.
(Vol. III. p. 46-f:0).

Little M" A. — Hanoi and Kwangchow-

wan. (Scottish G. Magazine. 1906. p. 181-
188).

The Peninsula of Leichow. — China Be-
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'Ethnographical Sketches of the Hakka
Chinese. — China Review. (Vol. XX. p.
263-267).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1896-97. (Canton and Hongkong. Part I.
Ch. VII. p. 133-141. Part II. p. 62-72).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1814. (English Intercourse with China.
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Michie A. — The Englishman in China.
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first China War. 1839-1842.— Vol. I. Ch.
XVII. p. 308-350. The Arrow War.— Vol.
I. Ch. XIV. p. 271-286. Hongkong).

Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics
of the East. London, 1895. (Outposts of
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Colqnhoun A. — China in Transformation.
London, 1898. (Hongkong. Ch. XII. p.
304-320).

CoHingT^^ood O. — Naturalist's Rambles
in the China Seas. London, 1868. iHong-
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Norman F. M. — Martello Tower in China.
London, 1902. (Hongkong. Part II. Ch.
I. p. 81-98).

Eitel E. J. — Select Chapters from an
unpublished History of Hongkong.British
Trade with China A.D. 1625-1834. (China
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Eitel E. J. — The History of Hongkong.
China Review. (Vol. XX. and XXI.
passim).

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History of Hongkong, with tables showing
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(Vol. XXII. passimi.

Notices of Hongkong.— Chinese Repository.
(Vol. XIV. p. 291-298).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1896-97. (Import trade in Hongkong.
Part I. Ch. VII. p. 143-144. — Communi-
cation in S.W. China by the West River.
Part II. p. 78-83. — Freight and tranship-
ment to Wuchow and Yiinnan.p. 100-107
and 167-177).

216

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Hongkong Chronicle and Directory. —
(Published annually : contains List of
Foreign Residents in the Far East, des-
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Treaty Ports).

Turner J. A. — Kwangtung or Five years
in South China. London, 1894.(Hongkong
described. Ch. VIII. p. 97-110).

The Colony of Hongkong. — China Review.
(Vol. I. p. 163-176).

Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris,
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Early Portuguese Intercourse with China.
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Macao in the early Days. — China Riview.

(Vol. XXV. p. 183-188).
Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Review.

(Vol. XXI. p. 146-159).
Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1813.

Arrival of the Portuguese in China (Vol.

I. Ch. VI. p. 182).

The Portuguese in China. — Chinese

f Repository. (Vol III. p. 289-303).

Historical Sketch of Macao. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. I. p. 398-408, and 425-
4 :6. — Assassination of Governor Ama-
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Gutzlair. — China opened. London, 1838.
(Macao. Vol. I. p. 144-148).

Micbie A. — The Englishman in China,
London, 1900. (Macao. Vol. I. Ch. XV.

■ p. 287-298).

Norman H.— The Peoples and Politics of
the East. London, 1895. (Macao, the
Lusitanian Thule. Ch. XII. p. 183-194).

IMontalto de Jesus. — Historic Macao.
Hongkong. 1S02.

Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Settlement of Macao. Vol. I.
Ch. III. p. 140-141).

Turner J. A. — Kwangtung or Five
years in S. China. London, 1894. (Macao
described. Ch. XI. p. 137-139).

Freeman-Mitford A. B. — The Attache
. at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong and
Canton, p. 1-32).

CHAPTER IV.

THE COAST REGION

(FOKIEN jjig ^ AND CH^KIANG m fl)-

FoJden ^g ^ forms with Chikiang ^ ^ the MincM f^ ^

Viceroyalty . The Viceroy resides at Foochow j^ j|fl. Formosa
Island or T'aiwan ^ ^, was formerly a part of this Viceroyalty.
Tlie two Provinces, both separated from Kiangsi fL f§ by
high chains of mountains, both having a coast-line abounding in
bays and ports, both irrigated by short rivers, both principally
composed of porphyry and granite, remain considerably isolated
from the rest of China, and have a race and dialect proper to
each. Both have a large agricultural population. In the East,
their climate is tropical in Summer, and is without severe cold in
Winter. Towards the W., it becomes more continental, and the
mountains are covered with snow during the Winter.

Fokien fg^ has few plains; CMkiang ^fH in its Northern
part has a very large one, the continuation of that of Kiangsu
^ il^. Chikiang jff f£_ being more industrial, has larger (owns
and easier cornmunications with the neighbouring regions.

Tea is cultivated in both Provinces. Moreover, Chikiang
produces silk in large quantity, while Fokien seems to possess
abundant mineral wealth.

The Northern part of Chikiang '{^ fx. has greatly suffered
from the T'aip'ing ^^ rebellion. Fokien |i ^, more isolated,
has seldom suffered from the revolts which have afflicted the rest
of China.

218 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN HEftlON.

r . Fokien m

Area. — 46,332 square miles. It is after Ghfikiang |j)f jXi
and Kiangsu fC |^, the smallest of the Provinces.

Popniation. — 22,870,000 inhabitants, or 493 to the
square mile. It is one of the most populated Provinces, and
occupies the fourth place, coming successively after Shantung
tJj %, Kiangsu fr ^ and Hupeh jgg jt.

Name. — The name Fokien comes from two of its principal
towns : JFoochow Yn ^ j^ )^ and ICienning Vn ^% ^, and
means "Iiappy establishment.

Boundaries. — Fokien is bounded on the
N. — By Ch6kiang ^ ^, .
W. — By Kiangsi fx_ ^,
S. — By Kwangtung ^ y^,
E. — By the Formosa Channel and the East-China Sea.

Capital. — FOOCHOW ^g ^^I jj^, on the Min-kiang ^ fx.-
Otiier Prefectures. — Titese are 8 in number.

To tJie JV. E., on the coast :
1° Fuhning Pn fs ^ ;ff.
To the N.W., ascending the Min-hiang f^ ^ and its
tributaries :

2" Yenp'ing Pu SI ^ fl^,
3° Kienning Pu 3t S )f ,
4° Shaowu Pu 315 1^ Jff .

On the coast, to the S. of the Min-kiang :

5" Hsinghwa Pu « ft ;if ,
6° Ts'iienchow Pu M. ffl k,
7° Changchow Pu ^ ffl ;f .

To the S. W. :

8° T'ingcliow Pu jT ffl W.
There are besides in Fokien two independent Chow >)^
cities: Twngch'un Chow y\/i ^ ^^ and Ijungpen Chow ^^j^.

CHAPTER IV. FOKIEN. 219

Aspect and €taaracterlstlcs. — Fokien is a mountainous
country, with the special charactei-istic that its chains are
almost parallel, and run S, W. to N. E. These chains hinder
the development of rivers. These latter either run into the sea
after a short course, or flowing between two chains, join the
largest river, the Mitv-kiang f^ ^, which with great difficulty
has forced its way through the mountain ridges. Enjoying an
extensive coast-line with numerous bays and fine harbours, the
Province is well fitted for producing a sturdy race of fishermen.
It has also furnished the largest number of emigrants. Its
well cultivated soil produces good crops, especially tea, which
is in great demand. On account of its isolation, Fokien ^ ^
has, perhaps better than any other Province, maintained its
dialects, which differ greatly from those of Ohekiang ^ JJ^
and Kwangtung ^ ^, and still more from the Mandarin lan-
guage. These dialects are spoken by those who have emigrated
to America, to the Straits Settlements and to South Africa.

Geological oonstitution. — The mountains which run through Fokien, as
well as through part of ChCkiang, are prohably of less ancient formation than those of
the rest of China, and bear a close resemblance to the geological formations of Japan.
They are the oufeome of a mighty upheaval, interspersed in the centre with pcrphyry
and granite. Sandstone, as well as schist and limestone, are also found there, but
these do not form the principal formation. Volcanic strata are met with in some
places, especially in the islands.

Orograpliy. — Fokien ^ ^ is covered with a series of
mountain-C'hains running parallel to the sea. The most Wes-
tern of these, the TayU-ling ^ ^ ^, forms the limit between
Fokien jpg ^ and Kiangsi fx, 'g'. The summits of these chains
generally exceed 3,000 feet, and attain near Ohekiang |j)f ^,
even an elevation of 9,000 feet. The surface rises in ge-
neral from E. to W. Thus Yenp'ing Fu ^ ^ f^ is ^.00
to 600 feet higher than Foochow |g j\\ ^, but even along
the coast, there are a few summits which reach over 3,000
feet.

Climate. — The climate of Fokien is semi-tropical in the Eastern portion of
the Province, and the thermometer rarely falls there below 32° Fahrenheit. In the
Western part, the climate is temperate and even very cold during Winter.

220

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REBION.

Hydrography. — A largie river, the Miii-kianff ^ JJi

with its tributaries, drains the greater part of Fokien ^g ^.
Several coast-rivers irrigate the N. E. and S. B. The. affluents
of the Ilan-kiang^fn water the S. Western part of the Province.

FOOCHOW Is ji\ ^ AND THE MIN RIVER F^ fz-

The Miit-hianff ^ ^ or Snake river. This river is for-
med by three principal tributaries which unite near Yenp'ing
Fu ^ 2p ;i^. These are : 1° the Kienk'i ^ ^, which comes
from the N. E., and passes through Kienning Fu ^ $^ jj?f ; 2"
the ShaioumU'i ^[5 ^ ^, which comes from the W., and runs
through the Prefecture of the same name ; 3° the NinghwdkH
% ft M^ coming in from the S. W., running near the
district city of the same name, and after a bend towards the
S., taking again a Northerly direction. The largest of these
tributaries is the KietiTe'i, which, almost from its source near
Oh^kiang -^ ft:, is navigable for small boats, despite the rapids
and rocks that obstruct it. Fairly large-sized craft, called
tea-boats, can go as far up as Kienning Fu M ^ jfl^, in the flood-
season. Those three rivers, like their tributaries, swell rapidly
in the flood-season, and in the heavy Summer rains. Their
level then rises considerably above the ordinary, and their current
becomes exceedingly rapid and impossible to ascend.

CHAPTER IV. FOKIEN. 221

From Yenp'ing Pu 5i ¥ /ffi the Min-kiang H^ ^ is com-
pletely formed, its current becomes slower, but shoals, rocks
and rapids render il of little use till Shuik'ow y\^ Q is reached.
Here navigation on the river begins in reality, and fair-sized
junks .find enough water in every season, and the shoals are
no longer to be feared. After a bend below Foochow fg ;H'| J^,
the river flows into Ihe Eastern China Sea by two branches,
between which lies an island. The Northern Channel is the
deepest. At low-water, the depth on the bar is 12 feet, and
large ships cannot enter the river, but are compelled to await
the rise of the tide, when the depth of the water reaches 27,
and sometimes 30 feet. Steamers have again to stop, and this
time finally, at Pagoda Anchorage, 9 miles below Foochow,
which is itself 35 miles distant from the moulh of the river,
liocks lying across the bed of the river above Pagoda Anchorage,
with the alluvial deposits thus formed, have created a second
bar, which only boats of light dra'ught can cross. Throughout
all its last part, between Foochow and the sea, the Min-kiang
^ ^ runs through a deep valley, and widens out occasionally
from half a mile lo 2 miles. The Min-kiang ^ ^, with its
tributary the Kienk'i ^ ^, is about 350 miles in length.

To the S.E., is the Jjung-Tiiang f| J^^, a river scarcely
navigable even for local craft, on account of its little depth and
its numerous rapids. It flows into the sea, near Amoy ^ p^
(Hsiamen).

(For the coast-line see Section IV).

Fauna and Flora. — The fauna and flora of Fokien are those of the tropical
zone, in the Western part, and those of the temperate zone in the Eastern portion of
the Province. Even in this latter part, the valleys offer specimens, although in small
quantity, of the flora of the tropics. Suffice it to mention only the species the most
widely diffused : the tea, orange and banana-trees, the lichee or persimmon, splendid
fir-trees, maples and camphor-trees. The sugar-cane is cultivated in the region around
Am ay.

Agrlcnitnral Wealth. — This consists principally of tea.
Rice, wheat, the sugar-cane, the opium poppy, as well as ginger
are also cultivated. The inhabitants, by a skilful system of

222 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

terraces, have succeeded in cultivating every patch of ground,
even to the summit of steep hills.

To this wealth must be added the fishing industry, which
supports a large number of people, especially along the coast.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Fokien is most
important, but so far it has not been worked. It consists of
gold, silver, lead, tin and coal.

Salt is extracted from sea-water.

Population. — Fokien, owing to its isolation, has better preserved its primitive
race than any other of the Provinces. The people are proud, energetic and venturesome,
and furnish excellent fishermen, as well as good cultivators and colonists. They have
their dialects, customs and dress, and like the population of Kwangtung, hold aloof from
and despise the boat people or TungJcias jj^ ^, who are scattered throughout the coun-
try. In the N.B ., the Siakas or Suh'ias ^ ^(Siik'ohs) have their own peculiar dress and
customs. Their hair is of a brownish colour. They intermingle with the Chinese, and
seem to be of the same race. — It is stated that the opium habit has caused more
ravages in this Province than anywhere else.

lianguage. — Fokien has its owai peculiar language, which comprises several
dialects. The principal of these dialects are : 1° the FoJcienese dialect properly so-called.
It is harsh and guttural, and spoken by about 5 millions of the population. It is used
throughout the Prefectures of Fokien, Yenp'ing and Hwahsing ; 2° the Amoy dialect.
It has its peculiar nasal Bounds,and is spoken by 10 millions and more of the population,
both in the Province and in the island of Formosa. The greater part of Chinese emi-
grants speak this dialect, which has also numerous variations.

Towns and Principal Centres. — FOOCHOW US Jfl jjSf .
— Population, 624,000 inhabitants. — A large city situated in
a well-cultivated region, on the left bank of the iMin-kiang ^ ^,
and about 35 miles from its mouth. The walled town, including
a Tartar-quarter, is 2 miles from the water's edge. A numerous
population swarms also on the banks of the river. Opposite the
town is the Foreign Settlement, on Nant'ai ^ -^ Island. A
bridge, 435 yards in length, made of splendid flag-stones and
known as the Zong Bridge, or Bridge of ten thousand ages ^
# M (Wanshowkiao), unites Nant'ai with the left bank of the
Min-kiang, and the populous Island of Chungshow t^ *. Foo-
chow, though the home of expectant officials, and a literary
and military centre, has also considerable industries and Irade.
Silk and woollen stuffs, paper and household furniture are

CHAPTER IV. FOKIEN. 223

manufactured there, while timber, canes, paper umbrellas, silk,
tea, camphor, paper and oranges are exported, in exchange for
cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, sugar, flour and matches.
Formerly the tea-trade was extensive, but it has of late declined,
Ceylon tea having supplanted it on the English market. The
total trade of the port has been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,738,718;
in 1904, Tls. 17,265,968; and in 1905, Tls. 17,724,198. As at
Canton^ a large boat-population has established itself a little
above Ohungshow tf» %.

Nine miles down the river, at the place where the two
streams meet, and bnlow Nant'ai island, is Pagoda Anchorage
or iMsingt'ah ^ ^ ^, and Mamoy arsenal. This arsenal,
situated on the left bank of the river, opposite a small island
where docks are established, employs 1,700 workmen, and
constructs large ships. The establishment is administered by
French experts, in the employ of the Chinese Government.

Along the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the Min-
kiang f^ ^ ^° Kwangtung ^ ;^ :

T^uenchmv Fu ^ M ^i- — Formerly a celebrated port,
but at the present day obstructed by sand-banks which have
caused it to be supplanted by Amoy. It still remains a large
and populous town. Several consider it to be the ancient Zaitun
mentioned by Marco Polo, and then one of the most populated
cities of the world. Trade is carried on through the port of
NganlMi ^ %•

Amoy or BMamM M PI- — Population, 114,000 inha-
bitants. The harbour, situated to the W. of an island at the
mouth of the Lung-kiang fljl, is excellent, and one of the finest
on the coast. It has very good anchorage and docks, where
large steamers may be repaired. Emigration is extensive, and
has at times reached 90,000 in a year. Its exports are princi-
pally : bricks and tiles, hemp bags, paper umbrellas, tea, sugar
and tobacco. It imports cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil,
rice, mats, flour and matches. Trade is chiefly carried on with
Formosa and Japan. The total value of the port has been in
1905, Hk. Tls. 18,654,610. A Japanese Settlement was marked

224

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

out in 1899, and its occupants are extremely enterprising. —
Amoy is connected by submarine cable (French-owned) with
Tongking. — The Japanese line from Formosa, lands at Sharp-
Peak H ^ [Ij (Sarishih-shan, i.e. three stone mountain).

Opposite Amoy is
the little island of
KtUana-sii f^ jg ll^
(Drum-wave island).
In the midst of the fo-
liage and around the
forfeign houses, rises
a new Chinese city,
with more elegant
and better built dwell-
ings than those of
Amoy.

Changchow Fu j^
^^•| flSf . — Population,
500,000 inhabitants.
A large town, with
broad paved streets,
situated on the Lung-
kiang f| ^, 23 miles
from the sea.

T'ungngan hsien
li^M- — A rather
frequented port, lying
at the extremity of
a bay, to the N. of
Amoy. The surround-
ing country, like that
of Changchow Fu, is
rich and well cultivated. Vast plantations of sugar-cane are
now started there.

A8cendinff tlie Min-Mang ^ ^ and the Kienk'i m «g :

OS

o

m

O
<

CHAPTER IV. FOKIBN. 225

Yenpfing -Fm jg 2JS ;^. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
A town situated at the confluence of the principal tributaries of
the Min-kiang.

Kienninff Fii :^ ^ J^. — A town built at the junction of
two rivers, in the principal tea growing country, at a place to
which large boats can ascend, and on the road leading from
the N. to Foochow, to which facts it owes its activity. It is better
constructed and more populated than Yenp'ing Fu. Its trade,
consists chiefly in tea and salt.

Cli-'ungngan hsien % ^ ^. — Population, 100,000 inha-
bitants. A district town situated at the foot of the Wui J^ Ij^
hUl. This hill rises to about 1,000 feet over the level of the
plain, and is composed of schist, sandstone and granite. The best
tea of Fokien fg ^ grows in the neighbourhood. English people
call it the "JBohea hill", and the tea grown there "Bohea teaf'.
Ch'ungngan hsicn is the principal market for the article, and it
is forwarded in large quantities through Kiangsi ^ ||.

On the -2V. of the Min-hiang, upon the coast, proceeding
Northwards :

TAenUinng hsien ^ ^ ff,. — Population, 250,000 inhabi-
tants. A frequented port.

Fuhning Fu ^ % }^- — A port formerly of considerable
importance, and still a thriving and busy town. The best opium
of Fokien is cultivated in the neighbourhood.

Industry and Commerce. — We have seen, when des-
cribing the principal towns, the chief articles of industry and
trade. In regard to reports, the most important are timber,
bricks, pottery, silk, tea, sugar, paper, camphor and oranges.

Hlgliways of Commnnlcatlon. — Besides a very brisk
service of boats along the coast, especially to Foochow |g jHJ
J^, there are only 2 land routes which deserve to be particularly
mentioned :

1° The road which starts from WSnchow Fu ^ jjfl ^j^, in
Chfikiang }^ iL, and leads to Foochow M i^ ^■

15

226 SECTION III. THE SOUTHEKN REGION.

2° The road which starts from Foochow, and passes through
Yenp'ing Fu ^ 2p Jj5= and Kienning Fu ^ 5^ Jj^. It then forks
into several branches, running some into Ch6kiang ^ fL, and
one into Kiangsi fz H' via Oh'ungngan hsien % ^ %■

Open Ports. — Three ports of this Province are open to
Foreign trade : Anwy or Hsiamin ^ P^ (in the Prefecture of
Ts'uenchow Fu |j ^ }^), Foochow ^ ;H-1 J^, at Pagoda Ancho-
rage, and Santungao H ^ ^ o^" SawtucM (in the Prefecture of
Fuhning Fu m W ;^)-

Note. — In the Amoy dialect, the Chinese chMvttcUr !^

eh'a (tea-plant),, is pronounced teh, and it is from this source
that the French word thi^ the German tliee, the Italian te (also
eia) and the Spanish te are all derived, as well as the English
word tea. It may be also remarked here that the word junJc,
French jonque, Spanish and Portuguese iunco, comes from the
Chinese word chw'un ^ (boat or ship), pronounced in the Amoy
and Foochow dialects respectively, ch'un and ch'iong, and in
Javanese juuff.

CHAPTER IV. CHEKIANG. 227

2°. Chekiangmt[^

Area. — 36,680 square miles. It is the smallest of the
eighteen Provinces.

Population. — 11,580,000 inhabitants, or 310 to the
square mile.

^Bfame. — Chekiang ^ fx. signifies "crooked river" Pro-
vince. This name has been given it on account of the bore or
tidal wave of its Northern river, which drives back, and as it
were bends its waters. This is the meaning of the character
}^ chi i.e. to bend or break.

Boundaries. — Chekiang is bounded on the

N. — By Kiangsu fL H,

W. — By Nganhwei ^%, Kiangsi fx. ffi. and Fokien Jg^,

S. — By Fokien |i J^,

E. — By the Eastern China Sea.

Capital HANGCMOW FVi^ j\\ ;^.— It is built at the

Southern terminus of the Grand Canal, and on the left bank of
the Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ fL-

Otiier Prefectures. — These are lO in wutnher.

To the N. of Hangchotv Fu ^ j/^ ^, on the Grand Canal :
1° Huchow Fu M W if,
2° Kiahsing Yu^mM-

Ascending the Ts'ient'ang-kiang ■^ HI ^ and its affluents :
3° Yuenchow Fu IS ffl flj,
4° Kinhwa Fu ^ ^ flf ,
5" K'iichow Fu <!S ffl fllF.

Not far from the coast, proceeding from the mouth of the
Ts'ient'ang-kiang -^ |g ft. towards Fokien j^ ^ :
6° Shaohsing ¥u&miff,
T Ningpo Fu 8 jS iff ,
8° T'aichow Fu ■& iHI W.

Ascending the Ngeu-kiang ^ ft .'

9° Wenchow Fu ia ffl iff,
10° Ch'uchowFukffliff.

228 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

There is besides in Chfikiang one independent T'ing j^. ;
Tinghai T'ing ^ ^ ^.

Aspect and Cliaracterlstics. — Situated between Ngan-
hwei ^^ and Xiangsu Qlj^ on the N., and Fofeien jjg^ on the
S., Chikiang fJHf fj_ has some features of these three Provinces in
the tracts which border on each of them. The Tayii-littff ;fc M
•^ or great stack mountains terminate in the Province. After
crossing its centre from S.W. to N.E., they continue in the sea,
and form the Chusan ^ [[] (Cheushan) archipelago. This range of
mountains divides the Province into two strongly contras-
ting regions. In the S., the soil, climate, fauna, flora, resources,
language, people, the deeply-indented coasts, everything bears a
strong resemblance to Fokien fig ^. In the Northern region,
the contrary is the case, and the country resembles rather its two
neighbouring Provinces : vast plains, canals, embankments, rice-
fields^ the culture of the silkworm in the E., tea-growing,
wooded hills, rivers navigable in the flood-season, tracts laid
waste by the T'aip'ing -j^ 2p rebellion, but rising from their
ruins in the Western part. The poverty of ChSkiaiig ^ %][_, in
regard to minerals, is largely counterbalanced by its agricultural
products, the prosperous state of its industry, its excellent harbours,
and a highly developed networwk of navigable streams. The
Province is fast recovering the prosperity and dense population
it enjoyed previous to the T'aipHng -j^ zp rebellion.

Geological constitution. — In the Western part of the Province, to the N. of
the Ts^ient^ang-hiang, schist, sandstone and limestone are the predominant rocks. In
the E. of the Province, the Great Plain is of alluvial formation.

To the S. of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang, porphyry and granite are the principai rocks,
with limestone and sandstone here and there, while traces of volcanic eruptions are
found in the Chusan Islands.

Orography. — The OPayU-ling :^ J^ -gt or great stack
mountains terminate in this Province by two parallel branches
running S.W.-N.E. The Soulhern branch reaches an elevation
of nearly 4,000 feet in the T'ient'ai-shan ^ -^ \li, S. W. of
Ningpo '^ Jg, and running into the sea, ends at the Chusan
^ [Ij (Cheushan) archipelago.

CHAPTER IV. CH^KlANa. 229

The -whole country lying S. of the Tayii-ling :^ J^ -^ is
mountainous.

Between Ningpo ^ ^ and Hangchow ^ jfH, and also to
the W., as well as to the N. and N. E. of Hangchow, extends
a large plain.

Further to the W., throughout the central and upper region
of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ fL, the country is again moun-
tainous, and resembles much by its broken and picturesque hills
the S. of Nganhwei ^ J^. The T'ientnuh-sTian 5^ @ |lj or
Heavenly Eye mountain, to the W. of Hangchow /^ W' '^
nearly 5,000 feet high. Another range more to the "W., connected
with the T'ienmuh-shan, and called iMngtan-ahan f | Bf iJj
(dragon-gall mountain), constitutes the boundary-line between
Nganhwei ^ %_ and Chekiang -^ ^.

Climate. — To the S. of the Tayii-ling, the climate is semi-tropical as in Fokien,
but the heat is less intense. To the N. of the Tayii-ling, the climate is much more
temperate, less warm in the Summer and colder in the Winter. Throughout the Great
Plain, the climate is the same as that of Shanghai, though a little warmer on account of
the difference of latitude.

Sydrograpliy. — The watershed of the Province is establi-
shed by the Tayii-ling :^ J^ ^ mountains. The Ts'ient'ang-
hiang ^ |t j!l, a large and beautiful river, runs Northward,
while to the S. flow others of lesser importance.

The Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^ |t ^ is formed by two streams,
which run between the two parallel branches of the Tayii-ling,
as mentioned above. These two streams flow in opposite direc-
tions, one from the W., passing through K'iichow Fu ^ >)i]
}^, the other from the E., passing through Einhwa Fu ^^ ^.
Both unite at Lank'i hsien ^ ^ l|f,, and force a passage through
the porphyry in the Southern branch of the Tayii-ling :k ]^ ^
range. At Yenchow Fu ^ j^ f^, the river receives an important
tributary from Nganhwei ^ ^, after which it flows into the
sea at Hangchow ^ f^. The estuary widens out into a large
bay, at the entrance of which lie tlie Chusan ji^ \\] (Cheushan)
Islands.

The Ts'ient'ang-kiang M^U.^^ ^oo shallow at its mouth,

230 SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

and too obstructed by shoals, to allow vessels of heavy tonnage
to reach Hangchow i^ jH'I- Small steam^boats run to YenchowFu
Mc W ^1 notwithstanding a few rapids. At the flood-season,
fairly large junks go far up the river and its affluents. At the
same period, several of these latter are navigable almost up to
their source, although at times boats have to be carried over
difficult places. Numerous rafts are also floated down on the
river and its affluents.

The tide is very strong at the mouth of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang
^ISJIj *rid rushing against the current of the river, occasions
a violent bore or eagre, which rises to a height of 15 feet, and
is dangerous for small boats when taken unawares.

Among the other principal waterways are :

The Ywng-hiang ^^ or Ningpo ^ ^ river, formed by the
junction of two streams which meet at this city. It is navigable
up to Ningpo for steamers of considerable tonnage. The two
rivers however can be navigated for some distance further.

The Taiao-kiang ^ {J or T'aichow Fu -^ jH'j }^ river.

The Nffeu-kiang || ^, also called the Wu-kiang. A fine
river, the banks of which are rather steep, and resemble those
of the Min-kiang ^ f£, save that they are less cultivated. Des-
pite its rapids, it is navigable for fairly large boats as far as Ch'u-
chow Fu ^ jHI f^. Several of its tributarijes can also be utilised.
It rises near the Northern border of Fokien j|g ^ Province, and
flows into the sea a little beyond Wenchow Fu '^ jlfl ^.

Numerous canals intersect the North-Eastern plain. The
principal of these is the Grand Canal ^ fpj (Yun-ho or Transport
river), which terminates at Hangchow lyi ^, but its waters are
not connected with those of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ f£-
A canal connects also this town with Ningpo ^ ^ ^. It
passes by Shaohsing Fu ^ ^ ||f, but terminates on the right
bank of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang. The difTerence of water-level
in the rivers and the canals prevents their inter-communication,
and this is a great obstacle to navigation in these parts. Tra-
vellers must either change from their boats or have them
transported overland from one waterway to another.

CHAPTElt IV. CH^KIANG. 231

A canal, more to the S., connects "Wenchow Fu jg. jHI fl^
and P'ingyang hsien Zp ^ ^^.

(For the T'ai-Jiu -jk W\ ***" Great lake, the Southern part
of which borders on Northern ChSkiang, tee Section IT. Ch. IV.
p. 156).

To protect the country from tlic violent tides, a sirong sea-
wall has been constructed from the Yung-kiang ^ ^ to a point
opposite Hangchow [iUi ^).

(For the coast-line, see Section IV).

Fauna and Flora. — To the S. of the Tayii-ling, the fauna and flora are those
of Fokieu, but less luxuriant and less abundant. The banana becomes rare, but many
orange and palm-trees are found and especially splendid bamboos.

To the N. of the Tayii-ling, the fauna and flora are identical with those of
Kiangsu and Southern Nganhwei ; the tea-plant grows there, and also rice and mul-
berry-trees.

Among the principal species of animals found in the Province, suffice it to
mention the panther, tiger, wild-boar, wolf, deer, and several kinds of monkeys ; among
the trees : the tallow and varnish-trees, the pine, fir and camphor-trees, the bamboo,
mulberry, chestnut, azalea, camellia, kidney-bean tree and rhododenron or rose-bay.

The coast and also the rivers abound with fish. On tlie coast are found oysters
of extraordinary size, and in the rivers, turtles measuring 3 feet in length,

Agricnltnral Wealth. — This consists chiefly in tea, rice,
silk, cotton and indigo, together with fruit, especially oranges.
Wheat, maize, the sugar-cane, hemp and the opium-poppy are
also cultivated.

Some parts of the Western region are fairly well wooded,
and this is a source of revenue for the country. Vegetable
tallow and beeswax are also important articles of trade.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of Chekiang is of
little importance. Some coal-mines are worked at Ch'uchow Fu
& m M- Building-stone, lime, gypsum and alum are the only
articles which are lound to any extent.

Salt is extracted from sea-water.

Population. — This Province has much suffered and been almost depopulated
by the T'aip'ing rebellion ; it has had however little recourse to the other Provinces to
recuperate itself. The population, active and industrious, furnishes excellent seamen,
who have succeeded in monopolizing a large part of the coast-trade of the neighbouring
regions, especially of the lower Yaugtze-kiang; They do not differ in features and

232

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REfllON.

customs from the population of this latter tract. S. of the Tayii-liiig, are found dipeKsed
here and there, remnants of a former race, the Zikas or Siikias ^ ^ called
also the Yaos ^ (jackals), probably on account of their resemblance with the tribes of
the same name, who occupy the upper leach of the Si-kiapg or West river.

Language.^ Jlfa»(2ar«n is spoken in all the towns, and even in many places
outside them. Two dialects however, are spoken by the people of the country : the
Wenchow dialect, which prevails to the S. of the Tayii-Iing. It is near akin to the
dialects of Fokien, and is not understood by a mandarin-speaking Chinaman. It is
spoken by a million of individuals; — the Ningpo dialect, which is used to the N. of the
Tayii-Iing. It resembles the Sungkiang or Shanghai dialect, and is more easily under-
stood by a Chinaman of the N. It is spoken by the great majority of the population
throughput N. Ch&kiang. The T'aichow Fu aiid Shaohaing Fu dialects are two varieties
of the Ningpo dialect; the latter is harder to be understood by a native of Ningpo.

Cities and Principal Centres. — HANOCHOW FU j^

¥^ M- — Population, 350,000 inhabitants. Situated 150 miles
S.W. of Shanghai, and 80 from Ningpo, it is a treaty port and
one of the finest and most famous cities of China. "Above is
Heaven?', says the Chinese proverb, "and below, Soocltow and
Hangchow". It is built on the left bank of the Ts'ient'ang-
kiang J^ # tL. and at the Southern terminus of the Grand
Canal. Its site is most beautiful, beside the river with its
great tidal wave, while to the rear of the city rises a graceful hill
crowned with pagodas and kiosks, and in the distance is a
range of mountains furrowed with deep valleys. One of the
sights of Hangchow is the famous ^rhu 'g^ fj^ or West lake,
celebrated by poets, covered with elegant boats, dotted with
islets upon which are numerous kiosks and villas, while in
Summer the surface of its water is decked with thousands of
water-iilies. Hangchow is still noted as a pleasure-resort. It is
also a silk manufacturing centre, but it no longer enjoys its former
celebrity, for practically speaking, it has but one long street
bordered with rich warehouses, the rest of the city being a vast
desert since its devastation by theT'aip'ings. It impoi'tskeTOseine
oil, soap, sugar, iron and copper; and ex-ports green tea, piece-
goods, medicines and paper fans. The total net value of the port has
been in 1903, Hk. Tls. 15,607,133; in 1904, Tls. 17,747,662;
and in 1905, Tls. 17,496,980.

About 30 miles to the N. of the city is the aatmtoHum of

GHAPTEB IV. CHEKIANG. 233

Mohkan-shan ^ -^ iJj , resorted to in Summer by foreigners.

To the N. of Hangchow :

KUiJiMng Fu ^^^. — A town intersected with numerous
canals, and ruined also formerly by the T'aip'ings -jk: ^. It is
famous lor its gauzes and silk neckties.

Huchow Fu ^ ^ j^. — Population, 100,000 inhabitants.
A town situated like the preceding one, in a plain abounding
in mulberry-trees and rice-fields. It was the last place where
the T'aip'ings ^2Jp. held out in Chekiang Jjlf ;tC- Here their leader
at the head of 60,000 men had to surrender after a desperate
battlfi. The Province henceforth enjoyed peace (1865).

Alotpg Vie sea-coast, & little distance inland :
Slutohsing FuffS^}(f. — Population, 500,000 inhabitants.
A large city styled sometimes like Soochow ^ ^ the "Venice
of China". It is situated in the centre of a fertile plain inter-
sected by large canals. Excellent rice-spirit is manufactured
there. It supplies a large part of the secretaries to the various
Provincial Government offices of the Empire.

Ningpo Tu %'il^ (tranquil wave). — Population, 260,000
inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Nanking treaty
of 1842. It is built in a plain^ on the left bank of the Yung-
kiang ^ ^, and is 15 miles from the sea. The town is walled
in and surrounded by a moat. The streets are fine and spanned
by memorial arches. It possesses a, valuable library of Chinese
works, and manufactures household furniture, matting and
carpets. The principal imports are kerosene oil, cotton piece-
goods, matches, sugar, coal, opium, tin, iron, soap and candles*
Its exports are rush-hats, matting, paper fans and umbrellas,
green tea, carpets, raw cotton^ medicines, groundnut oil and
joss-paper (tinfoil paper in the form of shoes of sycee, burnt by
the Chinese before the shrine of the god of wealth, and at the
burial of the dead). Ice-preserved fish is a considerable article
of commerce. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Hk. Tls. 22,240,093; in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412; and in 1905,
Tls. 19,163i630.

234 SECTION in. the southern region.

W^nchmv Fw ^ ^ )^. — Population, 80,000 inhabitanls.
A treaty port situated on the right bank of the Ngeu-kiangg| j^j^,
a few miles from the sea. It formerly monopolized the tea
trade, but this has much declined of late, owing to careless
cultivation and selection. The principal imports are kerosene
oil, palm-leaf fans, cotton-yarn and piece-goods, aniline dyes,
sugar and matches. The eacports are timber and soft wood in
large quantity, paper umbrellas (kittysols), medicines, orang(^s
(33,385 piculs in 1905, or 39,744 cwt weight), otter skins and
tobacco leaf. The total net value of the port has been in 1903,
Ilk. Tls. 2,589,333; in 1904, Tls. 2,388,699; and in 1905.
Tls. 2,257,021.

In the Chusan ^ j[| (Cheu-shan) Islands :

Tinghai T'ing % f^ 0. — Population, 30,000 inhabilnnts.
Capital of the Chusan (Cheushan) ^ ilj archipelago, and a com-
mercial town, exporting matting, ropes and fruit. It is a strategic
point of great importance, but its harbour is difficult of access.

Ascending the Ttfiem^ang-hiang and its affluents :

Y&nclimv Tu ^ y^ ^. — Population, 15,000 inhabitants.
A town well situated at the confluence of the Ts'ient'ang kiang
and a tributary flowing into it from Nganhwei ^ ^. The place
does a good trade, and exports indigo, paper, timber, tea and
beeswax.

TMnJifi listen ^ ^ ^. — Population, 200,000 inhabitants.
A large mart at the junction of the two rivers which form
the Ts'ient'ang-kiang. Devastated by the T'aip'ing rebellion,
it has rapidly risen from its ruins. The pawnshops and banks
are in the hands of Nganhwei people ^ ® A ; the foreign
goods and native cloth stores are conducted by Shaohsing l"u
fg H /ff merchants, while the Pokienese |a ^ A monopolize
the sugar, date, fruit and general-merchandise trade. The
Chlnaware business is carried on by natives of Kiangsi ^ ^.

Kinhwa Fu^^}^. — A town well situated, and celebrated
for its hams, its preserved eggs and its ginseng.

K'uchow Fu ^ ^ ^. — A commercial city, up to which
large junks can ascend, as to Kinhwa Fu. Excellent fruit grow

CHAPTER IV. CHEKIANG. 235

in the surrounding country. It exports to Lank'i hsien ^ ^
1^ large quantities of paper, cereals, bamboo and timber.

Industry and Commerce. — The chiei' products of Ghe-
kiang comprise silk piece-goods, carpets, matting and household
furniture.

Its principal exports are silk and satins, tea, rice and oranges;
its imports are cotton piece-goods, kerosene oil and opium.
Half the trade of the Province is carried on through Shanghai

± m-

Higliways of Commnnlcatlon. — Nearly all the commu-
nications are made by waterways, the sea route, rivers and
canals. Ditches connect the water courses beyond the places
where they are no longer navigable. It is thus that through
communication is established with Nganhwei ^ ^, Kiangsi ^
U and Fokien jjig ^, as well as between the tributaries of the
Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^ ^ {L and of the Ngeu-kiang ^ fC

The important viaduct which reaches from the mouth of the
Yung-kiang ^ f£ till opposite Hangchow Fu ^ ;H1 jff deserves
special mention. Constructed formerly on a swamp, it is about 5
feet wide and 95 miles in length, and is still used both as a road
and as a tow-path for boats travelling on the canal, which it
skirts, now on one side now on the other.

Open Ports. — Chekiang jjjf xL has three porls open to
foreign trade : Ningpo Fu ^ '^lj^ ^, Winchow Fu 'jS^ j^ }^ and
Banff chow Fu jl^ )^ )^.

Note. — Hangchow Fu lyi j^ was the capital of the Empire
during the last half of the Sung dynasty A.D. H27-1280.

References :

JPBOVINGE OF FOKIEN.

Rousset. — A travers la Chine. Paris,
1878. (Ch. I. p. 24-43. Le Plenve Min. —
Ch. II. p. 44-6G et Ch. III. p. C7-!^5. La
Ville et les environs de Fou-toheou).

Rocher. — Notes de Voyage en Chine
centrale. (le Po-kien).

Oothonay. — Le Fokieu . (Missions Catho-

liques 1901).
David. — Journal de Voyage. Paris. 1875.

(Vol. II. Ch. 28 h la fin).
Svoboda. — Futschau Fou am Minflusse.

1888.

236

SECTION III. THE SOUTHERN REGION.

Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Vol. I. p. 107-119).

Grosler^ — General Description of China.
London, 1795. {Vol. I. p. 62-64).

Winterbotham. — Historical and Geogr.
View of the Chinese Empire. London,
1795. p. 70-79.

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1813.
(Vol. III. P.3S-39).

Du HaWe. — Description of the Empire
of China-. London, 1738. (Vol. I. p. &3-86).

GutzlaiT. — China opened. London. 1838.
(Vol. I. p. 118-124).

Parker E.H.— Chinese Bevenue. Fokien.
(N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1905. p. 110-112).

ParKer E. H. — A Journey in Fuhkien.
(N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1884. p. 41-74)..

Parker E.H. — A Journey from Poo-
chow to Wenchow through Central Fuh-
kien. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 1884. p. 75-93).

liittle A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1905.
p. 115-120.

Hamilton A. B. — Notes of a Land Jour-
ney from Foochow to Kiukiang. i^Geogr.
Journal. 1905. p. 69-74).

Fortune K. — Tea Countries of China.
London. 18c3. (Amoy. Vol. I. Ch. -II. p.
15-30. — Foochow and the Black Tea
districts. Vol. I. Ch. XVn. p. 278-294. —
The Bohea Hills. Vol. II. Ch. 7, 8, 11, 12,
14 and 15).

Cummins C. F. — Wanderings in China
London, 1900. (On the Min Eiver.- Oh.

VI. p- 87-102. — Life on the Eiver. Ch.

VII. p. 113-115. — In Foochow City. Ch.
IX. p. 125-133).

Topography o! Fokien. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XI. p. 651-659).

Notices of Amoy and its Inhabitants. —
Chinese Repository. (Vol, XII. p. -ace-
296).

Kulangsu and Amoy. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XI. p. 504-509).

Notices of Foochow. — Chinese Repository.
(Vol. XV. p. 185-218. Vol. XVI. p. 483-500
and 513-528).

Navigation of the Min River. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. XVI. p. 225-233).

Visit to Changchow Fu. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. XII. p. 523-533. Vol. 'XVL
p. 75-84). ,

Expedition to the Bohea Hills. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol IV. p. 92-96).

Description of the Tea-plant. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. VIII. p. 132-164).

Philips G. — Early Portuguese Trade in
Fokien. (China Review. Vol. XIX. p.
42-51).

Philips G. — Early Spanish Trade' with
Changchow Fu. (China Review. Vol.
XIX. p. 243-255. Vol. XX. p. 25-28)."

Episodes in the Histoi-y of Amoy. — China

, Review (Vol. XXI. p. 80-100).

A Trip on Fokien Waterways. — China
Review. (Vol. XXL p. 335-347). ''

General Geographical Description of Amoy.

— China Review. (Vol. XXII. p. 571-577^
and 690-693).

Amoy Emigration to the Straits. — China

Review: (Vol XXII. p. 621-626).
Natural History of Amoy. — China Review.

(Vol. XXII. p. 712-717, and 734-735),
The small Knife Rebels at Amoy. — Oliina

Review. (Vol I. p. 244-248, and 318r.352). ,
Miohie A. — The Englishman in China.

London, 1900. (The new Treaty Ports?

Foochow, Amoy, Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch. VHI.

p. 112-123).

Wilcox M C. — Foochow and the River

Min. (F,ast of Asia Magazine. Vol. III. p.

71-86).
KauOman K. E. — The Beautiful Eiver

Min. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. III. p.

331-343).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. Decen-
nial Reports. 1882-1891. Shanghai, .1893;
(Foochow. p. 407-432, with plan of Port
and sketch map of the Min River. —
Amoy. p. 495-524, with plan of Port), j

Imperial Marit. Customs. Returns of Trade.
1905. (Foochow trade Report, p. 355-368.

— Amoy trade Report, p. 369-382).

PBOriNCM OF CHEKIANG.

Fanvel. — La Province du Tchfi-kiang.
(Questions diplomatiques et coloniales.
18S9).

Fauvel. — L'ltalio au Tchfi-kiang. 1899.
(extrait du Correspondant).

CHAPTER IV. CHEKIANG.

237

La France au Toh6-kiang, par un Frangais.

Chaug-hai, 1901.
Cordiea*. — Origine de deux Stablissemeuts

Fran^ais (Chaug-hai, Ning-po). Paris,

189B.
Bock. — L'lle sacree de Pouto, archipel

des Tchou-san. (Soo. Gtogr., 190]).
Carli If Mario. — II Ce kiang. Studio

geografioo-eoonomico. Roma, 1899.
Vannutelli. — Une excursione nel Ce-

Idang. (Bol. soo. geogr. Italiane, 1899).
Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Vol. I, p. 93-107).
Crosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Vol. I. p. 64-69).
Winterbottaam. — Historical and deogr.

View of the Chinese Empire. London,

1795. p. 79-83.
Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 181.3.

(Vol. III. p. 25-26).
l>u Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Vol. I. p. 93-98).
GutzIafT, — China opened. London, 1833.

(Vol. I. p. 112-118).
Parker E.U. — Chinese Revenue, Ch6-

kiang. (N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1895. p. 104-107).
Parker E. H. — A Journey in Chfikiang.

(N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1834. p. 27-53).
Parker E. II. — The Wenchow Dialect.

(China Review. Vol. XII. p. 162-17.5, and

S76-389. — The-Ningpo Dialect, ibid. Vol.

XIII. p. 138-149).
Lyall L. A. -r- A trip from Hangchow

through S. Anhwei. (China Review. Vol.

XXIII. p. 90-98, and 153-163).
Miclile A. — The Englishman in China.

London, 1900. (The New Treaty Ports:

Foochow, Amoy, Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch.

VIII. p. 112-123).
Richthofen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.

(Ch6kiang aiid Nganh'wei. p. 40-55).
Little A. — The Par East. Oxford, 190.5.

p. 100-115.
Maogowan J. — Notes on the ChSkiang

Miaotsz'. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1869. p. 123-

128).
Da Halde. — From Ningpo to Peking.

(Vol. I. p. 35-46).
Cununing O. F. — Wanderings in China.

London, 1900. (Ningpo. Ch. XXII. p. 276-

283).
Topography of Ch6kiang. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. XI. p. 101-110, and 162-173).
Milne W. C. — Seven Months in Ningpo.

Chinese Repository. (Vol. XIII. passim,
and Vol. XVI. passim).

Dcniiain J. E. — The Ningpo Greenstone
Quarries. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. II.
p. S65-371).

Moule A. E. — Ningpo Ancient and Mo-
dern. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. IV.
p. 128-138).

Moule A. E. — Ningpo under the T'ai-
pings. 1861-63. (East of Asia Magazine,
1906. VoL V. p. 1-15, and 114-131).

The Tablet of Yii. — China Review. (Vol.

II. p. 2!'3-306).

InveenE. — The Tomb of Tayii, at Shao-
hsing. (East of Asia Magazine! 1906. Vol.
V. p. 184-190V

Hudson B. — tlokanshan. (East of Asia
Magazine. 1905. Vol. IV. p. 285-297).

Green J. — A trip to the Hangchow Bore.
(Kast of Asia Magazine. 1908. Vol. II. p.
43-58).

Cloud F. D. — Hangchow, the City of
.Heaven, with a brief historical sketch of
Soochow the beautiful. Shanghai, 1906.

Fowler. — Hangchow, the new Treaty
Port of China. (Consular Reports. 1896).

The Chasan Archipelago. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. IX. p. 101-106).

Occupation of Chusan. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. IX. p. 408-414. Vol. X. passim).

Davis S'ir J. F. — Chusan in British
Occupation. (Chinese Miscellanies'. Lon-
don, 1865. n° 7. p. 127-162).

Gundry R. S. — Sketches of Excursions
to Chusan and Pootoo. Shanghai, 1876.

Kupfer O. F. — Pootoo, China's sacred
Island. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904. Vol.

III. p. 264-281, and p. 357-362);
Fortune R. — Tea Countries of China.

London, 18.53. (Ningpo Vol. I. Ch. VI. p.
61-90,ana Ch. IX. p. 135-162.— Hangchow.
Vol. ;II. Ch. I. p. 12-27. — Chusan. Vol.
I. Ch. iv: p. 42-60, and Ch. X. p. 163-178.
Ch. XV. p. 241-261).

China. Imperial Marit. Customs. Decennial
Reports. 1882-1891. Shanghai, 1893 (Ning-
po. p. 313-386, with map of Chtkiang
and plan of Ningpo. — Wenchow. p. 387-
407, with plan of city).

Imperial Marit. Customs. Returns of Trade.
1905. (Ningpo trade Report, p. 319-330. —
Wenchow trade Report, p. 331-340. —
Hangchow trade Report, p. 309-318).

SECTION IV.

THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

Preliminary Observation.

On account of its extent, and also of its importance, the coast-line of China
deserves special attention. It might have been studied in portions, in connection with
each of the 6 Maritime Provinces ; the knowledge of these Provinces would thereby
have been more complete. This coast however forms a whole, being washed by the
same ocean, visited by the same ships which trade in its numerous harbours, and so
it seemed preferable to make it the object of a special study.

It would have been likewise necessary to refer constantly to general notions,
which could not be repeated each time over. A collective study would moreover
contribute to give prominence to the differences that exist between such and such
a part of the coast. Besides, it will be easy to connect, should the reader desire
it, the study of the Maritime Provinces and their coast-line. The division here
adopted, and references to the Provinces in which the towns are situated, will faci-
litate this work. After some general notions, the coast of each of the Maritime
Provinces will be studied separately, commencing at the N. and proceeding Southwards,
thus: Chihli it ^, Shantung: ill !$, Kiangsn tlM, ChSkiang $r £C, Fokien
^ ^ and Kwangtung ^ y^.

GENERAL NOTIONS. 239

1° . General notions.

The study of the coast naturally comprises; the nature of its formation, its level
ami configuration, the seas bordering on it, the winds, currents and tides which prevail
throughout it, its harbours and ports, lighthouses, buoys and beacons for navigation
purposes, with an account of the shipping that is carried on along it. All these details
are necessary indeed for the navigator and the merchant, but we cannot but touch
upon them briefly in this work.

Extent of tlie coast-line. — The coast-line of China is
extensive, being upwards of 2,150 miles in length, or if we in-
clude the minor indentations and inlets, from 4,500 to 5,000
miles, which gives one mile of coast to every 306 miles of surface.

Configuration of tite Coast. — The coast of China has
Ihe form of an immense semicircle. The most advanced point is
situated in the islands opposite ChSkiang f^ fx_, longitude 123°
E. of Greenwich. At both extremities are a gulf, and a promontory
or peninsula: the gulf of ChiMi ig^ or Foh-hai ^ fg, and the
Shantunff ijj ^ prmnontory on the N., the gvlf of TongMno ^
M ^SS (Tongking-haiku), and tlie Ji^chow f|^ peninsula on
the S. If the latter is less important than Shantung ]}] y^ pro-
montory, the island of Hainan ^ |^^ which is its extension into
the sea, makes both nearly equal in length.

Seas. — The coast of China, like the rest of Eastern Asia,
is washed by the Pticific Ocean.

The TcitAfic Ocean or T'alpHng-yang -js^^T^ (great peaceful
sea), lies between Eastern Asia, Australia, N. and S. America.
Expanding largely to the S. between Tasmania and Cape Horn,
it narrows in towards the N., where it is separated from the
Arctic Ocean ov PehpHn^-yang Jft^^f^^^Y Behrinff Strait M^llfJJ
(mehling-hsiah, i.e. dark pass). Its area is about 62,000,000 square
miles. Bordered on the W. by archipelagoes and shoals, it attains
on the E. great depths up to the coast of America, along which
run lofty mountains. It is surrounded by a circle of volcanoes,
several of which are still in activity. Its depth is very great,
and varies from 900 to 4,000 fathoms, which it reaches to the

240

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

America.

E. of Japan, in the Tusearora
tlepression; in the S., near the
Tonga or FrienMy Islands, it at-
tains in one place as much as
5,000 fathoms in depth. Two
principal currents traverse it on
the N. of Ihe Equator : 1° a
warm one, called the Kwro-sitvo
or blade sea, which comes from
the E., and after meeting the
Philippine coast, takes a N. E.
direction, running along the B.
of Formosa, the Liuk'iu $£ M
Islands and Japan, and finally
warming the coast of North Ame-
rica ; 2" a cold-current stream,,
which descending from Behring
Strait, divides into several bran-
ches, and runs along the coasts
of Kamchatka and Alaska. The
latter is of much less importance
than the former.

In its Western part, the Paci-
fic Ocean forms on the Asiatic
coast several seas, separated from
the deep waters by a chain of
volcanic islands (the Philippines, Formosa, Liuk'iu, Japan and
the Kurile Islands). These shallow and less saline seas are
scarcely influenced by the kuro-siwo. They are the South
China Sea or Nan-hai '^ ^, and tl^e Eastern China Sea or
Tuno-hai "^ f^, the Tellotv Sea or Hwanff-hai ^ f$, the Sea
of Japan or JTehphi-Iiai B ^ ^> and the Sea of Okhotsk f|J
^ ^ ;J55 f^ (Ngohhohts'ekoh-hai). Of these only the three first
mentioned, border on the coast of China, and so we shall des-
cribe only them.

China Sea.

Hainftn I.

Gulf of Tongking.

Tongking.

, GENERAL NOTIONS. ! •. 2'41

General remarks on the seas of China. — 1° They are far less saline
than the Pacific Ocean . ...

2° They are miich less deep, never reaching over 1,000 fathoms, except in the
depression which lies between Hainan Island and the Philippines. -

3° The height of the tides is exceedingly variable. It is hardly noticeable in
the gulf of Chihli and at Hongkongj where it scarcely exceeds G 4 feet ; it is much
more marked between Amoy and the Min-kiang or Foochow river, where it rises to 16
feet and even more.

4° The variation in the temperatvire of the water is much less than on the main-
land. It has been calculated that in February, when the temperature of the sea
attained 78° Fahrenheit opposite Hainan, it reached from 68° to 59° opposite Hong-
kong, and was respectively 50°, and from 41° to 32° opposite OhSkiang and Shantung.
In August, when the temperature of the sea ranged from 82° to 86° Fahrenheit opposite
Hainan, it attained from 77° to 66", between Hongkong and Shantung i?pint, and
reached from 69° to 59° further to the N . The difference therefore between extreme
heat and cold is found to be but 86° in those seas, while on the Continent, it reaches
to and exceeds 140° Fahrenheit. It is thus easy to see the great influence which
the proximity of the sea has upon the coast regions, either in raising their colder
atmosphere, or cooling it in the hot season. • - ■ i

The Tettow Sea or Hwanff-hai ^ f^. — This is situated
between the Western coast of Korea, and the coast of China, from
the Miaotao ^ ft islands to the mouth of the Yangtze-kiang
a ^ f^. It is so called, because of the colour of its waters,
which are yellow, being mixed with the silt of the Hwang-ho
^ jpf. It formerly flowed directly into th* sea, but since 1854
reaches it through the Poh-hai ^ ^. — The Poh-hai itself is
situated between the Eastern coast of Manchuria, the coast of
Chihli ]t ^ and the N. W. coast of Shantung }\\ y^. It
comprises two gulfs: the gulf of Chihli |i[ ^ to the W., and
the gulf of Leaotung ^ ;^ ^ (Leaotung-wan) to the N.

The Eastern China Sea or Tung-hai ;^ %, lies to Ihe S. of
the Yellow Sea, between the strait of Korea, the South Japanese
islands, the Liuk'iu Jjg 3^ group, Formosa island, Formosa
strait, and the coast of China, from the Min-kiang P £c to
the Yangtze-kiang i^ ^ fL-

The Formosa Channel is situated to the S. of this sea, between
Formosa island, and that part of the coast of China, which extends
between the Han-kiang ^ fl and the Min-kiang f^ it rivers.

The South-China Sea or Nan-hai ^ %, lies to the S. of
Formosa channel, between the Philippines, Borneo, the Malacca

16

242

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

peninsula, Indo-China and the coast of Kwangtung ^ ^. It
forms to the S. of Kwangtung the important g%af of Ton^hing
(Tungking-haiku) % t^ U HSi-

Nature of the Coast. — The coast of China is of a twofold
character : alluvial and granitic.

The first exhibits straight lines or regular curves, the neigh-
bouring country is flat and covered with marshes or lakes,
the sea is shallow and interspersed with shoals, there are few good
harbours, and these are accessible only to boats of light draught.
Large rivers cutting a channel through the sand can alone enable
vessels of heavy tonnage to enter; a bar is moreover sometimes
formed at their mouths, and thereby lessens the depth of the water.
Chihli jg ^, the N. and N. W. of Shantung \\i J^, and Kiangsu
^ ^ have a coast-line of this kind.

All the other parts of the coast are granitic These offer an
uninterrupted series of indentations, the coastal region is hilly,
the sea pretty deep, and almost free from shoals. Instead of these
latter are countless islands and islets, which genei-ally form deep
and well sheltered 'havens. All along this coast-line, harbours
are to be found, either beside a bay or an island, or near the banks
of a river, and afford excellent anchorage. This latter coast may
be further subdivided according as the mountain chains are parallel
or perpendicular to the seaboard.

In the former case, long chains of islands generally border
the coast. These islands abound in excellent havens, but the
currents that pass through them are at times dangerous, and the
water between them is of little depth.

In the latter case, the chain of islands prolongs into the
sea the coast of the mainland. They have lengthy and deep bays,
which are closed at their extremities. Long excursions must be
often made to find through these islands a safe anchorage.

Shantung |J[j ]g and Ch&hiang offer n coast-line especially of
the second kind ; both kinds are found in Fokien ^ ^ ; as
to Kwangtung ^ ^, its coast-line belongs rather to the first

type.

GENERAL NOTIONS. 243

Coast winds. — The prevailing system in the China seas
is that called monsoons. Monsoons are periodical winds of con-
siderable steadiness, blowing in one direction during part of the
year, and from another, during the remaining part. At the time
when the winds change, there is an intermediate stage during
which they are variable.

In the China seas, the wind blows as a general rule during
Winter, from the N.E., and during Summer, from the S.W.

This system is however liable to numerous exceptions
according to localities and to latitude. It is also necessary to
remark that this wind is subject to both a dinmal as well as an
annual variation.

The ffinter monsoon begins to be felt in the N. of the East-
ern China sea, about September, but in the S. scarcely before
November. It sets in at times by a sudden and violent gale,
which lasts from 10 to 12 days. It attains its maximum force
in December, January and February. It lessens in March,
April being considered in the N. as the finest Month. May is
an intermeditUe season, during which the wind blows at times
from the N.E., and at others from the S.W.

The Summer monsoon commences to be felt earlier in the
S., towards the middle or end of April, as a general rule. It fol-
lows at first the Southern coast, and then reaches the high sea
and the Philippines. It lasts also longer in the S. than in the
N. ; thus it is felt at Singapore till the middle of October, and
at the mouth of the Yangtze till the beginning of September. It
blows regularly during June, July and August. This is the sea-
son, of torrential rain and cloudy weather.

The Summer monsoon is much less constant and less violent than the Winter
one, and so offers less hindrance to navigation when proceeding in a direction contrary
to it. In the South-China Sea, the wind during this monsoon blows frequently from S.
or S.S.E. In the Formosa channel, at the same period, July-August-September, a
violent wind blows at times from the N.E. during the typhoons.

At Shanghai, according to the Sicawei Observatory, the direction of the wind is
as follows :

"1° Diurnal variation. During the Winter monsoon, September-March,
the wind tends to blow from W. in the morning, then from N., and from E, in the
evening, as if the atmosphere were attracted sunwise. From 6 p. m. to 6 a. m., the
breeze does not complete the circle, but backs to W.

"During the Summer monsoon, June-July-August, the wind blows from S.
towards midnight, shifting to the E. at sunrise. It then backs to the S. about 10 a. m.,

244

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

veers again towards the B. until sunset, and backs once more to the S. in the night.
"During the transition period, March to May, the direction passes progres-
sively from one system to the other.

Winter Monsoon.

The letters J. P. M... indi-
cate the months of the year ;
January, February, March
etc.

0

a.

Summer Monsfmn.

Direction of the Wind.

"2° Annual variation. From November to January, the wind blows from
N.N.W., the greatest sally to the W. being in December; in November and January,
the wind blows from the same direction, bearing closely on the N. In February, it
blows from N.N.E., and in March, from N.E. ; from April to August, it comes from
S.B., July giving the most Southerly resultant; in September and October, it blows
from N.E., bearing closer and closer on the N., which it crosses again in November.

"In the annexed diagram, as given by the same Observatory, the length of
the lines connecting each apex of the polygon with the centre (c) of the mariner's
card, is proportional, not to the force of the resultant (which may be very small), but
to the aggregate of the wind for the month. The lines CN and CD, give at the same
time the set direction of the resultant.

"It may be seen hereby that the sum total of the wind is the least in October,
and the greatest in July".

The following is, according to the above Observatory, the cause of these monsoons
and the direction from which they blow.

"The Summer monsoon, or that which blows from S.W., is caused by the
high temperature and low atmospheric pressure which prevail over the continent.

GENERAL NOTIONS. 245

"The wind rushes landwise from the sea, but is deviated to the right on account
of the earth's rotatory motion. It is thus that the monsoon blows
from S. or S.W. in Kwangtung,
from S.W. in the Formosa Channel,

from S.E. at Shanghai,

from S.W. ill Shantung.

"The monsoon sets in progressively, the change beginning in March and April,
in the N.; and in May, in the Formosa Ohamiel. In June, the Summer system prevails
along the whole coast. At Shanghai, it lasts from April to August, i.e. about 4 months.

"The Winter moitsoon, or that which blows from N. E., is caused by the low
temperature and high atmospheric pressure prevalent on the Asiatic continent. The wind
blows seaward from the land, always deviating to the right, and thus it turns around
the continent in the direction of the bands of a watch, or forming a clockwise system.
The direction is N. in Shantung,

N.W. at Shanghai,

N. E. in the Formosa Channel,

E. at Hongkong.

"Contrary to what happens in India, the Winter monsoon is steadier and stronger
than the Summer one, at least in the Formosa Channel. A N . E. gale may be said to
blow with short interruptions at the Pescadores, during the whole season.

"The Winter monsoon sets in towards the first half of September, or even at the
end of August. At Shanghai, it lasts nearly 7 months".

CJyclones ,|g ®i (Siien-fung i.e. revolving winds). — The China seas are often
visited by cyclones, which cause immense ravages on the coasts.

Cyclones are whirling storms, and originate as follows. The barometric pressure
is abnormally low over a more or less restricted area. All around ihis depression or
centre, the wind blows sometimes with extreme violence, moving from right to left
contrariwise to the movement of the hands of a watch (thus in the Korthern hemis-
phere ; in the Southern one, they move in an opposite direction). These winds blow
spirally inwards towards the centre.

The whole vortex of the cyclone has a movement of translation, of variable dire-
ction and velocity. The area covered by the storm is sometimes very considerable, and
may extend (as on the S"" of August, 1901) from Nagasaki to Ma^ao, a distance of
1,360 miles.

Two distinct classes of cyclones may be distinguished; continental land.stornis
and typhoons. The former are experienced in the N. of the China seas, the latter
in the S.

1° Continental landstorms. — These originate in Siberia or Western China,
and travel towards the sea, with a marked curve to the N. E. After crossing the coast-
line, they generally gain more strength, and become very violent in reaching Japan or
the sea of Japan.

They are principally to be feared in Winter. Their passage is generally followed
by a N. or N.W. gale, on the Northern part of the China coast; in the S., by a sometimes
very severe increase of the N. E. monsoon.

Their velocity of translation may reach 60 miles an hour or fall to ,8. It averages
from 25 to 30.

2° Typhoons H H (Paofung i.e. violent or devastating winds). — These are
formed over the Pacific, S. of the 20'" parallel, N. Lat. After travelling first to N, W.,

246 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINK OF CHINA.

some of them cross the China Sea, towards Indo-China and the golf of Tongking, whilst
others bend to N. E., to visit the China coast or Japan,

It is especially in Summer that they are dreaded. They are announced on the
coast of China by a fall of the glass with N. B. winds, which veer round in accordance
with the laws of cyclonic storms.

Their velocity of translation, low whilst recurving, increases rapidly when they
move away from the China coast. Typhoons scarcely approach Shanghai, except from
July to September. They may travel at the rate of 50 miles an hour.

Fogs ^ (Wu, i.e. mist or vapour). — Fogs, so dreaded by seamen, are common
at the mouth of the Yangtze, in Sf ring, and quite exceptional in Autumn. The same
fact is verified along the coast, down to the S. of the Formosa channel.

On the N. coast of China, the maximum takes place in July; and the minimum,
from August to November.

At Rongkong, the densest fogs prevail in March and April.

lAffhthotises, buoys and beacons, — To guide seamen in
the darkness of the night, and through fogs, reefs and shoals,
scarcely anything had been done up to 1854. A few smoky
lanterns easily extinguished, some bamboo poles stuck into the
mud, a bell tolled in foggy weather, were all that existed.

Since that time, thanks to the energy of Sir R. Hart, In-
spector-general of the Imperial Maritime Customs, numerous
lighthouses have been erected at the most important points of
the coast. Lightships have been placed at the most frequented
places, and buoys and beacons fixed in the passages rendered
most dangerous by reefs, currents or shoals. In 1905, there were
to be counted no less than 102 lighthouses, 25 lightships, 113
buoys and 109 beacons, along the coast of China and on its
principal rivers. We shall mention the most important light-
houses when describing each part of the coast. Two of them
are connected with the Chinese telegraph system, and give timely
warning of approaching cyclones to the Sicawei Observatory, near
Shanghai _i.%- In foggy weather, gongs, sirens, and the firing
of cannon constantly warn ships and junks of impending danger.

The flrBt UgMhouae on the China coast, properly speaking,
was erected in 1867, near Chefoo ^ ^, in Shantung il| ^, on
S'ungfunff jj^ lIlM ft (K'ungt'ung-tao) island. As early as 1855
however, a light had been placed on the T'ungsha j^ ^ banJe
at the mouth of the Yangtze ^^fx. river. The latest constructed
lighthouse is that of Tungyung ^ ^ island, at the mouth of the
Min-kiang ^ j!!, in Fokien. It is 325 feet above the sea-level,
and is visible to a distance of 25 miles.

aENBR^^L NOTIONS.

247

LIGHTHOUSES ON THE N. COAST OP CHINA.

248

SECTION IV. - THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

GENERAL NOTIONS. 249

The lighthouse of our Lady of Guia, has existed for long
years at Macao.

None of these lighthouses yet employ electric light. All
use vegetable oil, except those of the N. which burn kerosene,
as the severe cold would freeze vegetable oil.

One of the most famous is the Pehyu-sJian ;|fc ^ [Ij light-
house, on Shasho island, S. of the Ningpo "^ ^ river, in Che-
kiang ^ ^ Province. It is 345 feet above the level of the sea,
and flashes its light to a distance of 26 miles.

Tides ^ ^ (Haioh'ao, i.e. sea-flow). — The sea rises and falls twice daily along
the coast. This phenomenon is due to the united action of the sun and moon, which
attract, and as it were heap up the waters of the globe. The moon however being
nearer to the earth, exerts a predominating influence in the ratio of 2i to 1. It is shortly
after the new and full moons that the tides are highest. In proportion as the moon is
nearer, and its influence more combined with that of the sun, the more is its action
felt. With the two bodies acting in concert, we have the spring or high tides, but
when they act in opposition, we have the neap or low tides.

Tides are locally affected by the eonfiguration of the coasts, variation in the depth
of the ocean, winds, and also to a slight extent by the changes of atmospheric pressure,
hence the impulse is not felt everywhere at the same time. This retardation is a matter
of observation peculiar to each locality, and known technically as the establishment
of tJis port. It is thus that at Hongkong, the impulse is felt an hour earlier than at
the Chusan ^ \i] (Cheushan) islands.

Between the Southern coast of Korea and the extremity of the gulf of Chihli,
the difference is much more marked. It is only 8 hours after being felt in Korea, that
the tides reach Shantung Point, 14 hours afterwards they reach the Miaotao ^ ^
islands, and 20 hours later penetrate to the extremity of the Gulf of Chihli.

Islands and promontories, around which the tides have to turn, greatly retard
their progress.

Tides are of great importance for navigation. Owing to them many rivers become
navigable to a considerable distance from their mouth, shoals and bars can be crossed,
and large boats may enter ports, which would otherwise be inaccessible.

It is on the coast of Pokien, as stated above, that the tides of the China seas
attain their greatest height, reaching about ]7i feet ; South of the Formosa channel,
they reach even 23 feet, helped by favourable winds in certain extraordinary circums-
tances.

A rather remarkable phenomenon occurs on the coast of Tongking, where there
te but one tide daily. A dissimilar curious modification is noticed in England, at South-
ampton, Poole and Weymouth, where 2 tides occur in twelve hours.

250

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

H
O

OQ

I— I

Q
O

a

a

El]

eu

H

o

X

THE COAST OF CHIHLI. 251

2" . The coast of Chihli It fl

The coast of Chihli ^ ^ is washed by the Poh-hai ^ ^.
Low and frozen during part of the Winter, it would have little
importance but for its proximity to Peking ^ ^, and for the
Peh-ho jQ }pj", which flows into the gulf of Chihli.

Tlie Pob-Iiai ^ ^. — Poh-hai signifies "arm of the sea?'.

It forms in fact a kind of small sea to the W. of the Leaotung
^ ;^ promontory (called also Laot'ieh-shan ^ ^ \\\), and of
the Miaotao JH % islands. The strait of Chihli separates the
Leaotung promontory from the Miaotao archipelago. Its greatest
depth is 40 fathoms. The Poh-hai is not so deep, and attains
at most 24 fathoms. Along the low coast, it is necessary to
keep at a distance of 10 miles, to find a depth of from 16 to 20
feet, unless a river running into the sea opens up a deeper
channel through the sands. The principal river's which thus
enable large ships to approach the coast are the JLeao-ho ^
^, the Feli-ho ^ fpj and the Hwang-ho ^ ^. The first flows
through Manchuria, the second through Chihli, and the third
through Shantung []j y^.

The Poh-hai washes the Western coast of Leaotung, the
Chihli coast, and the North-Western coast of Shantung.

Gnlfs. — Two gulfs are formed by the Poh-hai : the gulf
of Chihli, and the giUf of Leaotung. The latter is but the
continuation into the sea of the great Manchurian valley.

Islands. — There are no islands of importance along the
coast of Chihli, but there are several long sand-banks. The largest
of these is the Ts'aofeitien "^ -^ ^, called also Shaliutien ^
^ ^, situated to the N. E. of the mouth of the Peh-ho. It is
very low, and is distant from the coast about 10 miles. It
measures from 20 to 25 miles in length. A lighthouse, 50 feet
above the sea-level, has been erected on it, and is visible to a
distance of 10 miles.

Ice. — From the month of November, the ice begins to form on the rivers and
over the coast of Chihli. It extends all along the shore and seldom disappears until
March. The Peh-ho remains however navigable at times until the month of January.
Navigation then stops, and ships may find good shelter near Ts'aofeitien, where the
sea is not icebound. The ice forms on the sand-banks at low-water, and is carried by
the rising tide upon the coast, where it develops into a thick mass. The buoys are taken
out of the river during the period while it remains frozen.

252

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

At this season, seamen should beware of floating ice, which attains Bometimes
about .one yard in thickness.

In the N. ot the gulf of Leaotung, the ice lasts much longer, 4^ months on the
average, i.e. from the end of November to the middle of Apiril.

W inds. — From October to March, the wind blows from the N., and from April to
September, from the S. When it comes from the W., it is laden with dust, as in the
interior of Chihli,' and obscures the atmosphere to a distance of about 5 miles out from
the coast. . r '

Natnre of tlie coast. — The coast of Chihli is- low,
sandy, and scantily inhabited by an impoverished population.
As the coast-line is but slightly above the sea-level, the smallest
objects viewed from the sea assume gigantic proportions.

Towards the N., near the Great Wall, the coast-line rises a
little, and offers a few good harbours in which the water is deeper.

Porte. — Three only deserve to be mentioned :

TS'inwanff-tao ^ ]I ft- — Population, 5,000 inhabitants.
An excellent harbour, situated near Shanhai-kwan jlj ^ ^
and the Great Wall. It is free from ice and has deep water,
thereby enabling large Steamers to enter it at all seasons of the
year. Ships with a draught of 17 feet can anchor at its pier.
Iron and coal abound in the neighbourhood, and so it is destined
to become, especially for coal, a large export station.

PeMfang 4fc i^. — A small port on the banks of a river
bearing the same name. The water is shallow, arid boats with
a draught of 12 feet can alone enter it, and only at high water.
Formerly its entrance was protected by two forts.

Tdkti -h ^■— ^ village situated at the mouth of the Peh-
ho 1^ fpf. The forts which protected its entrance have been
destroyed since the Boxer revolt in 1900. The mouth of the
Peh-ho is about 320 yards wide. Three miles further up stands
Tungku ^ ^.

Ships with a draught of 24 feet should keep off Si miles from the mouth of the
Peh-ho. The bar obstructing the entrance is 2 miles long, and steamers with a
draught of more than 10^ feet can hardly pass it. At low water of neaps, it has always
at least 2| feet of water over it.

Even at high-tide, the entrance is dangerous, as the channel is narrow and hard
to be made out when the water has covered its banks.

Steamers with a draught of more than 10 feet can but with difficulty ascend as
far as T'ientsin ^ fit ^if.

A lightship is stationed at the mouth of the river, while buoys and beacons
show the channel over the bar and to the entrance of the river;

THE COAST OF SHANTUNG. 253

3" The coast of Shantung ill %

The coast of Shantung is watered by the Poh-hai jU ^, and
the Hwang-hai ^ ^ or Yellow Sea. In the upper part of the
Province, that is as far as TSngchow Fu ^ i)\\ f^ and the Miao-
'^° M ^ islands, the coast-line is low, and offers the same
characteristics as that of Chihli j|[ ^. In the Southern part,
except in the vicinity of Kiangsu ^ ^, the coast is rocky and
indented, and abounds in bays among which are found some good
harbours. We may call it the coast-line of the promontory, in
order to distinguish it from the other. We shall say but a few
words about the former ; the second requires more details. While
dealing with this subject, we shall give a brief account of the
Miaotao islands, which are of considerable importance.

A. The N. W. coast of Shantung.

This commences at the Miaotao J^ ^ islands, and forms an
arc of a circle, somewhat irregular and broken up on the W ., by
the mouth of the Hwang-ho ^ p^. At first, some 10 or 12
miles inland, hills run along the shore, and throw out a few spurs
into the sea. After bending Northwards, this part offers but low
plains intersected by turbid rivers, and quite resembles the coast of
Chihli. Long sand-banks extend along the shore, and allow only
flat-bottomed junks to approach the shore.

The Bivang-ho ^ fpj itself can be entered only by small
junks. A bar situated at three miles from its mouth obstructs
the entrance, so that the depth at high-tide is but 7 ^ feet,- and
at slack water only 4 ^. The river is moreover constantly dimi-
nishing the depth of the Poh-hai j^ f^, by the alluvial deposits
which it brings down, and so the gulf seems doomed to become
one day an immense plain, continuing that of Chihli ]|[ ^.

B. The Miaotao ^ ^ Islands.

Between TSnffcJiow Fu ^ j^ }^ point and T.aot'ieh-shan

;^ ^ tij or BegenPs Sword, the distance is about 60 miles.
A great part of this space lying between the Poh-hai !/^ % and
the Hwang-hai ^ ;|ft or Yellow sea, is occupied by the Miaotao

254 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OP CHINA.

JH ft archipelago, a remnant of the mountainous chain that
formerly connected Leaotung ^ ^ with Shantung [Ij ^. This
archipelago comprises about 15 islands, forming two groups,
the Northern and Southern.

Ch'angshan ^ [Ij, the largest, is 7 miles long, while its
highest summit attains 470 feet in height.

Heuki ^ 1^, more to the N., is smaller, and reaches an
elevation of 325 feet above the sea-level. It has a lighthouse
of the 1^' order, 329 feet above the sea-level, and visible to a
distance of 24 miles.

The surest route for ships passing through the Miaotao group is to the S. of this
island, and hence adopted by steamers going to Taku ■Jzf^-

To the N. of the archipelago, the passage is easy, and is rendered more so by
the Laot'iehshan lighthouse, 316 feet above sea-level, and visible to a distance of 25
miles.

The archipelago has good anchorage where ships are quite safe. The best is on
the S. of Ch'angshau -g [ll.

C. The coast of the Shantung promontory.

The coast of the promontory is washed by the H-wang-ha.i ^
^ or Yellow Sea. High, broken and indented, it offers a series
of bays and ■promontories, these latter often running out into the
sea in the shape of dangerous reefs and sometimes of islands.
There are however much less islands along this part of the coast
than opposite the three Southern Provinces, but none of them
is considerable. There are some good harbours, but these are
more numerous on the N. On the S.E., as well as on the N. W.,
the hills diverge from the coast, while this latter becomes straight
and low, and abounds in long sand-banks.

Bays. — The bays of this part of Shantung open wider,
and run less inland in the N. than in the S. The principal
are : mi the North: Chefoo ^ % or Tent'ai jtg ^ hav, and
the bap of Weiliaiwei J^ f^ ^ ; — on tJie Bast, Tnnffch'Snff
^ M ^y ^^^ *'** ^V *>f SangUeru-Ti'ow ^ ^ p ; — on the
Smith, the hays of Shihtao-k'otv ^ ft P, ShuhsTian ^j^;, ^,
iMOaltan ^ (Ij and JKiaochow ^ >)i\.

Capes. — The principal capes are: Chefoo cape, the North-
Jlastern and South-Eastem capes of Shantung, cape AdMns or

THE COAST OF SHANTUNG. 255

Ch'anshan j^ []j, and the two headlands which enclose Kiao-
chow bay, the Southern, called Cape Jae8chke,&nA the Northern,
Yiuniahan ^ ^ ^■

Islands. — On the N., K'ungt'ung H^ |||^ g island, in Che-
foo bay, and Alceste island or Hailii-lao ^ 1^ ^, on the N.W.
of the promontory.

On the S,, Staunton island or Sushan-tao j^ [1] ^, the
Central islands and the islands in Laoshan ^ ^J bay.

Ice. — Ice is more rarely found, and lasts less long in the Yellow Sea than in
the Poh-lmi. It often however obstructs some bays, hinders navigation, and as in 1877,
blocks measuring from 4 to 5 feet in thickness have been seen floating opposite Chefoo.
Even in the S., in the Bay of Kiaochow, the water is partially frozen over during Win-
ter, and one may walk on the ice without danger.

'Wind. — There is nothing to add to what has been said above (p. 243).

Tide. — The tide is first felt at Staunton island, and extends rapidly thence to
the whole coast of the promontory, attaining in the vicinity of Alceste island (Hailii-
tao) its greatest velocity, 3 to 3 .^ knots at high tides. The tide, which rises to only
n ^ feet on the E. of the promontory, reaches 11 ^ feet {8 .J feet at slack water) in
Kiaochow Bay.

Ufatnre of the coast. — Composed of gneiss and granite, and
of a volcanic nature near TSngchow Fu g >}i\ )^, it is for the
greater part broken and often skirted on the mainland by chains
of hills. At limes, it rises abruptli/j and at others, it is low and
sandy. In several places, it runs out into the sea and rises in
dangerous reefs, which compel ships to keep at a great distance
in sailing round it. Among the ships wrecked in these regions,
mention must be made of the German gunboat "litis", which in
July 1896, sank at Flat Rocky Point, a little to the N. of the light-
house erected on the South-Eastern promontory, and at the entrance
to Sangheu-h'ow ^ ^ U bay.

Iilglitliouses. — Seven lighthouses are erected along the
Shantung coast: 1", the Chefoo light on K'ungt'ung jj^ il||^ $,
island. It stands at 242 feet above the sea-level, and is visible
to a distance of 22 miles. During the year 1905, this light was
removed to the top of the old stone beacon or Tower Hill ;
2", the 2"'^ and S"", at the entrance to Weihaiwei ^ f# |§ bay;
3", the 4"', at the extremity of the N.E. promontory; 4", the 5">,

258

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

at the point of the S.E. promontory. It is 96 feet above sea-level,
and visible to a distance of 16 miles ; 5°, the 6"^, on Chalien
1^ 3^ fe island (Chaolien-tao), to the S.E. of Kiaochow bay;
and 6", the 1'^ and last, at the entrance to Kiaochow bay.

Coast-towns. — Thigclww Fu 3:^ M- — Formerly an
important port, but at the present day invaded by sands, and
accessible only to junks, which carry on there a fairly good
trade in wheat and peas.

Cliefoo ^ ^, or more properly Yent'ai '^ J (the Chinese
name of the place called Chefoo by foreigners, is Yent'ai, Chefoo
being but a large village on the opposite side of the bay). —
Population, 82,000 inhabitants. An excellent port-town, on the
W. of the bay of the same name. The harbour, protected by a
headland, except from the N.E. wind, affords excellent anchorage,
with a depth of from 20 to 40 feet, and even 45 at the entrance.
On the E. of the bay is a chain of islets, among which the most
important, K'ungt'ung (^ ll||^, was ceded to France in 1860. A
lighthouse, 242 feet above sea-level and visible to a distance
of 22 miles, has been erected upon it. The place enjoys a dry
and salubrious climate, and a beautiful shore, which makes it an

Cf(e}oo Poirjt

UN£iTUN&. TAU

GHEFOO BAY ^ ^.

THE COAST OF SHANTUNG.

257

attractive health-resort for foreigners. The principal eseports are
fresh eggs, beanoake and bean oil, straw braid, rush mats, silk,
felt caps, vermicelli, groundnuts and dried fish. The imparts are
cotton and woollen goods, kerosene oil, hemp bags, straw mats,
aniline dyes, ginseng, sugar, iron, coal and matches. The total
net trade of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 38,183,912 ; in 1904,
Tls. 34,255,175; and in 1905, Tls. 39,131,384. («ee Section I. Ch.
IV. p. 84. Shantung).

Weihaiw^ J^ ^ 1^- — A. port leased to Great Britain by
China, on July 1^' 1898, "in order to provide Great Britain with
a suitable naval harbour in North-China, and for the better pro-
tection of British commerce in the neighbouring seas". The
leased territory comprises the island of lAukung gl) ^ ^ (Liu-
kung-tao), all the islands in the bay, and a belt of land 10 English

].iUKONaTAO

WBIHAIWEI ^m^-

17

258 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

miles along the coast-line. Its area is about 285 square miles,
and the population 150,000. In addition to the leased ter-
ritory, there is a sphere of influence extending over an
area of 1,500 square miles. The climate is excellent. The
chief port of the dependency is Port Edward, which has good
anchorage, with a depth of 45 feet. The Government is adminis-
tered by a Commissioner. In 1905, the revenue amounted to
$ 105,930, while the expenditure was $ 146,000. The grant
from the Home Government amounted to £ 3,000. Mining and
the planting of fruit-trees have been of late much developed, and
progress would be improved were the place connected by rail
with the interior. Weihaiwei is a port of call for steamers
running to and from the N. of China, and there is regular
Steam communication with Shanghai. («ee Sect. I. ch. IV. p. 85).

Tefingtao ^ ^j (Green island). — A port at the entrance of
Kiaochow ^ ^ bay, and leased to Germany by China, in 1898,
for a period of 99 years. The leased territory comprises the bay
up to high-water mark, its islands, and the N. and S. tongues of
land at the mouth of the harbour. Its area is 193 square miles,
but if we include the sphere of influence, or a zone 30 miles
from all points of the leased territory, the total is about 2,750
square miles. The interior of the bay is not very deep, but its
entrance has 16 to 24 fathoms of water. It affords good shelter
to ships, and is not icebound. Ts'ingtao has a foreign population
of 1,110 persons, and 120,000 Chinese.

The entrance to the bay is f of a mile across. A lighthouse
108 feet above high-water level, stands on the S.W. end of the
headland, and is visible lo a distance of 10 miles. Another,
92 feet high, and visible 4 miles, is erected within the bay.
The harbour is rapidly developing. A pier, 4 miles in length,
encloses the inner wharf. The area of the latter is about 1 \
square miles, and it has been dredged to a depth of 6 fathoms.
A second wharf will be soon completed. A floating dock, capable
of taking in vessels of 16,000 tons capacity, commenced work
towards the close of 1905. From January 1906, the free-port
area has been reduced to the harbour, Henceforward all mer-

THE COAST OF SHANTWNG.

259

KIAOCHOW BAY 0 i|t|.

KlV^.M g. J 10,20,30. Depth in metres (1 metre = 1,093 yard).
i^?|:^^^!^ ° ' 100,600, Height in metres (lOO metres = 328 feet),

260 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

chandise pays import duty according to the general treaty tariff,
and then travels to the hinterland without further restriction.

The surrounding towns and villages are rapidly developing, and their population
is also increasing. They enjoy like Ts'ingtao the great advantage of being connected
with the interior by railway.

The port of Ts'ingtao can be easily fortified, owing to hills which surround it
on the W. and B., and rise respectively to 1,600 and 5,000 feet. In the vicinity are
important coal-beds, and the coal extracted will soon become the staple export article
of the port.

Trade increases every year, but is still however far behind that of Chefoo. The
Imperial Maritime Customs report the total net value of Kiaochow to be for 1905, Hk.
Tls. 22,322,680.

A weekly service connects the port with Shanghai, There is besides a steamer
running every 5 days between Shanghai, Ts'ingtao, Chefoo and T'ientsin.

THE COAST OF KIANGSU. 261

4° The coast of Kiangsu tH M

The coast of Kiangsu is washed, partly by the TeUow Sea or
Hwanff-hai ^ ^, partly by the Eastern China Sea or Tung-

*«* M M- -Low and bordered by sand-banhs, it is of little
importance^ except at the mouth of the Yangtze ^ ^ i£, not
far from which, stands the great commercial port of ShangJiai,
built upon the Hwangp'oo ^'j^ river. For the safee of clearness,
we will study : 1°, The coast N. of the Yangtze; 2". The mouth of
the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai; 3", The coast to the S.
of the Yangtze.

A. The coast to the N. of the Yangtze.

Long, low and flat, this coast is bordered by immense sand-
banhs, between which are found only shallow channels.

The most important of these banks is situated to the S.E.
of Hai Chow ^ jHI, and is called the Tasha ;^ fjj? or Great
aand-bank. It is more than 90 miles long by 30 wide. It has
been formed, like the other shoals, by sands and alluvial detritus
deposited there in former times by the muddy waters of the
Hwang-ho ^ ^.

The coasts are protected by long embankments, provided with
numerous sluices, whereby the overflow of the water escapes into
the sea in the flood-season.

A single island deserves to be mentioned, the Yuh 5 ft or Pearl island, to the
N.E. of Hai Chow ^ M headland. This headland, situated to the S.E. of Hai Chow,
reaches an altitude of from 800 to about 1,000 feet. Some 16 miles further to the N.,
lies the port of Ts'ingk'ow ^ P . It is situated at the extremity of a canal closed on
the W., and is the only port on this long coast. It is an important fishing station, and
sends its catch down to the Shanghai _t ^ market.

B. The mouth of the Yangtze and the port of Shanghai.

The great river called the Yangtze ^ •^ discharges its
waters into the sea, through a large mouth, which measures no
less than 60 miles from the exti^mity of Haimin ^ f^ to Yang-
tze cape or P'ootiimg ^ ^ point. Though obstructed with

262 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OP CHINA.

islands and sand-banks, this mouth has two good channels, one
of which, the Southern, is highly valuable for navigation. The
sand-banks shift constantly, but owing to lighthouses, buoys and
beacons, ships can easily enter, and ascend either to Shanghai
J;i ^ or to the numerous ports situated up the river. We can
give but a brief account of the main characteristics of the mouth
of the Yangtze and of the port of Shanghai.

Islands and sand-banks. — Among the islands which
lie at the mouth of the Yangtze, Ch'itngming ^ t^ is by far
the most important. It is about 40 miles long, and from 5 to 8
broad. Its area is 270 square miles, and its population a
little over 1,000,000, or about 3,500 to the square mile. It has
been formed by constant alluvial deposits from the Yangtze ^
^ fX. river. It is low and flat, and protected by embankments
from sea-action. It is being constantly eaten away at its North-
western extremity, while it is gradually increasing at the other.
The island is highly cultivated, and produces rice, maize, cotton,
yams and excellent sugar-cane. The soil, especially in the N.,
is considerably impregnated with salt. It possesses no harbour
of importance, nor any town of considerable size, except the
district city of the same name.

Further to the S., in the same direction N.W.-S.E., is a
chain of islets, among which Hwangalva ^ ^ or H<mse island
is the most important. These islets are continued on the E. by
a large sand-bank called T'wngsha ^ ^ shoal.

E. of the mouth of the Yangtze, 40 miles from the S. E.
extremity of Oh'ungmlng, is a sand-bank by far much larger
than T'ungsha bank, and called the Great sandr-bank of the Tang-
txe (Yangtze-tasha) % ^-)^ yp. It is over 125 miles in length, and
from 30 to 40 miles in breadth. It is composed of grayish or
dark-coloured sand. As there are from 10 to 22 fathoms of water
over it, it is no hindrance to navigation, and moreover the
water on both sides attains a great depth.

Channels. — The mouth of the Yangtze ^ -^ fll has
three cheanrnds.

The 1*', or upper hranch. This is situated between
Oh'ungming % ^ and Haimfen % f^. Small junks alone can

THE COAST OP KIANGSU. 263

sail through it, for it is very shallow, and is constantly invaded
by the sand. A new island is actually in process of formation.
It may totally emerge one day, and thus connect Ch'ungming
with the adjoining promontory of Haimen.

The 2"(\ or North cliannel, called also Shaweishan ^ ^^
ill, is situated to the S. of Ch'ungming, between that island
and the series of islets and sand-banks which terminate at the
T'ungsha ^ ^ bank. It extends from E. to W., but narrows
in and diminishes in depth. Towards the B., it is about 2 miles
wide, and has a depth of 46 feet, whilst in the W., its width is
only a little over a mile, and its depth from 16 1 to 20 feet.

The 3''^, or South channel, lies between the right bank
of the Yangtze and the islets just mentioned. It is the best
and the most frequented route. It is from 17 to 20 feet deep at
low-water of spring tides, and from 13 to 19 | opposite the
mouth of the Hwangp'oo ^ -j^ or Shanghai river.

Xilgtatbonses. — Several lighthouses are erected at the
entrance to the last two channels. Two are situated on the
Northern aide of the N. channel: one at Ch'ungming Point,
called Drinkwater lighthouse or Ch'ungmingtao-tungkioh ^ ^
ift ^ ^ ! the other, more to the E., called Shaweiafian light-
house. Two are on the Northern side of the S. channel: one,
on Hwangaha island, near the Kiutoan ^ |j^ light-vessel ; the
other, more to the S. E., is called the T'ungshti ^ ^ light.
Five others are erected at Woosung ^ J:^, where vessels enter
the Hwangp'oo ^ ^ river.

S. of the Southern channel, opposite P'ootung Point, is Gutz-
laff island, called in Chinese Tach'ih ')\. "^ ov Tats'ihshan ^
^[ij. It has a lighthouse, 283 feet above high-water level, and
visible to a distance of 24 miles. It is besides an important
telegraph steition, 6 cables landing there.

Tides. — The tidal current at the mouth of the Yangtze commences to the
Southward. The water rises 14 J feet at Gutzlaff in high tides, and nearly the same
at the mouth of the Hwangp'oo. It reaches at the S. of Gutzlaff its maximum velocity
of 3 knots at springs, and 2 knots at neaps on a flood; 4 to 5 knots at springs, and 3 ^
knots at neaps during ehb. At the latter place, and below Woosung, the tides take on
the average 5 hours to rise and 7 to fall, or the ebb is longer than the flood.

264

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINK OF CHINA.

As the tide rises and falls, a rather peculiar swirl or rotatory movement is pro-
duced at the mouth of the Yangtze. Its different phases may be seen in the annexed
diagram.

N

8 ^

The tide is felt at Shanghai 2 hours after it has passed Gutzlaff. It is subject
to diurnal inequality, which causes the day tides to be the highest in Winter, the mor-
ning tides in Spring, the night tides in Summer, and the_evening tides in Autumn.

'Woosung: Iimer and
Outer Bars. — Two bars
prevent large steamers ascen-
ding as far as Shanghai. The
first or Outer Bar, a little
below the mouth of the Hwang-
p'oo, is rapidly silting up, and
had in 1897, 20 feet of water
over it at low-water- of springs,
but at the present, it hss scar-
cely more than 13. The secotid
or Inner Bar lies within and a
little up the river itself. It un-
dergoes less change and tends
rather to improve. A periodical
silt of from 2 to 4 feet generally
sets in upon it in May and
ends in October, after which
it again scours away. Attempts
at dredging having proved
ineffective, the river aband-
oned to itself has formed a
new island, called Gough
island. The Junk channel
to the E. of it, has but a depth
of from 10 to 13 feet at
low-water of springs.

SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'oo River.

THE COAST OF KIANGSU.

265

HEIGHT OP WATER

oil the Outer and Inner Woosnng Bars

at low water of the syzygies.

(According to W. F. Tyler. Coast Inspector I. M. C).

18 ft.

16 ft.

14 ft.

12 ft.

10 i

8 ft.

s

s

X

N^

H

~N.

\^

\

V

~\

A

,A,

\

A

f

fl

1

/ ^

/A

r^\

1 I

}

} ^

1

/

\

J

\i

\l

/

\

\

V

V

1/

V

\

Cm

5™

3">

1897

1898 1899 1900 1901 1902

The lower tracing exhibits the changes on the Inner Bar ;
the upper tracing those on the Outer Bar.

266

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

Slianghat Ji J§. — {see also Sect. II. Oh. IV. Kiangsu.
p. 160-162). HiatoricaZ sketch. — If we believe old records,
Shanghai, as its name means "out, or up to the seti?', was formerly
nearer the sea than it is at present, but little by little, sands and
alluvial deposits accumulated to the E. of the port, and formed
there the low flat plain nowadays called P'ootung Hf ^, or East
of the Hwangp'oo. Through this plain the Hwangp'oo ^ ^
river opened a way to the Yangtze ^ ^. According to native
annals, a custom-house was first established at Shanghai in the
XI"" century, and it was only in the XIV"" that it was raised
to the dignity of a walled city (3 \ miles in circuit) with
sub-prefectural or district rank. In the XVI"' century, it was
attacked by Japanese pirates, who extended at the same time
their incursions to Ningpo ^ ^ and Hangchow ^ ^. Up to 1842,
it was but a port of call for sea-going junks. At the above
mentioned date, it was taken (19''' June) by British troops under
Sir Hugh Gough, and formally opened to foreign trade, 17th
November, 1843. Captain Balfour, the British Consul, established
there the limits of the English Settlement. The site originally
selected, lay half a mile N. of the native city, between the Yang-
kingpang # ® f |S and Soochow H % Creeks, and extended
backwards from the river to Defence Creek. Other extensions
were subsequently granted, the last being that of 1901. The
French were in 1849 granted the ground between the city walls
and the British Settlement on the same terms. In 1860, this
Concession was extended to the S., between the city walls and
the river, and further to the W., in 1902. In 1862, Americans
rented land immediately N. of Soochow Creek, in the place
called Hongkew ifc[ P (Hungk'ow). In 1863, the so-called
American Settlement was incorporated with the British, into one
municipality, styled the "IntematUmal Settlement'. The Muni-
cipal Council administering the Foreign Settlement, N. of Yang-
kingpang, began in 1855. A separate administration and council
for the French Settlement were appointed in 1862. At Shanghai,
and at all the other open Ports, Foreigners are in judicial matters
subject to the immediate control of their respective Consuls.

The coast of kiangsu, 267

In local affairs, Foreigners within the Settlements govern them-
selves by means of the Municipal Councils, under the authority of
the "land regulatUma". Chinese residents in the Settlements
are amenable to their own laws, administered by what is called
a "miaeed court", established in 1864. It is presided over by a
Chinese official and is watched by Foreign Assessors from the
principal Consulates. The working of this institution, despite
some recent reforms, has never been satisfactory, as the judge
has not sufficient authority and rank to enforce his decisions,
which are besides frequently fraught with great vagaries. The
Council in the International Settlement consists of 9 members,
and in the French Concession, of 8. The resolutions of the latter
are inoperative, until sanctioned by the Consul-General. The
Council divides itself into Defence, Finance, Watch and Works
Committee. In cases of contest or infringement of private rights,
it can be sued before the "Court of Consuls".

PopuUiUon. — The census of the H'*" October, 1905, gave
the number of Foreign residents in the International Settlement
as 11,497 persons, while in the French Concession on the same
date, there were 831 persons, aggregating a total of 12,328
Foreigners, composed as follows :

International Settlement. French Concession. Total.

British

3,713

109

3,822

Japanese

2,157

73

2,230

Portuguese

1,331

51

1,382

American

991

21

1,012

German

785

47

832

Indian

568

—

568

French

393

274

677

Russian

354

60

414

Austro-Hungarian

158

5

163

Italian

148

14

162

Spanish

146

5

151

Danish

121

3

124

Other Nationalities

632

169

801

268 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

The Chinese population was also found to be in the Inter-
national Settlement 452,716 inhabitants, and in the French Conces-
sion 84,792 inhabitants, aggregating a total of 537,508 persons.
The population of the native walled city is estimated at 300,000.

Industries and Manufactures. — Shanghai _t ^ has
several large docks, the principal of which are on the right bank
of the Hwangp'oo river or P'ootung side. The Chinese Govern-
ment has an arsenal, dock and shipbuilding establishment, a
short distance above the native city. Several manufactories,
both foreign and native, have sprung up since 1^95, consequent
upon the Japanese treaty allowing henceforth the importation
of machinery. At the present day, there are 9 cotton-spifaning
and weaving mills in operation ; there are also a number of
ginning factories, native and foreign owned. Of silk filatures,
Shanghai has 25, which give employment to 20,000 natives.
There are besides, paper mills, flour mills, mills for extracting
oil from cotton-seed and beans, several printing establishments,
soap and match factories.

OCrtide and Cotntnerce. — Shanghai is the great emporium
for the trade of the Yangtze river, for the Northern ports of the
China coast, and to some extent for Japan. The principal
esrport articles are silk (97,800 bales, or 150,000 piculs in
1905), tea (black, 104,323 piculs; green, 263,900 piculs; brick,
98,389 piculs; leaf-dust and tablet, 19,574 piculs in 1905), raw
cotton, cotton-yarn and cloth, beans and beancake, groundnuts,
sesamum seed, wood-oil, rice, wheat, flour, straw and rush-
hats, chinagrass, hides and goat-skins, bristles, wool, carpets
and fresh eggs. The imports are cotton and woollen goods,
machinery and engine oil, timber and soft wood, kerosene oil,
opium, cement, palm-leaf fans, rush and straw-mats, gunny
cloth and bags, aniline dyes, printing paper, stationery, photo-
graphic materials, clocks and watches, glass, millinery and
perfumery, shoes and boots, lamps and lampware, coal, iron-
bars and nails, copper slabs and spelter, beer, wines and spirits,
edible birds' nests, sugar, condensed milk, butter, cheese,

THE COAST OF K.UNGSU,

269

soap, cigarettes and matches. The total gross and net values
of the trade of the port from 1900-1905 were as follows :

Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1900-1905.

YEAB.

Gross Values.

Net Values.

1900.

Hk. Tls.
243,606,777

Hk. Tls.
97,729,159

1901

298,454,780

,118,425,776

1902

3-16,122,864.

138,775^708

190,S

351,200,609

118,812,899

1901

405,064,260

1-15,480,170 .

1905

443,954,262

176,979,193 ,

During the same period, the following duties were collected
by the Imperial Maritime Customs :

Hk. Tls.

1900 7,117,387

1901 8,152,696

1902 10,814,077

1903 9,924,890

1904 10,323,433

1905 12,080,185

Ofthis sum, GreatBritain contributed in 1905, Tls. 7,650,462

Germany —

America —

France —

Japan —

Austria —

Sweden —

Russia —

Denmark —

SMpping and townage. — The port of Shanghai J: %
extends along the left bank of the Hwangp'oo ^ |^, to a distance
of over 8 miles. The water frontage. is lined throughout with
landing places, jetties, wharves and warehouses ("godowns"). The

Tls.

1,371,325

Tls.

751,890

Tls.

382,500

Tls.

152,326

Tls.

122,078

Tls.

20,530

Tls.

11,052

Tls.

8,253

270

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

river opposite the Foreign Settlements was formerly 1,800 feet
broad at low-water, but it is to-day only 1,200. Ships with a
draught of 16 feet can come up to the wharves. Shanghai is 45
miles from the sea-coast, and 12 miles from Woosung ^ J^, its
outer port, with which it is connected by rail since the 1^* Sep-
tember 1898.

The windings oftheHwangp'oo^ Hi, and the two bars which
are developing at its mouth, will perhaps one day necessitate
extensive works. It has already been proposed to rectify the
course of the river, and dig a canal to the W. , but the immense
alluvial deposits brought down by the Yangtze render every
attempt of this kind rather ineffectual. The Woosung bars are a
great drawback to the prosperity of the port, and the cause of
heavy loss to shipowners, through the impossibility of large
draught steamers crossing them, and coming up to Shanghai.
The average depth of water on the outer bar, at high-water
springs, is 19 feet, the greatest being 23 feet. The Chinese
Government has recently consented to the establishment of a
"Conservancy Boards', and this will, it is hoped, do much to for-
ward the interests of commerce,' and maintain the preponderance
of Shanghai as the great commercial metropolis of China. Large
men-of-war and huge liners, as the Manchvria, }finnesota and
Mongolia, are compelled to anchor in the Woosung roadstead,
beyond the outer bar, but middle-sized cruisers, and ordinary
sea-going and riv er steamers trading on the Yangtze, can easily
come up to Shanghai, and this amply imparts to the place an
activity and bustle which are unequalled by any other port in
the Far East.

Shanghai is in constant communication with Japan,
Manchuria, Korea, Southern Asia, Europe and America. Several
steamship companies {see Sect 11. Ch. I. p. 101) carry on regular
services with the Yangtze ports and the coast. The number of
vessels which entered and cleared at the port, as well as their
tonnage, from 1900-1905, is as follows.

THE COAST OF KIANGSU.

SHANGHAI. Table of Shipping. 1900-1905.

271

Entered Inwards.

Cleared Outwards.

YEAR

Steamers-

Sailing
Vessels

Total.

Steamers

Sailing
Vessels

Total. ^ 1

No.

Tons.

No.
3,655

Tons.

1900

3,273

394

3,667

4,726,441

3,269

38G

4,705,978

1901

3,698

484

4,182

5,395,925

3,692

487

4,179

5,385,260

1902

3,978

448

4,427

6,025,317

3,965

438

4,403

6,015,849

1903

4,093

584

4,677

6,179,.554

4,079

574

4,653

6,162,981

1904

4,059

652

4,711

6,076,279

4,057

6G6

4,723

6,105,519

1905*

11,811

15,506

27,316

7,692,207

11,589

24,176

35,765

7,887,103

*Xnciuding towed passenger boats and cargo junks.

It tan be seen from this table that the total tonnage of the
port is about 15 ^ million tons.

ItUand navigation. — Numerous small steamers ply on the
Hwangp'oo ^ -j^ and the large canals, throughout the whole
region around Shanghai, thus connecting it, some with Oh'ung-
ming island ^ B^ and Haimen ^ p^ promontory, others with
Soochow ^jHii Ningpo ^^ and HangchowljlijHI- The number o£
these small craft registered at the close of 1905, amounted to 275,
of which 205 were native, and 70 foreign owned. All trade under
inland steam navigation rules. The total of these small steamers
and passenger boats, entered and cleared for the year 1905, was
6,870, transporting 94,102 tons. The total, which entered and
cleared between Shanghai, Soochow and Hangchow, reached
16,789, while the tonnage transported, amounted to 1,141,046
tons.

C. The Coast to the S. of the Yangtze.

From the mouth of the Hwangp'oo ^'j^ or Shanghai river, to
Chekiang^^, extends the low lying region of P'ootung-J]^^. It
is protected by several embankments from the inroads of the sea.
Beyond the sea-wall, vast alluvial tracts are in process of forma-
tion, and the delta is constantly growing seawards. Scarcely a
few islets lie along this part of the coast. As soon as found
inhabitable, they are occupied by immigrants from the overpeopled
neighbourhood of Oh'ungming and Haim6n, communications
being kept up with the mainland through small sea-going junks,

272 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINK OP CHINA.

5°. The coast of Chekiang ^ it

Chdkiang marks the transition from a low and flat coast, to the indented and
rocky coast-line of the South. The former is represented by the large bay of Hangchow
^ ^, down to which extends the Southern part of P'ootung JSl£; the latter begins at
the Ningpo K JS river.

1° The hay of Hangehow ^ j^ and its barrier of islands.

Hangchow bay is as broad at its entrance as the Yangtze
& ^ XL estuary, and is obstructed by a cluster of rocky
islets, known as the Chuaan ^ [Ij (Cheusltun) arehipelago.
It forms the mouth of the Ts'ient'ang-kiang ^|f £t> ^^^ affords
few facilities for navigation, especially on account of its bore
or tidal wave, the strength of the current, and the shallowness
of the water. Hangchow bay is funnel-shaped. It is 60 miles
wide at the outer extremity, and contracts gradually to 12 at
the other. When the tide rises, the waters rush in with great
force, and finding little depth, 6 or 7 feet at most, they are
suddenly confronted by the current of the river, and more and
more concentrated as they advance. These circumstances
make them assume a wall-like formation, and growing to a height
of several feet, they overflow the banks and are most dangerous
for boast taken unawares. The immense pressure from behind,
and the great height of the tides, which rise to 26 or even 30 feet,
impart an extraordinary strength to the current, which rushes
forward with a roar like thunder, and at a rate sometimes
exceeding 6 knots. On this account, large boats prefer anchoring
at Ohap'oo 'Tj^ tf o'" Tsop'oo, 50 miles up the coast, and the
outer port of Hangchow. Here they find water to a depth of
22 feet. Boats with a draught of 2 | feet can go up to Hang-
chow only by stages. They come down, availing themselves
of a few hours of ebb tide. On both sides of the bay, a sea-
wall protects the vast adjoining plain. On the S. side, a little
to the E. of Shaohsing Fu -^ H j^, sands are accumulating
and forming an alluvial land, upon which already several
houses have been erected.

THE Cp/VST 9F CH)&KIANa. ,, 273

The (Hmaan-^ [Jj (Gheushan, i.e. boat island) archipelago.
— From Ningpo or Kitao |^ % Point, as far as Yangtze Cape,
extend several groups of islands and rocky islets, of which the
principal are tJie Chusan ^ |J[j islands, tlie Volcano islands or
StisJian |^ [Ij , the Mugged islands or "Sangshan ^ [ij , Tarker
islands or Fahkohlieh-tao /\ ^ ^Ij ^, and the Saddles or
Manffan-tao J^ ^ ft.

The total number of islands in the archipelago is over a
hundred. Chusan ^ llj or boat island is the largest, and im-
parts its name to the whole archipelago. It is nearly 25 miles
long, and from 6 to 10 broad. Its highest peak attains 1,300
feet. The population of Chusan is about 70,000. linghai T'iing%
^M is-the capital of the island, and has a population reckoned
at 30,000. It exports salt fish, raw cotton, sweet potatoes and
salt. The harbour is one of the best on the coast, and accessible
by three or four passages. Ships find there good shelter and
excellent anchorage at a depth varying from 23 to 50 feet.

Navigation is difBotJt throughout all this archipelago, on account of the very
strong current which . runs at 7 or 8 knots, ' and is extremely variable because of the
numerous windings it has to make. Fogs, which are frequent from March to July,
render navigation still more dangerous.

lilglitlioiiseB. — Several important lighthouses are placed
near the difficult channels. We have already (p. 263) mentioned
Chdzlaft or Tach'^ih -k ^ lighthouse. Six others are erected : the
1st, at the Saddles (Mangan-tao) Jl|^^ ; the 2"d, on Bontutm
(Pehtsiehsfaan) ^ fg iJj island; the 3''|J, on Volcano (Siishan) |||
^J island; the 4* on Steep (Siaokweishan) >J, ^ [J[j island;
the 5^K at Lohkiashan ^^ llj, and the 6*^^ on Tiger (Hushan)
^ [jj island, at the entrance to the Ningpo ^ |gf river.

2° The eoast of (Mkiang, South of Hangehow Bay.

Below the Ningpo river, the coast becomes indented, but still
remains low, and is bordered with shoals, which emerge at low-
water, and' extend to a distance of 2 \ to 3 miles. Some good sea-
' ports and excellent bays give it a certain importance, but Shanghai

18

274

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

J; ^ is too near, and its position too central, to allow the develop-
ment of another large port on the coast of ChSkiang ^fH.- A naval
port alone would perhaps be advantageously situated in these parts.

Bays. — Numerous and deep bays or estuaries open along
the coast, below the Ningpo ^ -Jgj river, and down to the frontier
of Fokien j^ ^. The principal are ;

The esHmry of the Vung-Teianff ^ ^ or Ningpo river
[see Ningpo. p. 275).

Nimrod. hay or ^angsham-kiang ^ llj it. — This bay
penetrates deeply inland to a distance of more than 25 miles,
and seldom exceeds 4 miles in breadth. Numerous islets render
the entrance to it rather difficult. It has good anchorage and
well sheltered inlets, but no sea-port of importance. It is
separated from Sanmen ^ p^ bay by a long headland.

Sarvmhi ^ P^ hay. — This bay is accessible by 3 passages,
hence called Sanmen, or "the three gateways". I/arger and
enjoying a wider opening than the preceding one, it is also dotted
with islands and islets. The N. channel forms the roadstead
of ShAhp'oo T'ing ^ |^ ^, so called from the town situated
beside it. Depths vary from 16 to 28 fathoms, but there are
also some dangerous shoals. The S. channel is 16 miles wide,
and has a maximum depth of 12 fathoms. It gives access to
excellent anchoring ground with depths varying from 23 to 30
feet. Further on, the depth diminishes, but anchorage varying
from 36 to 42 feet may be found down almost to the extremity
of the bay. Too exposed to winds from the high sea and to
typhoons, frequently also shallow, this bay lies moreover in an
impoverished region, and the islands in it are the rendezvous
for pirates. It thus does not deserve the reputation formerly
bestowed upon it.

T'aUshmv -^'j^J^ hay. — Wide and shallow, a bar renders
the entrance to it still more difficult. Ships with a draught of
more than 11 ^ feet cannot cross it, except at high tides. At
high-water of springs, vessels with a draught of 19 | feet can
ascend as far as T'aichow Fu -^ jHI M-

WhicIUMv ^ j^ haify or the estuary of the Ngeu-kiang
M iL- — This bay has fairly good anchorage. The best is in
Bullock harbour, situated in the midst of a group of islands.

THE COAST or Ch£kIAN&. 275

Islands. — The islands in this part are numerous and
generally of granitic formation. None of them have any great
importance, either in regard to extent or position. Those to be
chiefly remembered are the groups in Ninvrod or Siangshan-
kiang ^ ill it, and Sarnnin = f^ bays. Further Southward
are the Pehkishan ;|fc f|* llj and Nankiahan "^ ff llj groups.
A good harbour is found in the latter.

Ugtathonses. — The Pehyuahan ^ ^ [Ij Ughfhouse is

the only one of this coast. Erected on Shasho island, a little
outside the bay, it is 345 feet above high-water level, and visible
to a distance of 26 miles.

Coast-towns. — Ningpo^^ alone deserves special mention.
The others : Shihp^oo T'img 7^ ■}§ j|^, T'aiehow Fu -^ jHI ^,
WSnehow JFu ^ >}{[ J^ and NanM "^ fj-, have scarcely any
commercial importance.

yinopo Fv f^ ^ J^ (tranquil wave). — Population,
260,000 inhabitants. One of the five ports opened by the Nan-
king treaty of 1842. It is situated on the Yung-kiang ^ f£,
12 miles from its mouth and 15 from the sea. Ships with a
draught of 16 feet can reach the port at high-water of spring
tides. The bar at the entranc to the river has but a depth of
12 feet over it at low-water of springs. The trade of Ningpo
is principally carried on with Shanghai. Three steamers, one
Chinese, one British, and one French, carry on a daily service
between the two ports. The imports are cotton goods, iron,
lead and tin, kerosene oil, sugar, coal, opium, flour, medi-
cines, soap and matches. The eaqitorts are rush-hats (3,413,940
in 1905), matting, paper fans and umbrellas, silk, green tea,
carpets, raw cotton, medicines, groundnut oil, "samshu" or rice-
spirit, joss-paper (9,596 piculs in 1905), and cuttle-fish. The
total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 22,240,093;
in 1904, Tls. 21,297,412 ; and in 1905, Tls. 19,163,630.

Large steamers anchor at the outer port, Chentuti hsien ^
f^ JH' ^ small district town with a population of 35,000 inhabi-
tants, and situated at the mouth of the river. (See Section III.
Ch. IV. Oh6kiang. p. 233).

276 SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

& , The coast of Fokien

The coast-line of Fokien has no large bay like that of Hang-
chow i^ j\\, nor any archipelago comparable with that of Chusan
■^ \il- The coast is indented and broken, and forms a series of
hays, several of which penetrate far inland. They afford good
shelter and atnchorage for ships. There are also several excellent
ports, two of which, Amoy or Hsiam&n ^ p^, and Foochow
jg ^, are Of great importance.

These parts are generally rocky and abrupt. They become
however sometimes low and sandy, and are bordered by shoals and
reefs. They are then dangerous, especially on account of the
currents which run there with great violence, and the services
of a pilot are necessary to approach them with safety.

'They are washed on the N. by the waters of the Eastern China
sea or Tung-hai ^ ^, and further down by those of the For-
mosa strait.

Bays. — The principal are, proceeding from N. to S. :

Nanhwan ^ H hay. — This bay is about 16 miles long,
but is shallow, except at its entrance.

Samsa or SansJut. ^ ^ hay. — This bay lies between the
island of the same name and the coast. It is very deep and
aflords good shelter. It is said to be on a small scale like the
inland sea of Japan.

Th^ hay 6t estuary of the Min-kiang ^ fx.. — (see below:
Poochow. p. 278).

Haitian -^ j|g bay and pass. — Lying between the island of
the same name and the coast, this inlet maybe entered by ships
with a draught of 21 feet. Excellent anchorage is found there,
with depths of from 30 to .50 feet. The tidal .stream is very strong,
and is to be guarded against when vessels enter and depart.
The current attains a velocity of 5 knots at high-water of spring
tides.

Hsinffhiva M ft ^"V" — This is a fino bay, but the entrance
to it is difHcult.

THE COAST OF FOKIEN.

277

SAM8A or SANSHA H ^ BAY.

Ts'Uenchmo Fu ^ >)i\ f^ bay. — The entrance to this bay is
shallow, but good anchorage and shelter are found in the
vicinity.

Tiger's head or Hut'eu ^ g|| bay.

Amoy or Hsiamen ^ fS bay. — {see below : Amoy. p. 279).

Tungshan ^ ilj bay. — This bay has deep anchorage,
and is one of the best of this coast.

Islands. — Rocky and bare, they are nearly all inhabited
by fishermen whose boats go far out to sea. The most important
is the island of Amoy, though it is not the largest. The Sam-
sa or Sansha H ^ group, including the upper Ji H ^

278

SECTION IT. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

(shangsantu) ana lawtT "F H fP (hsiasantu) iatets, HeeUfem ^
:© islarid, Quemoy or KArvmin ^ f^ (golden harbour) island,
OCunffahan f^ \}y, and White dog ishind, are the largest.

Ijightltoiises. — Several lighthouses are erected on the
coast of Pokien, especially at the entrance to the Min ^ river,
and to Amoy harbour. Pour are in the lower reaches of the Min
river : 1" Tunayung ^ ^ ligMlumae, on Tungyung island ;
2° the Middle d^g or Tungk'iien-shan ]^ ;^ ll| Ughthotise ;
3" TumabmU or Niushan-tao ^ |Ij fe lighthouse. The two
latter are 257 feet above high-water level, and visible to a dis-
tance of 23 miles; 4° Ockseu or Taokweisu %^^ Ughthouse.
It is 286 feet above high-water level, and visible to a distance
of 24 miles. Four others are at the entrance to Amoy harbour:
one, on JDodd or Pehling 4b I? i»la,nd, a second, on T^aittm, -j^
|S island, and two others, respectively on OCs^in{/su ^ |!j^, and
Chapel or Tungting ^ ^ islands.

Coast-towns. — Only three are of importance at the present
day, from a commercial standpoint : Foochow, Amoy and 8anr-
tungao.

Saatungao H^ft- ~ Population, 8,000 inhabitants. It is
situated on Santu inlet and is tlie port of Puhning Pu ^ ^ ^.
It is the best and safest port on this coast, and exports principally
tea, camphor, paper and pottery. The total net value of its trade
was in 1905, Hk. Tls. 2,220,032. In 1900, a jetty, 160 yards
long, was constructed there. The harbour however has so far
realized but little the hopes entertained of its future success.

Foochow 1^ j^ M- — We have spoken above (Section
III. Ch. IV. p. 222) of the city, here we will describe only the
entrance to the river.

About 6 miles outside the Min-kiang ^ JJ;, there is an
outer bar which is exposed at low-water, and then becomes a
large sand-bank. At high-water of spring tides, there is but
one channel which is navigable for ships drawing up to 19 feet.

The inner bar has a depth of 6 J feet over it' at low-water,
but as the tide rises to a height of 18 feet, it is easily crossed.

Between the two bars, there is excellent anchorage in
moderate depths.

THE COAST OF FOKIKN. 279

Two other difficult passages have to be crossed before
reaching Fagoda anchorage: tJie Simpai or Sinp'aim^ ^ ^
P5 pa^s, and the Minnganm&ti || ^ f^ pass. The first, lying
to the N. of Wuhu ^ ^ island, is narrow and dangerous at
high-water of spring tides, as the stream then runs with great
velocity and develops a considerable eddy. The second, longer,
is less dangerous, although the current, at high-water of springs,
attains there a velocity of from 4 to 5 knots.

The channel at the S. of Wuhu island cannot be crossed on
account of the sand-banks that have formed there.

Ta/goda anchortwe or Losing^tih ^ M ^ is excellent,
but ships must anchor carefully, as the force of the current is
very strong.

This anchorage lies to the S. of Pagoda island. The sand-
banks which are found there shift constantly from one place to
another, and so a pilot is necessary when vessels require to
anchor there.

Boats drawing less than 7^ feet of water can alone proceed
further up the river, and reach Foochow, where considerable
trade is carried on.

Amoy ov Haiamin ^P^. — Population, 114,000 inhabitants.
It is situated upon the island of Haimen ^ P^, at the N. of
a fine bay, and has consequently rapidly developed. The island
is about 40 miles in circumference, and contains large vil-
lages besides the city. It is hilly and rugged in its Southern
part, and has a sandy beach at the extreme S. Rocks extend to
more than |^ of a mile from the shore. Opposite the island, on
the W., and about ^ of a mile from it, is KulangsO, ^ ^ |5^
(drum-wave island). It is a mile and a half in length by one
in breadth, and contains the residences of nearly all the forei-
gners. The population is 3,500. Between these two islands lies
the inner port of,Anu)y, one of the best harbours and most easy
of access on the coast of China. It is two miles long, and from
400 to 600 yards broad. The entrance is at the S., but is
difficult, as the passage is obstructed by dangerous shoals.
There is good anchorage and deep water, but the place is visited

28(y SECTION IV. THE dbAST-LlNE OF CHINA.

occasionally by typhoons. The miter harbour is at the S. of
HaimSn and Kulangsii islands. It has good depth and holding
ground like the inner harbour, and so can be entered without
assistance from a pilot.

Springs rise 17 J feet at Amoy. In March and September,
the rise is scarcely perceptible.

Amoy has excellent dockyards, where large ships can be
easily repaired [see Section III. Oh, IV. p. 223).

THE COAST OF KWANfiTUNG. 281

7" . The coast of Kwangtunq M. %

The coast of Kwangtung is rocky like that of Fokien fg ^,
at least to a great extent, and indented like it. It has also good
bays and possesses the largest island of China, Hainan ^ ^, the
long peninsula of Leichow '^' jH"], and the vast delta of the
Si-kiang U ^. Of all the Provinces of China, Kwangtung is
the best provided with excellent ports. It can boast of Hongkong
(Hsiangkiang) § fl^. Canton (Kwangchow Fu) M ')^ }^' Swatow
(Shant'eu) \^ ^, Haihow (Haih'ow) J^ P, Macao (NgaomSn)
^ P^, Pakhoi (Peh-hai) 4b M' ^^^ Kwangchow-wan ^ jHI ^•

Its coast is washed by the South-China sea or Nan-hai '^
f^, and borders on the S. W. upon the gulf of Tongking ^ ■^.

Bays. — The principal bays are :

Swatow or Shanlfeu }jll ^ bay, at the estuary of the Han-
kiang @ ^ [see Swatow. p. 284).

HungJuii or Bwanghai ^ ^ bay. — This bay is large
but shallow, and exposed to the winds which blow from the
high sea.

Mirs or OOap'highai :)z %% M ^"V" — This bay affords good
shelter and anchorage in depths of 54 feet.

Hongkong (Hsiangkiang) § pg bay [see Hongkong, p.
284-286).

JLappa or M^ungpeh ^ 4t bay, opposite Macao (Ngaomen)

Kwangchow ^ ^ 6ay {see below, p. 290).

Islands. — "We shall mention only those more generally
known :

yamoa or Ifamngao f|"^. — This island is 12 miles long and
is well populated. Some peaks rise from 1,600 to 1,900 feet.
The inhabitants live principally by fishing.

Double isiana or JUhsti ^ iljfe. — This is a small island lying
to the S. E. of Swatow. It offers the phenomenon of appearing
double when approached from the S.E., hence its name.

Hongkong {see below, p. 284-286).

282

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

Tedro Blanco, also called T'aits'ing-chen pfc 1^ if, or
T'aising-tsan -^ ^ ^- — This is but a mere rock, well known
on account of its prominent position, and its affording a land-
mark for seamen. It is a little more than one degree to the E.
of Hongkong, and has almost the same latitude.

IJemUuo or ZVcsUsAan ^ ^ ^]. — This island is situated to
the W. of Hongkong, and opposite the Northern branch of the
Si-kiang 'gf ^ delta. It is 13 miles long by 6 broad. Some
of its peaks attain an elevation of 2,900 feet.

The lAMmima art^ipeUtgo or Nanya ^ Y> *o ^^^ S. W. of
Hongkong. Lantao and Lamma islands belong to Hong-
kong.

The iMdrone i^ands or Zaoivanshan ^ ^ llj • — This
group of islands lies to the S. W. of Lantao, and helps to
guide seamen who enter from the S. towards Hongkong or
Canton. One of them especially has a very peculiar dome-
shaped peak which rises to a height of 1,300 feet.

The Stream or dvu^an. j|| islands, situated some 60 miles
to the S.W. of the Si-kiang delta, and not far from the coast. On
the largest of these islands, Shangehti/an _t, }\\ or Sancian, also
called /S* Johifis, S' Francis Xavier, the great apostle of India,
died in 1552, at the time that he intended to preach the
gospel in China, as he had already done in Japan.

Hainan ^ |^ (South of the sea). — A large island between
the China sea and the gulf of Tongking. It is 185 miles long by
120 broad, and contains an area of 13,900 square miles. It is
very mountainous. The central and Southern mass is called the
"Five finger mountain", and has peaks rising to an elevation of
4,900 feet. Its mountains contain gold, silver, copper and iron;
the lowlands are extremely fertile. The coast is indented and
broken, and occupied chiefly by Chinese, while the abori-
ginal and barbarian tribes are confined to the interior. The
capital of the island is K'iungchow Fu ]^ jHI ||5^, on the N. W.
coast. Hoihow or Haik'ow ^ P is its port, and is open to
foreign trade since 1876 (see Section III. Ch. III. p. 211).

lUmnd island or Wetehmv g Jftf. — A small island of
volcanic formation lying to the N. E. of the gulf of Tongking
]!((]}[. It is 4^ miles long by 3 broad, and has a population of

THK COAST OF KWAMftTONG. 283

6,000 inhabitants. In the S., is a good port, which is a very
busy fishing centre during three months of the Winter.

The TaToc^s or TsfihchAnu A^ ^ (seven islets). — These
lie to the S. E. of Hainan, and seem attached rather to Annam
than to China.

Tides. — The tide is much less felt along the coast of Kwangtung than upon
the coast of Fokien. At Swatow or Shant'eu, the tides reach from 5 ^ to 8 ^ feet at high-
water of springs, but from April to October, they seldom rise beyond 2 h feet. At Hong-
kcmg, the ■maximum is 7 i feet. The tide is here more than elsewhere extremely com-
plicated, as the lowest ebb does not coincide with high-water of springs, and besides
there is bnt one tide daily. At Canton, the height of the tide varies from 2 ^ to 5 .^ feet.

Oarrents, — On account of the weakness of the tidal-stream the currents here
have not the velocity of those that prevail along the other parts of the coast.
They scarcely reach 2 or 3 knots at the most. Swatow is however an exception, and
has currents which -attain a velocity of 4 knots.

XJgtafboases. — The lighthouses on the coast of Kwang-
tung form 3 groups : those of Swatow or Shant'eu ^'ilj ^ ; those
at the entrance to the Canton river; and those of the strait of
Hainan j^ ^.

TheSwaUno group comprises 4 lighthouses : 1° The iMmocka
or Tungp^ing-tao '^^% liffMhouse. It is 241 feet above high-
water level, and visible to a distance of 22 miles ; 2° Sugar
Ijoaf OT Tehchow ^jHi Ughthouae. It is 200 feet high and visible
to only 8 miles ; 3° Cape Good Hope or Piaoleioh, ^ ^ Ught-
hmiae. It is 171 feet above high-water level, and visible 15 miles.
These 3 lighthouses are all erected upon islets ; 4° Breaker
Point or ^Uhpeishan ^ ^ [Ij lighOuiuse. It is 153 feet above
high-water level, and visible to a distance of 19 miles.

The group ttt the entrance to the Canton river comprises
3 principal lighthouses : 1° one, on WagUm or Hwnglan ^ 1^
isUmd. It is 225 feet above high-water level, and visible 22
miles; 2" Gap Bock or Maweiehow ^ ^ j^ lighthouse. It is
140 feet above high-water level, and visible 18 miles ; 3" GuUi
or Macao (Ngaomen) -^ f^ Ughthotiae. It is 332 feet above
high-water level, and visible to a distance of 20 miles.

TIte group of the Strait of Hainan ^ ^ comprises also 3
lighthouses, but of less importance : 1° that of Haihow or Hai-
kfoiw ^ P harbour. It is 93 feet above high-water level, and is
visible 10 miles; 1" Cape Cami or Kwar^iiaowei^^ ^. It is 67

284

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

feet above high-water level, and visible 14 miles; S" Lmnko or
TJ.nkao^'^ lighthouse. It is 63 \ feet above high-water level,
and visible to a distance of 13 \ miles.,

Sea-ports. — The principal are :

Swettow ov Shant'eM\\\\^. — Population, 00,000 inhabitants.
This port is situated at the mouth of the Han ^ river. Ships
with a draught of 20 feet can easily enter the bay. The rows
of posts laid by fishermen between Double island and the ancho-
rage are alone to be guarded against, especially at night. Trading
vessels can find good holding ground with a depth of 30 to 36
feet opposite the town. The bay is in constant communication
with Amoy, Foochow, Hongkong and Shanghai [see Section III.
Oh. III. p. 210).

Hongkong or Hsiangkiang §j^ (fragrant lagoon). — Hong-
kong is an island at the Eastern entrance of the Canton river, and

ONGKONa „

Lamma

Stanza.

HONGKONG ^ -^

including Kowloou aud the New Territory.

THE COAST OF KWANGTUNG. 285

a Crown Colony of Great Britain. It is a mass of granite, schist
and basalt, varied with hill and dale, woods, rocky creeks and
sandy beaches. The Fedk upon which stands the signal-staff
is 1,825 feet high. The island is 11 miles long and from to 2
to 5 broad. The colony has been increased in 1898, by the
lease for 99 years, of a tract of territory on the mainland. The
whole of the Colony, now including Kowloon j[^ || (acquired by
the Peking Convention of 1860), has an area of 400 square miles.
The population, according to the census of November 20*'', 1906,
is 305,400 inhabitants, of whom 294,426 are Chinese. The white
residents, exclusive of the army and navy, number 10,981. The
chief town is Victoria (population, 182,000), on the N. coast of
the island, facing the mainland.

When the island was first taken possession of by Great

Britain, in January 1841, it had a population of only 2,000

__inhabitants, mostly fishermen. Since its cession by the Treaty of

Nanking, in 1842, and its erection into a British Colony, April

5**1," 1843, it has uniformly prospered. The harbour, which lies

' between Kowloon and the N. coast of the island, has a water-area

of 10 square miles, is well sheltered, and is one of the finest in

the world. It is unfortunately situated within the cyclonic limits,

-and in 1874, as many as 33 large vessels, several hundred junks,

over 1,000 houses, and many thousand lives were lost. Another

I disastrous and terrific typhoon, the incidence of which was

I aggravated by the absence of warning from the local observatory,

' swept over it on September 18'^, 1906. During the tornado,

9 vessels were sunk; 23 went ashore, including H. M. sloop of

war "Phoenix", and two French torpedo boats; 21 were damaged,

•i among them being H. M. gunboats "Moorhen" and "Robin",

and several large liners. Great destruction took place also

among small craft, buildings collapsed, and trees were torn up

by the rools. Over 1,000 dead bodies were recovered. The

loss of property is estimated at over £ 1,000,000 sterling.

" Hongkong is the centre of a vast trade in many kinds of
produce, chiefly opium, sugar, flour, cotton, ivory, betel-nuts,
sandalwood, rice, tea, silks, woollens and salt. The exports

286

SBCTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

to the United Kingdom are principally silk and hemp; and the
imports: cottons, metals and woollen stuffs. In the year 1903,
the aggregate tonnage of the port was 21,710,000; in 1904, it
reached 22,405,000.

Hongkong is a free port. It is calculated that the traffic,
which merely passes through the harbour without breaking
bulk, amounts to over jS 20,000,000, and the total trade to
£ 50,000,000 sterling per annum.

Industry is also prosperous, cotton-mills and sugar refineries
being particularly developed. Much encouragement has been
given by the government to education. In 1902, there were 91
schools subject to government supervision, attended by 5,754
pupils, mostly Chinese. There are besides many private schools,
attended by 2,983 pupils, and special schools for European
children.

There are excellent naval yards and docks, capable of
holding the largest vessels. These give employment to 30,000
workmen.

Hongkong is the chief British naval station in the Far East.
It also maintains a strong garrison for the protection of British
commerce.

Asa Crown CoUmy, it is administered by a Governor, aided
by an Executive Council of 8 members, together with a Legislative
Council of 14 members, including the Governor and a repre-
sentative from the Chamber of Commerce. The Kowloon territory
has also its special administration, partly Chinese and partly
English.

Canton ^ jHI jj^ and the Canton river or ChM-ktung |^ ^,
also called the Tearl rinoer.

We have described above (Section III. Ch. I. p. 170; and
Ch. III. p. 207-209), the City of Canton and the Si-kiang delta;
we shall therefore deal here only with navigation.

The Fearl river is entered through the Bocea Tigris (Hu-
min) J^ P^ or Bogue. This name was given to it on account of
Tiger islamls or Hushan J^ [Ij , which lie above the entrance.
This latter is situated between Taikoktaw or TaMohtfeu ^
^ i^ and Anunghog or Tanianghaiai ^ ^ ^.

Once passed, the Blenheim channel or Sintsaoshui ^ 3^
;i»JC, is the best course for navigation, but two bars oppose an

THE COAST OF KWANOTUNG.

287

obstacle to ocean-going vessels. Ships with a draught of 22
feet can reach Whampoa or Htvampu ^ ^, 9 miles below
Canton. Vessels drawing 10 feet can alone go up to Canton,
where the safest anchorage is within 150 yards of the river
wall, at Shameen ^ "g (Shamien, i.e. sand-flat).

Canton was at an early date, the great port of European com-
merce. The Arabs traded there in the X"^ century, the Portuguese
reached it in 1516, and later on the Dutch and English. The
East-India Company established a factory there in 1684 but
its monopoly ceased in 1834. Since 1842, the proximity of
Hongkong, and the opening of Foreign ports, especially in
the N., have much limited its former trade, which of late years
has exceedingly declined. Its exports are chiefly silk, tea and
matting. The imports are cotton-yarn and piece goods, woollen
cloths, rice, sugar, beans, kerosene oil, flour, coal, cutlery,
opium, tobacco and matches. Canton is 95 miles from Hong-
kong, and steamers ply daily between the two places. From
1901 to 1903, its commerce nearly doubled, but it fell again in
1904, and still further in 1905. The total gross and net values
of the trade of the port from 1900 to 1905, were as follows:

Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1900-1905.

YBAE.

Gross Values.

Net Values.

1900

Hk. Tls.
53,036,553

Hk. Tls.
52,405,172

1901

60,845,410

59,990,274

1902

80,727,943

79,744,707

1903

111,268,748

110,559,826

1904

96,858,478

96,247,076

1905

92,793,830

92,243,650

Whampoa or Hwangpu ^ ^ enjoys no longer the activity
of former days, especially since Canton has been open to trade.
Its dockyards have been purchased by the Chinese Government,

Macao ^ g^ or JfgwomJht, ^ P^- — A Portuguese colony
situated at the Southern extremity of the Si-kiang ^ ^ delta.

288

SECTION, ly. THE COAST-LINE PP CHINA.

The Portuguese, first settled there in 1557, and during severaj
centuries, especially during the eighteenth, it was the great
trading, centre between China and the West. Since the cession
of Hongkong to Great Britain, its trade has constantly declined,.

llJ'E.efQ.
MACAO or NGAOMEN -^ f^

with its dependencies of Taipa and Colowan.

It was held at a rental to the Emperor of China of Tls.
500 a year till 1848, when Governor Ferreira do Amaral
refused to pay any longer, and forcibly drove out the Chinese
Custom-house, and with it the last vestige of Chinese authority.
He was treacherously murdered in August, 1849, near the
barrier of Porta do Cerco, and his head taken to Canton. The
sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was officially recog-
nised by China in the treaty signed with Portugal in 1887.

Macao has an area of 11 square miles, and with its depen-
dencies, a population of 78,000 inhabitants, of whom 5,000 are
Portuguese and 30,000 Chinese in the city alone. Macao is
88 -miles distant from Canton and 40 from Hongkong. It hs^s

THE COAST OP KWANfiTUNG. 289

several churches and possesses the Grotto of Oamoens, the
celebrated Portuguese poet. The town is built in amphitheatre
shape on the sides of a hill. It is very picturesque, and has a
beautiful and well-shaded promenade, the Praya-grande, run-
ning along the East sea-wall. Numerous visitors and invalids
throng there on account of its salubrious and bracing climate.
This however does not preserve it from epidemic diseases,
which frequently break out there. Of its former commercial
activity, it still retains a few manufactures, and carries on a
small trade in tea (8,129 piculs imported from Lappa in
1905), silk, opium, essential oils, tobacco, bricks and cement,
fire-crackers and preserves. The harbour however is fast silting
up, and will seriously injure trade unless efficient dredging
operations are resorted to. Ships drawing more than 9^ feet of
water cannot enter the inner section of the port. This consists of
a canal, running between the W. coast, and Lappa or Kungpeh
^ 4t island. Large sea-going vessels are compelled to anchor 5
miles off, where they are exposed to the N. E. monsoon and to
typhoons. During the year 1905, the number of junks which
entered from Hongkong reached 518, while those that cleared
for the same destination amounted to 368, transporting 115,986
tons. The total value of the junk trade between Hongkong and
Macao from 1900-1905 was as follows:

1900 Hk. Tls. 4,314,397

1901 — 3,923,534

1902 — 4,293,060

1903 — 3,321,752

1904 — 2,979,779

1905 — 2,253,254

jMVpo^ or Kungpeh ^ i^. — Lappa is an island lying
opposite Macao. A Chinese custom station is established there.
The total net value of the trade was in 1903, Hk. Tls. 16,756,562;
in 1904, Tls. 17,735,132; and in 1905, Tls. 16,858,584.

Kwanffchow-wan ^ j^ •^. — The bay of Kwangchow is
gituated in Kwangtung Province, to the E. of the Leichcw g )i\

19

290

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OF CHINA.

peninsula, and was leased to France by China on April the 22"^
1898, for 99 years, together with the adjoining islands and
territory. The Chinese population of the territory is about
190,000 inhabitants, and its area 84,244 hectares or 325 square
miles.

KWANGCHOW-WAN ^ jlfl

The two islands of Nanchow ^ ^ and Tunghai y^ ^, lying
at the entrance of the bay, make an excellent land-bound port, into
which ships can enter by two narrow passes, the N. one being
the deepest. The bay is from 18 to 22 miles in length, and from
6 to 7 broad, and has depths ranging from 3 to 11 fathoms. It
is formed by the mouth of a river, and by several islands, the
largest of which are Amphitrite or Tunghai ^ ^ island and
la SiffaiuUSre. A new town is being built at Nivet Point. Several
steamboats connect it on the S. with Pakhoi and Haiphong
(Tongking), and on the N. with Hongkong. Kwangchow-wan
is a free port. The territory is divided into 3 circumscriptions*

THE COAST OF KWANftTUNG. 291

The superior administration is performed by a first-class adminis-
trator, under the control of the Governor-General of Indo-China.
The tidal stream is very strong at the mouth of the bay.
The entrance from the high sea is effected through a narrow
and shallow channel, which runs through a line of breakers
parallel to the coast.

HoUmw or BaO^ow fg P. — Population, 12,000 inhabi-
tants. A port situated onthe N.W. of the island of Hainan f^^.
The water is shallow, and consequently ships have to anchor 2
miles off. Its tides are moreover very variable, and typhoons are to
be feared, Hainan being the playground of these destructive storms.
Trade is however brisk, as the town is the only sea-port of the
large island. The principal exports are straw mats, gunny
bags, hemp, cattle and pigs, poultry, medicines, brown sugar,
groundnut-cake, fresh eggs and betel-nuts. The imports are
cotton and woollen goods, opium, kerosene oil, rice, beans and
peas, flour, aniline dyes and matches. Communications are
chiefly carried on with Hongkong, Pakhoi and Swatow. (see Sec-
tion HI. Oh. m. p. 211).

TaKhoi or Teh-hai ;|t ^. — Population, 20,000 inhabitants.
This port is situated on the N. of the gulf of Tongking '^'ff,, and
was opened to foreign trade in 1877 . It was till lately a great depot
and import channel for large tracts of Kwangtung, Kwangsi,
Kweichow and Yiinnan. It reached its greatest prosperity in
1888. Then the decline commenced, and has continued ever
since, the reasons being the proximity of Haiphong, the opening
of treaty ports on the West river, and lately the French lease of
Kwangchow-wan. The area of trade is at present restricted to
the neighbouring regions. The experts are liquid indigo, brown
sugar, groundnut-cake and oil, star-aniseed, pigs, duck feathers,
hides, and leather. The imports are cotton goods, kerosene oil,
opium, manufactured iron, lamps, rice, flour and matches. The
total net value of the port was in 1903, Hk. TIs. 3,431,418; in
1904, TIs. 3,013,416 ; and in 1905, TIs. 2,830,938.

The town is badly located, being deprived in Summer of
the S,W. breeze, and exposed in Winter to the full force of the

"^' SECTION IV. THE COAgT-LINE OF CHINA.

N. E. monsoon. The harbour is good and easily approached.
The entrance is effected through a large and deep channel, which
ships have no difficulty in crossing at high-water, but at ebb
tide only small craft can enter. During the year 1905, the port
was visited by 119 steamers and 886 sea-going junks, while the
number of clearances reached respectively 119 and 616. The
total net value alone of the junk trade was Hk. Tls. 880,383.

Time-zones of the Coast of China. — The time-zone system was adopted at
Shanghai, on January the 1*' 1903, at Ts'ingtao on Jannaiy the 15"", and subsequently
at other places. It has become official for all stations of the Imperial Maritime Custpms
lying within the coast zone, as well as for the telegraph and railway administration..
In the 7"* hour zone, it is optional.

Note. — The globe is supposed to be divided into 24 zones or sections, extending
7° SO" on each side of the central meridians, and the local mean time is used for all
places within that zone. The standard meridian passes through the centre of each
zone, and in each of them, all clocks indicate the same time. In ea6h zone, the
maximum difference between the local mean time and standard time is 30 minutes.
As one of the standard meridians is that of Crreenwich, standard time is often called
Greenwich time. The zone of the China coast, whose standard meridian is 120° E.
from Greenwich, difiers by 8 hours from that of Greenwich. That of Central and W.
China, which has its standard meridian 105° E. from Greenwich, is 7 hours ahead, of
Greenwich time, Hoihow and Pakhoi lie both within the latter time-zone.

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Paavel, — ■ Les bases navales en Chine.

' (Revue politique et parlementaire. Juiri,
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Dufoumy. — La Chine : ses chemins de

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Weorlesse.— Chine ancienne et nouvel-
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Boaett«. — Chine et Japon. Paris, 1881.

Instructions nautiques sur les mers de
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Die Wichtigten Hafen China. Berlin, 1901.

Dentschrift betreffend die Entwickelung
des Kiautsohou-Gebeits, von Oct, 1903
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1872.

The China-sea Directory. Vol. III.

Hongkong Chronicle and Directory for
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China. Imperial Maritime Customs, —
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THE COAST OF KWAN6TUNG.

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Report of the Superintendent of the Coast
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Gundry G. — The China Coaster's tide-
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tides, currents, winds and lighthouses of
the China coast).

Decberrens M. — The typhoons of the
China Seas in the years 1880, 1831 and
1885. Zikawei. 1881-85. — The typhoons
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and October. Zikawei, 1884.

Chevalier S. — Etude sur I'etablissement
de la mousson d'ete et d'hiver sur la cote
de Chine. Zi-ka-wei, 1887.— The Bokhara
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Winter storms on the coast of China.
Zikawei. 1895.

Froo L. — Typhoon highways in the Far
East. Zikawei, 1896. — The typhoons of
September 9'i" and 29«l>, 1897. Zikawei,
1898. — The atmosphere in the Far East
during the six cold and the six warm
months. Hints to Navigators. Zikawei,
1900-1901.

de Moidrey J. — Notes on the Climate of
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Bulletin de I'Observatoire de Zi-ka-wei, by
the Jesuit Fathers. XXXII Vol'.

Calendrier-Annuaire (published annually
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Alga& J. — The Cyclones of the Far
East. ManUa, 1904.

Bergholz P- — The Hurricanes of the
Far East. Bremen and Shanghai, 1900.

Doberck W. — The Law of Storms in the
Eastern Seas. Hongkong, 1898.

Palmer. — The typhoons of the Eastern
Seas. 1882.

Deutsche Seewarte Die wichtigsten Hafen
Chinas. Berlin, 19G1.

Darwin Pr. G. H. — The Tides and kin-
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(Bores, p. 59-71).

GutzlafT O. — Journal of three Voyages
along the Coast of China. 1831,32,33.
London, 1834.

Chinese Repository. — Coast of China.
(Vol V. p. 337-351. Vol. Vi. p. 8-16).

Forbes F. E.— Five years in China. Lon-
don, 1848 (Nautical surveys. Ch. XV. p.
243-262).

Norman F. M.— Martello Tower in China.
London, 1902. (Hongkong. Part. 11. Ch. I.
p. 81-98. Ch. V. p. 162-183. — Canton. Ch.
VI. p. 184-204. — Whampoa. Ch. VII.
p: 205-221).

Colling'wood O. — Naturalist's Rambles
in the China Seas. London, 1868. (Hong-
kong. Oh. I. II. XIX. — Canton. Ch.XX.
p. 330-351).

Cuinmings G. F. — Wanderings in China.
London,1900. (From Hongkong to Canton.
Ch. II. p. 18-41. — From Hongkong to
Amoy. Ch. V. p. 78-86. — Shanghai. Ch.

XXI. p. 265-275. — City of Ningpo. Ch.

XXII. p. 276-283. — From Shanghai to
Tientsin. Ch. XXIX. p. 351-359).

Fortune R. — Visit to the Tea Countries.
London, 1853. (Honkong. Vol. I. Ch. I.
p. 1-14. — Canton. Ch. VIII. p. 115-134.
Chusan. Vol. II. Ch. IV. X. and XV. —
Ningpo. Ch. VI. and IX. — Shanghai.
Ch. VII, XI and XII).

Fortune R. — Residence among the Chi-
nese. London, 1857. (Several coast-towns
described).

Davis Sir F. — Chusan in British Occu-
pation. (Chinese Miscellanies. London
1865. no 7. p. 127-162).

Gundry R. S. — Sketches of excursions
to Chusan and Footoo. Shanghai, 1876.

Si" Leod J. — Voyage of H. M. S. Alceste
to China. London, 1818.

Halloran A. li. — Eight months' journal
daring visits to Liukiu, Pootoo, Shanghai
and Ningpo. London, 1856.

Bernard W. D. — Narrative of the voyage
of the Nemesis. London, 1844.

Colquhoun A. — China in Transforma-
tion. London, 1898. (Hongkong. Ch. XII.
p. 304-320).

Norman H, — The Peoples' and Politics
of the Far East. London, 1895. (Outposts
of Empire. Hongkong. Ch. I. p. 22-36. —
Shanghai, p. 3-36. — Macao. Oh. XII. p.
183-194).

294

SECTION IV. THE COAST-LINE OP CHINA.

Michie A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (The new Treaty Ports ;
Foochow, Amoy, Ningpo. Vol. I. Ch. VIII.
p. 112-123. — Hongkong. Ch. XTV. p.
271-286. — Shanghai. Ch. IX. p. 124-160.

— Macao. Ch. XV. p. 287-398. — Piracy.
Ch. XVL p. 299-307).

Oarzon G. — Problems of the Far East.

(Great Britain in the Far Bast. Oh. XIV.

p. 413-428).
Freeman-Mitford A. B. — The Attache

at Peking. London, 1900. (Hongkong, p.

1-13. — Canton, p. 14-32. — Shanghai, p.

33-42. — Chefoo and Tientsin, p. 43-54).
Smith G. — Visit to each of the Consular

Cities of China. London, 1847.
The Colony of Hongkong. — China Eeview.

Vol. I. p. 163-176.
English Trade with China A. D. 1625-1834.

— China Eeview. Vol. XX. p. 173-201
and 211-245.

Origin of the Colony of Macao. — China
Eeview. Vol. XXIV. p. 137-142.

Macao in the early days. — China Review.
Vol. XXV. p. 183-188.

Garaix J. — Sanchoan, the Holy Land
of the Par East. Hongkong, 1906.

Braf!e-Mitford. — The Territory of Wei-
haiwei. Shanghai, 1902.

Maclellan J. W. — The Story of Shang-
hai, from the opening of the Port to For-
reign Trade. Shanghai, 1889.

Maidel E. — Physico-Geographical Sketch
of the China and YeUow Seas. S' Peters-
burgh, 1904.

Admiralty Charts. — China.

Map of Hongkong. — London, 1905. (topo-
graphical Section. War Office).

China. Imperial Maritime Customs. De-
cennial Eeports. 1882-1891. Shanghai,
1893. — Decennial Eeports. 1892-1901.
Shanghai, 1904. Vol. I. and II.

China. Imperial Maritime Custom^. Trade
Reports for 1905.

SECTION V.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL
GEOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

Government and Administration. — Revenue and Expenditure.
Imperial Maritime Customs. — Army and Navy.

1° Government and Administration.

The government of China is, theoretically speaking, an
absolute monarchy. The Mmperor is the only and absolute
master. His will is law, and is manifested by Imperial decrees.
All State officials hold their authority from him. He appoints,
removes, degrades, and punishes them as he pleases. Nothing
restricts his power. He has indeed a CovmcU, but is not bound
to follow its advice.

The Emperor is expected to act for the general welfare of
his people. He is the representative of heaven, and if he fails
to govern in accordance with its dictates, heaven will withdraw
its mandate, and send calamities and misfortunes upon the people.
Such is the belief prevalent throughout the Empire.

The Emperor. — The Emperor is styled tJie Supreme
IttOer (Hwangti ^ ^), the August Lofty One (Hwangshang
^ Jl), or simply the Ijofty One (Shang _t). The title, Son of
Heaven or T'ientze 5^ ^, is given to him as a mark of respect.
His popular appellation is : the Buddha of the present day or

296 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL GEOftRAPHY.

Tangkin Pohy6 ^ ''^ f^ J|. He is also called the Master or
Lord (Chutze =^ ^p), and in adulatory addresses : the Zord «/
Ten Thousand years (Wansuiyfi M M M) '^ '** Boly One
(Shdng ^) ; the Celestial Ruler (T'ienwang 5^ J); the Sovereign
Muler (Yuenheu 7^ Jff) ; the Most Venerable (Chitsun || :^).

Besides his personal name, which is never used, the Emperor
has also a style or title of reign (Nienhao if ^). The personal
name of the reigning Emperor is Tsait'ien ^i''|S", and his style of
reign Kwangsii % ^ (Brilliant Success). The style of reign
may change, and is not always taken on the day of accession to
the throne.

The heir or successor to the throne is chosen by the Emperor.
If he is not the natural issue of the reigning Sovereign, he must
be adopted toy him, on account of the requirements 0/ ancestor
worship. After his death, an Emperor receives a new or Temple
name called Miaohao ^ |^, and he is henceforth designated
by this name alone.

The Empress. — ITie Empress is styled the Imperial
Consort or Hwangheu ^ ^ ; the Bmpress Dowager is called
Hwangt'aiheu ^ -jis^ ^ (Grand Queen); and the Bmperor's
Grandmother,T 'aihw&ng T'aiheupfc^^fc^ (Great Grand Queen).
In literary style, the Bmpress is called the One who occupies
the Central Falace or Ghungkung 4* '§'• -^^ a mark of respect,
the title of Mother of the State or Kwohmu ^ -^ is also given
her. When there are two Consorts of equal rank, one is called
Sikung "g §, or Empress occupying the West Palace ; the other,
Tungkung y^ §, or Empress occupying the East Palace.

Chinese Administration. — The Manchu dynasty, whicfi
has ruled the country since 1644, introduced but few modifications
into the Government system. In some instances, Boards received
two incumbents, Manchu ofTicials being placed side by side with
native ones. Some few new pieces were added to the governmental
machinery, as necessity required it, among others : the Grand
CouncU or Kiiinki O'hu ? ^ |g established in 1732 ; and the
Board of Foreign Affairs, formerly the Tsungli Yamfin j^ 3
;^ P5, established in 1861.

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 297

The administration comprises two prtncipea aivisionsrtfie
Centred or Metropolitan, and the ProvincUd.

Central OoTernment. — According to a decree issued
November the 6*1' 1906, the Metropolitan or Central Admi-
nistration, hitherto carried on through the Grand Couneil and
the sias Boards, was remodelled. Of the former Boards, only
the following remained : the Grand Council of State Affairs, the
Grand Secretariat, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Board of
Civil Appointments, the Board of Rites, and the recently estab-
lished Board of Education. The official administration will be
subsequently reformed in the Provinces, and the country thus
prepared for a Constitutional Government, and the new order of
things. The Central Administration is carried on at present
through the agency of the foUotving Councils and Boards t

1°. The Hwei-i Chengum Ch'u # ^ |5: |^ ^, Grand
Council of State Affairs or Brivy Council. — This was formerly
called the KiUnki Ch'u ||;^^ (Place of Military Plans), estab-
lished for the first time in 1732. In the late reorganization, it
was maintained with its designation modified as above. It has no
special function, but deals with all matters of general adininis-
Iration. It is presided over by the Emperor. The number of its
members is not fixed. At present it is 5. They are called High
Ministers of State or Hwei-i Tach'en ^^ :A: £• Meetings are
held every morning at dawn. Numerous Secretaries, called
Siaokiiinki ^J->|^ifi^t perform the clerical work of the Council.

2°. The Neikoli ^ ^ (Inner Cabinet), Grand Secretariat
or Imperial Chancery. — This department has lost much of
its importance since the organization of the Grand Council of
State Affairs. It is composed of 4 members (styled at present
Tahsiohshi -j^ ^ -j^, Grand Secretaries; but formerly called
Kohlao ^ ^, or Cabinet Elders, under the Ming ^ dynasty),
two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese. They are all
chosen from among the most distinguished officers of the State,
usually Governors-General. Their functions are almost purely
nominal, and the members sometimes do not even reside in

298

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL aEOftRAFHY.

Peking. Two Assistant Grand Secretaries, styled Hsiehpan
Tahsiohshi 1&^iz^±, one Manchu and one Chinese, attend
to the departmental work of the Cabinet.

3°. The Waiwu Tu ^ f^ ^, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. —
This was formerly the Xsungli Tamin, or to give its full title,
Tsungli Kohkwohshiwu Yamen Jl ^ # ^ ^ :g? ^ P^ (literally,
the Bureau generally managing each Kingdom's Affairs), which
was established in 1861, after the capture of Peking by the allied
forces of Great Britain and France. The present Ministry was
instituted by decree of July the 21" 1901. It is generally
composed of 10 members, all of whom are Presidents or Vice-
Presidents of other Boards, including a majority of the members
of the Grand Council. They are spoken of collectively as Wang
Tach'dn 3E ^ Ei or the Prince and Ministers. There are four
special departments for the affairs of Great Britain, France,
Russia and the United-States. The clerical work of each section
is conducted by Secretaries, styled Changking ^ ]jr, but
commonly called Szeyuen "^ ^, or Szekwan "^ 1^.

China is represented near Foreign Courts by siae AnOtas-

sadora:

One for England, Italy and Belgium ;

One for France ;

One for Russia ;

One for Germany and Holland ;

One for the United-States and Peru ;

One for Japan.

Before the institution of the Tsungli Yamen, Foreign affairs
were under the control of the Lifan Yuen g ^ I^, Board for
the administration of vassal countries.

4". The lAfan Yuen Sill%> Board for the admimi^ratimi
of vassal countries. — This Board controls all the affairs of
Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, and has on this account been
sometimes called the Mongolian Superintendency. It has to-day
one President styled Shangshu -ji^ ^ (literally, Controller of the
Records), and two Vice-Presidents, styled Shilangf^ ||5 (literal-
ly, Gentlemen in waiting).

CHAPTER I. aOVKRNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 299

5". The ShihFu -J- ^, Ten Boards or MiofUstries. — Pre-
vious to the decree of November the 6tii 1906, there were but
six Boards : Civil Appointments or Li Pu |g ^, Revenue or Hu
Pu ^ ^, Rites or Li Pu ^ %, War or Ping Pu ^ %, Justice
or Hsing Pu JfiJI^J, and Public Works or Kung Pu X^- As stated
above, all were remodelled and their mwmber increased to lO,
as follows :

1. Id Pu £ 3E, Board of Civil Appointments.

2. Minch^ng Fn g stc 3C, Board or Ministry of Home Affairs.

3. TucM Pu £ ^ iSR, Board of Finance and Paymaster-General's

Department.

4. Hsioh Pu ^ $E, Ministry of Education.

5. Fah Pu S bR, Board of Judicature or Ministry of Justice.

6. Luhkiiin Pu ^ 1^ 3K, Land Army Office or Ministry of War.

7. Nungkungshang Pu M X S SB, Ministry of Agriculture, Works

and Commerce. Besides its President and two Vice-Presidents, this
Soard has also two Councillors.

8. TUchWan Pu K Aft % Ministry of Posts and Communications.

9. Li Pu m. 3S, Board of Rites.

10. Sdnkii^ Pu i^ If 3K, Ministry of Public Safety or Board of Gene-

ral Constabulary.

A Board of AdnUraUy or HaiMUn Pu ^|^^ will be also
soon organized.

In regard to the incumbents of all Boards, there is to be
no further distinction, at least theoretically, between Manchus
and Chinese. Each Board is also to have but one President,
styled Shangshu •^ ^, and two Vtce-Prestdents, styled Shilang
^ ^, distinguished respectively in each class as senior and
junior Vice-Presidents.

6". 2%« BanHn Yuen # # ^ (literally, Forest of pencils),
Impertal Acadenvy or Supreme CoOege of TAleraiure. — It is

composed of all the Literati who have successfully passed the
Palace Examination or Tienshi ^ 1$, and obtained the title of
HatMn or Imperial Academist. It has two Chancellors, one

300

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL &EOGnAPHY.

Manchu and one Chinese. They are styled Shangyuen Hsiohshi
^l^^i- It has also several Readers and Expositors. Admis-
sion to its ranks is the highest literary honour obtainable by a
Chinese scholar. Its functions are of a purely literary character.
It is entrusted with the compilation of dynastic history, imperial
decrees, and literary works in general. Its members also' draw
up prayers and sacrificial addresses, write eulogiums of deceased
Emperors, and make offerings at the tomb of Confucius. They
are besides required to attend on the Emperor as readers,
instructors, and sometimes as advisers.

7". The Tuch'ah Tuen ^ ^ K, Censorate or Omrt of
Censors. — The Censorate is composed of Manchus and Chinese
recruited in equal proportion from the different official depart-
ments. It has 2 Presidents, one Chinese and the other Manchu.
They are styled Tsotu Yiishi & ^ ^ ^- There are besides
4 Vice-Presidents, 24 Supervising Censors and 38 Censors.

The Censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even
of the Emperor himself, for any act which they consider unjust,
illegal or extravagant, and they do so at times with boldness
and courage, though they are occasionally degraded for their
unpalatable advice. They also censure the manner in which
all other officials perform or neglect their duties, and if there
are any shortcomings, they may denounce them to the Throne.
They receive appeals made to the Emperor, either by the people
against their officials, or by subordinate officials themselves
against their Superiors. In accord with the Ministry of Justice,
they exercise an oversight over all criminal cases, and give their
opinion whenever the death-penalty is to be pronounced. They
superintend likewise the working of the different Boards, and
are sometimes sent to various parts of the Empire as Imperial
Inspectors, hence they are called the "ears and eyes" of the
Emperor, Eulmuh Kwan ft U '^^

8°. The Tali Sze ^ M^, Grand Court of Jtevision. — This
department, together with the Ministry of Justice and the Gen-

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 301

soi-ate, exercises a general supervision over the administration
of criminal law.

All three are styled collectively Sanfah Sze H ^ p], or the
3 High Justices.

9". The K'nvtHeii Kien WiJi^, Imperial Hoard of Astro-
nomy. — This department compiles the Imperial calendar,
proclaims the days in which the Emperor is to offer sacrifice
and predicts the eclipses of the sun and moon.

10°. The T'aich'ang Sze i^ *$ ^, Court of Sacrificial

Worship. — This department is charged with all arrangements
when the Emperor offers sacrifice.

H". The Hunglu Sze ?i||t ^, COurt of State Ceremonial. —

This department superintends everything connected with State
meetings, and conducts the ceremonies.

12°. Several other Departments are connected with the private service of the
Emperor and the Imperial Palace. The principal are :

THe TsTuigj§ii Pn ^ A W" or Imperial Clan Court.

The Neiwn Fu i^ ^ W or Imperial Household.

The Lwani Wei 1^ ^ It or Imperial Equipage Department.

The T'aipuh Sze >fc ^ ^ or Court of the Imperial Stud.

The Kwangluh Sze 3fe ^ # or Court of Imperial Entertainments.

The T'ai-i Yuen jfc '^ R or College of Imperial Physicians.

Provincial administration.

China Proper is divided into 18 Provinces, called Sh^ng i^.

These are not all governed in the same manner. Some are
under a Oovemor-Oeneral or Viceroy, called Tsuntftuh H §,
and commonly styled Chit'ai $-|J J ; others have no Viceroy but
only a Governor or SOnfu jg |te, commonly called Futai HEg.

A Viceroy administers one or several Provinces, has under
him Governors, and in some cases fulfils this function himself.

302 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMICAL 6E0&RAPHT.

There are 8 VieeroytOHea :

1°. ChihU it ^. — The official residence of the Viceroy is
at Paoting Fu ^ ^ Jj3=, though he resides in fact during the
greater part of the year at T'ientsin Fu "Ji ^^. This Province
has no Governor.

2°. IjeangMan^ ^ ^, comprising the Provinces of Kiangsu
in iS' ^oanTuwei, ^ ^ and Kiangrai JC If . — The Viceroy
resides at Nanking ^ ^ or Kiangning Fu iL % )^- There
are 3 Governors, residing respectively: one at Soochow Fu jJH^
f^ ^, one at Ngank'ing Fu §t$tf&t and one at Nanch'ang Fu

3°. Shetiktm ^ •^, comprising the Provinces of Shenai ^
■gf and Kansu -^ Jfjj. — The Viceroy resides at Lanchow Fu
M ffl ^1 '° Kansu, and a Governor for Shensi BJjII, at SinganFu

4". MincM g^ fu, comprising the Provinces of Fokien jg ^
and CMMang ^ JH- — The Viceroy resides at Foochov? Fu jg
^ ^, in Fokien, and a Governor for ChSkiang ^ fL, at Hang-
chow Fu :^ iW |9=-

5". Leanghu M fiW °'' Bukwang jj^ ^, comprising the
Provinces of Hupeh ^ ;|fc and Htnmn jj^ ^, or expanse to the
N. and S. of the Ttmglfimg -Hm ffl ^ JlK "'^ Tungt'ing lake. —
The Viceroy resides at Wuch'ang Fu f^ g ^, and a Governor
for Hunan ^ ^, at Ch'angsha Fu -j^ TJ^ )^.

6°. SzeeJvu/an 29 )\]. — The Viceroy resides at the capital,
Oh'fingtu Fu J^ ^ ^. This Province has no Governor.

7°. Leanffkwang ^ ^, comprising the Provinces of Kwang-
tung ^ ^ and Kwangai ^ |§. — The Viceroy resides at
Canton or Kwangchow Fu ^i\\}^i and a Grovernor for Kwangsi
^ H, at Kweilin Fu ;g ^ jf.

CHAPTER I. aOVKRNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 303

8". Tunkwel ^ ;(;, comprising the Provinces of Yunnan
^ ^ and Sweiehow :fc jJtl- — The Viceroy resides at Yiinnan
F" • ^ ^> and a Governor for Kweichow ^ )^, at Kweiyang

Fu * n ;iJ.

Three Provinces : Shantung [Ij ;^, Shansi ilj "gf , and Biman
fpf ^, ftave no Oovemors-Gaieral over them. Their Governors
reside respectively at Tsinan Fu ^ ^ jj5f in Shantung, T'aiyiien
Fu :;fc ;^ ^ in Shansi, and K'aifung Fu ^ ^ jjj in Honan.

Seven Provinces : ChiMi ji; ^, Ratimi -^ ■^, Sxechn&an
pg j||, Hupeh ^ 4b, Yunnan ^ ^, JPoJeien fg ^ and Ktvangtunff
^ ^, Aave MO Governor, the Viceroy officiating as such.

There are thus in all, 8 Viceroys or Governors-General,
and 11 Governors.

The Viceroy or Tsongtub j^$, and the Governor or Siiiifa MUfi are both
invested with supreme authority in their Province. When they govern the same
Province, they act in accord. There are however special departments which are
administered by the one rather than by the other. The Viceroy controls the military
forces within his jurisdiction, and so to him belong the inspection, promotion and
changes of military officials, the repression of revolts, and the supervision of the salt
administration.... To the Governor belong the inspection, promotion and changes of
civil officials, the supervisorate of criminal cases, the collecting of the land-tax, of
duties on certain manufactures, and transit-duties on native produce. This latter is
collected at the numerous Custom barriers established throughout all the Provinces.

Viceroys and Governors are aVmost independent in their Provinces, and have full
control over the finances, army and the administration of justice. If their adminis-
tration is bad, they are summoned to Peking, where they have to answer the charges
brought against them.

The Viceroy of ChihU is also Superintendent of Commerce for the Northern
ports, and the Leangkiang or Ncmhing Viceroy, Superintendent of Commerce for the
Southern ports.

For the 18 Provinces, there are besides : 18 Literary Chancellors or Provin-
cial Educational Examiners, styled Iisiohcheng ^WC; H Salt Comptrollers,
called Yenyiin Shisee ISjBffiSIi o^ Commissioners of the revenue derived from the Pro-
vincial salt monopoly; 8 Grain Intendants or Leangtao !|S ^ (previous to 1905, the
latter were subordinate to the Director-General of the grain transport or Ts'aotuh JS^,
whose function was then abolished); 3 Directors-General of the Yello'w River
or Hwang-ho £ ^, and Grand Canal or YUn-ho ]£ jl^.

304 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.

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CHAPTER I.

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

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306 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

ProTinclal administration. — Besides the Viceroy or
Governor, or both, there are in each Province the SzeUw ■^ Jg,
or 4 High offlaals immediately below the rank of Governor,
and constituting in each Province a Committee or Board of
Provincial Administration. These are :

The Tuchhig Sze /fij^^,FirMncidl Commissioner or High
Frovindea Treasurer, commonly called the Fant^ai ^ ^.

The Ifganeh'ah Sze ^ ^ v\, JudicUU Commissioner or
High JProvinditl Judge, colloquially styled the TSUehtai, ^j^^.

The Yen Chhig || |^, Salt Comptroller. — Chief Commis-
sioner of the revenue derived from the salt monopoly. This
function is sometimes fulfilled by the Viceroy or by the Governor.

The JLeang Tao i^J^, Grain Intendant. — Chief Comptrol-
ler of the Provincial revenue derived from the grain tax. The
Viceroy or Governor performs the same functions respecting
the grain supplied to the troops in each Province.

Territorial Subdivisions of the Provinces.

The Provinces are divided into Circuits or Intendandes
called Tao jjg. Officials in charge of a Circuit superintend
either the mere civil administration of their subordinates, and
are styled Finsun Tao ■^ tI&^; or add to these duties the
control of the military forces within their jurisdiction, and are
styled F&nehow Tao ^ ^ ^■

Intendandes or Tao ^ comprise :

1°. First-class Prefectures or Fus fl^ ;

2°. Second-class PrefectMres or imdependent Chows jf^,
styled in Chinese ChiMi Chows ]![ ^ >)i\. These
are called Departments by some writers. They
are subject to no Prefectural control, but depend
directly on the Viceroy or Governor ;

3°. Third-class Prefectures or indefpendent T'ings ^, styled
in Chinese ChihM T'ings jit ^ J^. Like the inde-
pendent Chows, they report immediately to the high
Provincial authorities.

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 307

Fimt-class JPrefectwes or Fus, and independetit Chmvs

and T'ings, have subordinate to their control :

1°. Sub-prefectures of the first order, called HMens |g or

JDistricts.
2°. Sub-prefectures of the second order, called Shuh Chows

jg jKI or Ot^pendent Chows.
3". Sub-prefectures of the third order, called Shuh T'ings

Jg H or dependent T'ings.
4°. Sub-prefectures of the fourth order, called l^wntngfam

T'ings j6 flj ^ or dependent stib-T'ings.

(There are but 4 T'ungp'an T'ings or dependent sub-T'ings
in the 18 Provinces ; 3 in Sjjechw'an pg ^||, and 1 in Shensi

Each (XrcuU is administered by an Intendant or Taotfai

jg ^. T'ai g is a title of respect for officials, and may be
rendered by His Excellency. Taot'ai means therefore "His
Excellency the Intendant". This functionary has the control of
a certain number of Prefectures or Fus, independent Chows or
Chihli Chows, and independent T'ings or Ohihli T'ings. He
attends to matters of general welfare, and controls all the
officials of his Circuit or Intendancy.

Every IPrefeelMre of the first order or Fu J^ is governed
by a Frefect, called Chi Fu ^ ^ (literally, he who knows or
manages the Fu). The authority of the Prefect extends over
all subordinate officials within his jurisdiction, and the people
may appeal to his bench from decisions given by the lower
courts or Sub-prefects. Part of his duty is also to preside over
the 2"'i examination preparatory to the competition for the
B. A. degree.

Controlling eacA' Frefecture of the 2"'^ order or independent
Chmv is a Chi Chow ^j^ (literally, he who manages the Chow),
or Chihli Chow jfi ^ ^, Magistrate of an independent Depart-
ment, reporting direct to the Provincial Governor or Viceroy.
He is distinguished from the Prefect by his having a fixed or
well-defined territory over which he rules as local magistrate,

308 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

while the Prefect is only at the head of, and controls the subor-
dinate Sub-prefectures within his jurisdiction. In this ultimate
capacity, he is obliged to refer certain matters to his Taot'ai or
Suntao M M-

At the head of each Prefecture of the 3''^ order or indepen-
dent OCinff is a Chi T'itiff ^ ^ (literally, he who manages the
T.'ing) or ChiMil^ing T'ungchi ji[ ^ J^ |^ ^, Magistrate of an
independent T'ing. His functions do not differ from those of
the magistrate of an independent Chow. Like him, he also
controls a Sub- prefecture, though regularly speaking, there
should be no such Sub-prefectures.

Uvery Sub-prefecture of the i"* order or Hsien ^, is
governed by a. Sub-prefect or District Magistrate called Chi
Hsien ^ ^ (literally, he who governs the Hsien). It is he who
rules directly over and is in immediate contact with the people.
His principal functions are the following : 1" to collect the land-
tax either in bullion (Titingyin \^ T ^ inhere being no gold
currency in China), or in kind, principally in rice or grain
(Ts'aoleang ^§ |^, literally grain-tax). He has al^o^ to epllpct
the dues levied on trading establishmentSj and registration
fees for the sale of land and house property ; 2" to judge
criminal and civil suits ; 3° to seize and punish robbers and
evil-doers ; 4° to provide couriers for the government postal
service ; 5° to inspect the establishments of benevolent societies
and appoint their administrators ; 6" to preside over the entrance
examination preparatory to the competition for the B. A. degree.
He must, besides report every ten days to hi^ superiors on the
weather, the market price of food-stuffs, the cash or copper
equivalent of the dollar and tael, and the general state of the
crops. He has also to render a monthly account of the cases
brought before his bench.

At the head of each Sub-prefecture of the 2"'^ order or
Dependent Chow, called Shuh Chow ^ ^'I'j, is an oflicial styl«d
Chi Shuhehow ^ ^ >)\\, or Magistrate of a dependent Chow.
He discharges the same duties as the Chi Hsien, but has
superior rank.

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 309

At the head of each Sub-prefecture of the 3''-'^ order or
dependent T-ing, is an official styled Shnht'Uiff ^^| or Fnniin-
iing T'ungchi ^ ^^^^, Sub-prefect controlling a dependent

T^ing. He fulfils the same functions as the Chi Hsien but has
superior rank.

Below and of lower rank than the above named ofHcials is
the Assistant of the Prefect, called Fut^ungchi ^ pj ^p (literally,
assisting with him who manages) or also Penfut'ing -^ jjSf J^.
He does not control the affairs of the people, but is entrusted
with some special function, as the defence of the sea-coast, in
which case he is distinguished by the title of Haifangt'ing
T'ungchi M W M M ^^ or Maritime Sub-prefect; he may also
control the police of a city, and is then styled, Tsungput'ing
T'ungchi il^ M yP I^ ^' Police Sub-prefect; or he may be in
charge of water communications, and as such is called Shuili
T'ungchi H^ fij [p] ^p. Sub-prefect of waterways.

In several Provinces, there is at present a special Board
called Yangtou Ki'ih Y^ ^ J^ (literally, Foreign Affairs' Super-
visorate), entrusted with the management of affairs connected
with Foreigners, Commercial and Missionary.

The Sub-prefecture or ZHstriet, as it is commonly called,
is itself divided wholly or partially into Townships or Sze '^.
Each of these is controlled by a petty official who fulfils almost
the same functions as a Sub-prefect. He is specially entrusted
with the pursuit of robbers, gamblers, swindlers and ruffians,
and practically judges all local cases brought before his bench.
He is styled I^ See ^ "§1, I^ Hsien j^ fg or tSn Chow j^ )\\
(literally, Deputy official), according as he controls with subor-
dinate authority a township, a district or a department.

The township is further subdivided into Wards, called Fao
-^ or Pu 111, in each of which an JBZrfei- or one of the local
gentry (sometimes two or three), fulfils almost the same functions
as a country squire in England, while an agent, called Tipao
^ ^, Paochfang ^ ^ or Paoehiri^ ^ jE, discharges the
duties of bailiff andi rural constable.

The ViUage JEXder or Squire is called by the various names
of Tmvgshi J| ^ (literally, discerning things wisely, or local

310 SECTION V. POIilTICAL AND ECONOMIC &EOGRAPHY.

Don), Shemtwnjg ^ j| (sash-wearing Don), ShensM j^ J;
(sash-wearing scholar or gentleman), and lAemtsun^ ^ H,
(silk-clad controller). The wishes of the people being previously
consulted, the local officials select him from among the influen-
tial families of the township. The approval of the same families
ratifies the choice made, and the elect acts henceforward as
Justice of the Peace in all local petty suits and squabbles.

The bailiff or rwral consteMe, Tipao ^ ■{^, generally
a man of low standing, is much more under the control of
the local official, and is held responsible for all misdemean-
ours committed within the ward. In most parts of the country,
he must witness all deeds of sale, and attend the marriage

ceremony of widows He is the first to whom runners apply

when sent to arrest a culprit. He is also the first witness sum-
moned by local magistrates in every judicial inquiry. All
matters of local importance are known to him, and generally
speaking, nothing can be done without his connivance.

Some XZders, called Tswn^tum^ ||, Jl (collective Elders) or
Tvuantsunff |g i^ (body of Elders), administer several townships.
On account of their ability, their literary degrees, and their
family influence, these acquire at times such authority that they
must be practically considered as the sole rulers of the locality,
and the officials themselves have to reckon with them.

Members of the local gentry, in charge of city wards, are
styled Eiaitung '^ H (street wardens), those in charge of market
towns TsUidfiM ^ -^ (market wardens), while those of trans-
port-stations or Wei ^ and of Chai ^ or military posts, are
styled respectively Weich^ ^ i and Chai4shM m ■^.

To the above must be added the heads of families who
assemble in their ancestral haU or Tz'et'ang |^ ^, in order to
decide family questions. These impose sometimes very severe
punishments (Kiafah ^ ^, domestic punishments), and decree
even the death-penalty against one of their members, guilty or
simply accused of having impaired the honour of the clan.

The inhabitants of one or of several neighbouring villages
assemble also at times for the same purpose, and to avoid the

CHAPTER I. GOVKHNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 311

heavy expenses of a lawsuit, commit downright acts of lynching.
Such conduct is undoubtedly unlawful, but superior authority
seldom visits it with condign punishment, and rarely to uphold
the cause of violated justice.

In these cases as in many others, it must be admitted that
the state of Chinese society is still in an uncivilized condition,
and that the ofBce of Attorney-General or Prosecutor for the
Crown is unknown.

In the last place comes paternal authority, much less res-
tricted in China than in Western countries. The father or head
of the family is absolute master in his home, and is responsible,
at least in regard to damages, for misdemeanours committed
by any member of his household, or anywhere on his property.

Besides the officials above mentioned, there is an army of expectant mandarins
and underlings, whose functions vary according to the importance and special require-
ments of each district. We will mention here only the principal :

1° The Ealfa Zl ^ and Sanfa ^ Jj^, or Assistant Magistrates to tbe
Prefect. — These sometimes take the place of the Prefect in matters of minor impor-
tance. They can he delegated by him to guard the seal (Huyin ^EP) of an official whose
vacant post has not been yet filled. They are also commissioned to administer
Departments which depend directly on the Prefect. They are then styled Ftnfu ^ Jfif
or Deputy Magistrates.

2° The Pat'ing ^81 (Police Sub-prefect) orSzeya 0^, Police Assistant to
the Sub-prefect. — This magistrate is a sort of Justice of the Peace, and sits espe-
cially in the police court, where he tries all cases brought before his bench, as the
FSusze 3" nl or Deputy Sub-prefect does in a Department.

3° The Shiyd ^ ^, Secretaries to the Sub-prefect. — These cannot on
principle try cases with authority, but they sit in the court as Assessors of the Sub-
prefect, and of the Police Magistrate or Put'ing.

Other petty officers invested with administrative power are frequently stationed
in the more important Sub-prefectures, and take at times the place of the Sub-prefect
as Deputy-assistant Judges (Pangpan W^).

The admlDistrative Bureau of a Sub-prefect is generally divided into 6

departments, after the model of the 6 principal Boards of the Metropolitan Govern-
ment, and comprises on a small scale a bureau of Civil Appointments (Lifang '^^),ot
Finance (Tuchifanff S.^Wt formerly Svfang p Jg-), of Bites (Lifang j^^ ^), of
Military Orgamization (Pingfang ^ ]g-), of Punishment or Justice (Fahfang jj ^,
formerly Hsingfang JflJ ^0, and of PubMo Works (Kungfang X M')- As stated above
(p. 297) this organization wiU be soon remodelled.

Court Underlings, called Ch'ajdn H \ (official messengers), or Iiaotsung

^ ^ (venerable Controllers) . — They are divided into four groups with distinct func-
tions, but of these they generally keep but the title for themselves. Practically they

342 BECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

are engaged in drawing up warrants of arrest, which is a more paying business, and for
the serving or execution of which, they have at hand a large number of subordinate
agents unattached to the Court, and hence of no official standing. The latter, lilse
the proper incuinbents of the office, receive no salary, nay more are obliged to pay a
fee for each arrest entrusted to them. They naturally indemnity themselves at jih.e
expense of the accused and prisoners, a necessity undoubtedly, but which affords
ample opportunity for continual acts of extortion, commonly known in China under
the euphemistic name of "squeeze".

In every Sub-prefecture, a military officer, variously styled and ranked, is entrus-
ted with the police of the district, under the orders and control of the Sub-prefect.

In department towns or in some large villages of the Sub-prefecture, there are
also other military officers who perform similar duties. They are called Tsnngyd
111 f§ (controllers) or Fuy© gl] ^ (petty deputy officers), and command only 4 or
even 2 soldiers, but they sometimes display the greatest ingenuity to expand and
outstep when possible the limits of their petty jurisdiction.

It is needless to add that the tniUtary division^ as in other countries, corresponds
in nowise with the civil division (See further on ; Army). This is the reason why we
cannot assign with greater accuracy the functions of these military officers entmsted
with police duties. Moreover, they are regularly attached to the ranks of the Provincial
Army, although on account of their special functions, and during their tenure of office,
they are distinguished from those who fulfil camp or garrison duties. They may be
withdr'awn at the call of their superior officers, atieast when regularly enrolled in the
ranks of the army.

Number of territorial divisions In tbe 18 Provinces. —

The following table exhibits the aggregate of territorial divisions

in China Proper :

Intendancies or Circuits, called Tao Jg 95

Prefectures of the first Order or Fus /^ 184

Prefectures of the second Order, also called Depart-
ments, independent Chows or Chihli Chows j|[

^^N 71

Prefectures of the third Order, also called indepen-
dent T'ings or Chihli T'ings [^ ^ ^ 26

Sub-prefectures of the first Order, also called Districts

or Hsiens f| 1,277

Sub-prefectures of the second Order, also called
dependent Chows, dependent Departments or
Shuh Chows Jg iM-l 154

Sub-prefectures of the third Order, also called

dependent T'ings or Shuh T'irigs Jg ^ 32

Sub-prefectures of the fourth Order, also called
dependent Sub-T'ings or T'ungp'an T'ings jJ^J
1^ 4:

GHAPTEH I. GOVEHNMBNT AND ADMINISTRATION. 313

The aboriginal tribes of Szeohw'an, Yiinnan, Kweichow and Kwangsi ; Miaotee
85 ^, Lolos Us JK and others, have in some places a peculiar administration of their
own. Authority is transmitted from father to son (or near relatives), and the local
administrators or chieftains are called T'ukwan i "^ or T'usze i S] (local chieftains).
Some tribes are even under a semi-military administration (see pp. 188,191 and 201),
especially in the S.E. of Kweichow.

General appellation of Officials. Appointment to
Office. — In the Chinese language, officials are collectively called
Kwan 1^ (rulers, magistrates). In Foreign countries, they are
styled Officials, Magistrates or Mandarins, this latter word
being derived from the Portuguese mandar (to command).

Metropolitan High Officials have various titles (see p. 297-
299). Provincial Officials, appertaining to ranks down to that of
Taot'ai inclusively, are addressed as TaJ'in^ A or pour
XbDceUencp. Those beneath the above-mentioned ranks (Prefect,
Department and District Magistrates) are addressed as Talaoyi
"^^^ (great old man) or your Honour, and in the lowest ranks
simply as Laoyi ^ ^, which is equivalent to Sir in English.

Competitive examination is the slepping-stone to official
employment. A large percentage however of incumbents, espe-
cially of late, obtain office by purchase, though the Throne
has at times attempted to supress the evil.

Tlie Yam^n |^ f^. — The official and private residence of
any mandarin holding a seal is called a Yam6n. Offices of man-
darins who have no seals are called Kungsu ^ 0f , or public
places. An isolation wall called Yingpih ^ g (shadow or
screen-wall) is placed before the entrance to counteract all evil
influences, and a huge scaly animal called T'aot'ieh ^^ (glut-
tonous ogre), the symbol of avarice, is painted on the inside to
warn the official every time he leaves his residence, to be on his
guard against this degrading vice. Sometimes an enormous sun
is painted on the screen-wall. The native legend explains that
the ogre having attempted one day to devour the mighty orb
unfortunately came to grief. It is also typical of the pure or
Yang ^ principle, and suggests that official administration
should be upright and pure in a similar manner.

314

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOaRAPHY.

Rank and d^nc^es of Officials. — Officials are classed
in 9 ranks called Kiup'in ^ ^, distinguished by a coloured
knob worn on the cap or head-dress, a square embroidered
badge on the breast and back of their official robes, and a clasp
on their girdle. Bach rank is further divided into two grades :
ch6ng jE or principal, and ts'ung |£ or subordinate, the knobs
of the latter being engraved with the character "show" ^ or
longevity. The annexed table will exhibit distinctly these ranks.

Insignia of Official Rank.

i4

Knobs.

Badges.

K

Girdle Clasps.

^

COLOITR.

Materiai..

Civil.

Military.

1

Bed— plain.

Euby.

Manohurian

Unicorn of Chi-

Jade set in Eu-

Crane.

nese Fable.

bies.

2

Red — chased.

Coral.

Golden Pheas-
ant.

Lion of India.

Gold set in Eu-
bies.

3

Blue — clear.

Sapphire.

Peacock.

Leopard.

Chased Gold.

4

Blue— opaque.

Lapis lazuli.

Wild Goose.

Tiger of Man-
churia.

Chased Gold with
silver button.

5

White— dear.

Eock Crystal.

Silver Pheas-

Black Bear of

Chased Gold with

ant.

Tibet.

plain silver button.

6

White— opa-
que.

Adularia.

Lesser Egret.

Tiger Cat.

Mother of Pearl.

7

Gold — plain.

Gold.

Mandarin Duck.

Mottled Bear.

Silver.

8

Gold— chased.

Gold.

QuaU.

Seal.

Clear horn.

9

Silver — plain.

Silver.

Lougtailed Jay.

Ehinooeros.

BuiJalo's hom.

It can be seen from this table that the distinguishing badges
of civilians are birds of gay plumage, while those of military
officers are wild animals. The Chinese oriole is worn by the
lowest grade of underlings and unclassed officials. The wives
of officials wear the same embroidery as their husbands, but
no knobs.

Hereditary rewards for Merit or TsioJi/yin '§^. — There
are 9 panks of hereditary reward for merit. They do not confer

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 315

aristocratic position as in Foreign countries, and last only
for a fixed number of lives. The five first are called high ranks,
while the four latter are inferior, and conferred mostly on
military officers of the Imperial Equipage. These ranks are as
follows :

I. Kung ® Duke. > 6. K'ingch'8 Tuyii $S ^ Up gj Equery of the

2. Heu ^ Marquis.

3. Pell id Earl.

4. Tze J- Viscount.

5. Nan ^ Baron.

Imperial Equipage.

7. K'ituyii gJHp ij Imperial Equery.

8. Yiink'iyii §,|S|t Standard -bearing Equery.

9. Ngenk'iyii Slgij ij Equery by privilege.

Titles of bononr for Merit or Fungtsing ^ ^. — The

Throne grants also titles of honour to functionaries or their near
relatives, as a reward for merit or service. These titles are
set forth in all historical papers, family records, mortuary cards,
ancestral tablets and tombstones. They are also displayed on
ornamental boards near the entrance to dwelling houses. They
may be conferred posthumously on officers killed in battle, or
lost at sea, in the service of the State.

I>ecoratlons for Merit or Shanghung ^ :^. — The

principal decorations for merit are four :

1°. The Yellow JRiding t7acfte<, called Hwangnuifowa ^ ,^ ^

or HsingUtva fj ^. — This is bestowed for military service.
It has been awarded to two Foreigners, General Gordon and
M'' Giquel. To this distinction may be attached that conferred
upon high public officials, of riding on horseback within the
precincts of the Red Forbidden City, and called Tzekinch'fingnei
k'ima ^ ^ ^ ft M Ji (*«« Peking p. 71).

2", TJie Blume or Featiher, called lAmgchdh, ^ ^. — This
is bestowed for public service, civil and military, and may also
be obtained by purchase. It comprises three degrees, each
marked respectively by the bestowal of a three-eyed, double-eyed,
and simple-eyed peacock feather, while a very inferior degree is
marked by a dark-blue or crow feather, called Lanling ^ ^.

Note. — The riding jacket and feather are sometimes
withdrawn as a mark of Imperial disapprobation.

316 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEO&HAPHY.

3°. The Balfuru G, |S § Distinction. — Bat'uru is a Manchu
word meaning "brave". This distinction is conferred for active
service in the field. It has no Outward mark, but entitles to
wear the one-eyed peacock feather. Among Foreigners, it has
been conferred upon General W. Mesny, for service in Kweichow
Province.

4°. The Soldier's Medal or Kungp'ai J& ^- — This is
conferred upon soldiers at reviews and inspections, and has the
character ''shang'' ^ or reward in relief upon it.

.2° Revenue and Expenditure.

Chinese Currency. — The Chinese unit of currency is
the tael or Ijeang ^. It is not a coin, but represents a Chinese
ounce-weight of pure silver, and is equivalent to 583.3 grains,
or 1 1^ ounces avoirdupois (437.5 grains being the standard
avoirdupois oz). Its French equivalent is 37.783 grammes.
The tael is divided as follows :

1 Tael or Leang pg, equal to 10 Mace or Ts'ien ^.

1 Mace ,, 10 Candareens or Fen ^.

1 Candareen ,, 10 Cash or Li ^.

Hence a tael contains 10 mace or 100 candareens, and is

worth theoretically 1000 cash. Practically however the rate of

exchainge varies, and then 800 or even 1,800 copper cash are

given in exchange for one silver tael.

The word tael comes from the Hindu "tola" through the
Malayan word "tahil". The word mace comes from the Hindu
v?ord "masha" through the Malayan word "mas". The -word
caiulareen comes from the Malayan word "kondrin" . The
word cash comes from the Portuguese "caixa", which was the
name of a small tin coin found at Malacca in 1511, and broiight
there from Malabar.

Casli [vulgo Ts'ien ^). — The mace and candareen are
but decimal divisions of the tael. The cash is a small , coin

CHAPTER I. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 317

with a square hole in the middle for the purpose of stringing
large quantities of them together. It should weigh 58 grains
Troy or 3.78 grammes, and contain the following alloy :

copper 50

zinc 41 i

lead 6 i

tin 2

It has a variable value of from -^ to ^ of an English
penny according to degree of debasement and scarcity. If we
take the average of 35 cash to the penny, and the silver dollar
at 2 shillings, a cash is -jjp of a dollar. It is used for all retail
transactions, and hence is the universal money of the people.
In the interior, large and small cash are in circulation, and as
the larger ones are less debased and contain more copper, they
are generally much preferred. In some cities, both kinds are
current, and this creates endless confusion, trouble, and not
unfrequently ends in disputes.

Historically, the origin of the cash seems to go back to the
Emperors of the Ts'in ^ dynasty, 246 B.C., previous to which
time, cowrie shells, called Pel ^, were used as a medium of
exchange.

Sycee. — Ingots or lumps of uncoined silver are called
"Sycee", from the Chinese ^sze $|H j^, (fine silk, because if the
silver is pure, it may be drawn out, when heated, into fine
threads). An ingot of about 10 taels or ounces is called a ping
§^, while one from 40 to 50 taels is called a shoe or Tnenpao
7C ^7 from its resemblance to a native shoe. It is through
this medium that all large payments are made in the interior,
the percentages for fineness and scale being added or deducted,
when the silver is tendered in another district or Province, where
a different fineness and scale obtain. In the large citirs sycee
ia appraised, and the fineness determined by a Kungku ^ feor
nssay office, generally in the hands of the leading guilds and
banks.

Varions kinds of Taels. — The tael or ounce of silver
varies in weight and purity according to places, and has no

318 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOaRAPHY.

fixed ratio with the cash or copper coinage of the country.
Even in the treaty ports different tael weights are in use. We
will mention but the principal :

1". The Canvton tael. — This is equivalent in weight to 579,84
grains Troy. It is used in Canton, Hongkong and in Shanghai
for weighing bar silver. In this latter case 82,78 Canton taels
or ounces are equal to 100 ounces Troy.

2". The Tsfeu>p'ing Jf 2p or Shanghai tati. — This is
equivalent in weight to 565,69 grains Troy of a fineness of
916 f. It is used in Shanghai for weighing silver and gold
sycee, but not for bar silver. It is practically the local money
of account, and that which is meant when speaking of exchange
on London, the rate being fixed by telegraphic transfer for each
day. Shanghai not being a large credit centre draws on London
for the cost of her exports, and remits to London the cost of her
imports. One Ts'aop'ing tael of silver was worth 700 copper
cash in 1736, 900 in 1780, 1,400 in 1796, 2,000 in 1853, and
is worth at present from 1,500 to 1,700 cash.

3". The Sfuffin^ ^ ^ or Treasury Tael. — This is the
official tael in which taxes are paid to the Government, an
allowance of 2 being made for every 100. Its weight is from
575.5 to 580 grains Troy with a fineness varying from 916 to
1000. Eight K'up'ing taels have a market value equal to .^ 1 gold.

4°. The HaHewanpHng ^ H ^ or Customs Tael. — This tael
has been adopted by the Imperial Maritime Customs at all treaty '
ports for the payment of customs duties, and to measure the
value of foreign imports and exports. Its weight is 581.77
grains Troy. Its par value is 6 s. 8 d. , but since 1872, owing
to the great fall in silver, its exchange value has gone steadily
down. Its annual sterling exchange is fixed by the customs
authorities. Thus, in 1903, its value was 2 s. 7 f d.; in 1904,
2 s. 10 f d.; in 1905, 3 s. 0 i^ d.; and in 1906, 3 s. 3 i d.

The following table exhibits its fluctuations in regard to
sterling from 1870-1906.

CHAPTER I. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

349

Gold Ectuivalent of the Haikwan Tael from 1870-1906.

YEAH

s

d

TEAK

B

a

1870

6

6i

1888

4

81

1871

6

6i 1

1889

4

8J

1872

6

7S

1890

5

2i

1873

6

3i

1891

i

11

1S74

G

H

1892

4

41

1875

6

2i

1893

3

11 i

1876

5

Hi

1894

3

2f

1877

0

0 4^ 1

1895

3

3i

1878

5

Hi !

1896

3

4

1879

5

7f

1897

2

111

1880

3

9^

1898

2

10 i

1881

5

6|

1899

3

04

1882

5

Si

1900

3

u

1883

5

7i

1901

2

11 J

1884

5

U

1902

2

n

1885

5

3^

1903

2

78

1S86

5

oi i

1904

2

10^

1887

4

101

1905

3

OiV

i

1906

8

3^

A large quantity of silver dollars are imported into China.
From the XVI "" century and downwards, the most widely
circulated was the Spanish doUar, called also the Carolus or
PiOar doUar. The former name was given it because it bore
the effigies of the two Spanish monarchs Charles III and Charles
IV ; and the latter, on account of its having on the reverse the
fabled pillars of Hercules. For a long number of years, this
dollar, on account of its purity and uniformity, became almost
the current coin of the land. The accounts of foreign mercantile
houses were kept in it down to 18.56, and it is still in use at
Ningpo and Hangchow in Chekiang Province, and at Wuhu, in
Nganhwei Province. With the loss of her S. American colonies,
Spain ceased to export Carolus dollars to China. They thus
became scarce, and their market value attained finally the rate
of the Shanghai tael.

3^0, SECTION V, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

Hereupon, the banks and foreign merchants changed the
headings of all accounts from dollars to taels, the figures
remaining the same, and this alteration has continued down to
the present day. Accounts are kept in dollars and taels, and in
exchange quotations, the dollar is quoted in terms of the tael.

The Spanish dollar having almost disappeared, is at present
superseded by the Meaaican, silver dollar, which bears as its
device on one side, the cap of liberty, and on the other, an
eagle strangling a serpent. This dollar is divided into 100
Cents called J^w ^, or 10 ten^cent pieces, which the Chinese
call Kioh ^ in Mandarin, and Koh in the Shanghai vernacular.
In 1905, the Haikwan tael was equivalent to about one dollar
and a half, or exactly $ 1.55 ; in 1906 it was worth $ 1.57
Mexican dollars.

The Provincial mints of China have lately introduced new copper coins of ten
cash [iaoe value) called T'ungkiohtze ^ ^ ^, and it is estimated that there are some
10,000,000,000 of them now in circulation. They are rapidly spreading and displacing
the old coins (vulgo cash), but on account of their enormous output, they are at
present much depreciated.

Drafts and bills of exchange have also been in use in China for a very
long time.

Several attempts were made to have the Government adopt the American
trade dollar, the dragon or Canton dollar, and the Hupeh dollar, but so far
all have ended in failure. At Hongkong and Canton, the Hongkong; dollar and the
Straits dollar are current, but in no other places. '

Up to present, China has no gold currency.

Necessity of a iinirorm Cnrreucy. — The confusion of
the national monetary system, due principally to the absence of
control of the Central Government, the banking system of the
country, and the cupidity of high officials, has of late engaged
the attention of the Foreign Powers, and it has been mutually
agreed to establish a uniform currency. The basis of the new
standard as proposed by Sir Robert Hart ("Suggestions concerning
a uniform currency, presented to the Waiwu Pu by Sir Robert
Hart, Bart., Inspector-General of I. M. Customs, China"), and
Professor J. W. Jenks, is to be as follows : .

CHAPTER I. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 321

1°. China to maintain a national silver currency.!

2". To establish a uniform exchange value between this silver
currency and that of countries having a; gold standard.

3°. Uniformity in exchange to be secured by minting silver
and copper coins of fixed weight, purity and value
throughout the Empire, and maintaining them at parity
with a standard unit of value, not necessiarily coined,^
but containing a fixed number of grains of gold
approximating to the monetary unit of countries with
which China holds large commercial relations.
The complicated details of this probleni must be left to
the economist and the statesman. If the scheme is
realized, it is hoped it will secure honesty in internal
administration, benefit domestic trade, remove eco-
nomic losses and develop internatioiial trade.

Revenue and E:xpenditure of the Empire. — According to Sir IRobert Hart,
the principal sources of revenue of the Chinese Empire for the year 1901, were the
following with approximate annual values :

Hk. Tls.

Trftud tax in silver

26,500,000

Land tax in grain

3,100,000

Salt tax

13,500,000

Imperial Maritime Customs

23,800,000

Li kin

16,000,000

Native Customs

2,700,000

Native Opium

2,200,000

Provincial Income

2,600,000

Total. Tls. 90,400,000
(The exchange value of the tael for 1901 was 2 s. 11 ^ d.).

]jand-tax In sliver. — The tax in money upon good
rice-producing land is on the basis of 200 cash per mmv ^(one
acre is equal to 6 mows) or f of a tael an acre. In 1712,
the amount of this tax was definitely fixed, and the poll-tax
upon adult males abolished.

liand-tax in grain. — This tax is paid by the Provinces
of Kiangsu tC jH and Ch^kiang jDf XL- They are tp send every

21

322 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftEO&RAPHY.

year to Peking a little over 100,060 tons of rice. Formerly, ^
of this was carried through the Grand Canal, while the rest
went by sea. The cost of transportation is fixed at 30 per cent
extra, and is paid by the taxpayer in addition to the proper tax.

Tbe salt-tax. — This tax is exclusively a Government
monopoly. The salt is produced in certain specific districts
along the coast, by evaporation or boiling from sea-water, or it
is obtained from brine-wells, especially in Szechw'an. All the
salt produced must be sold either to Government officials or to
licenced salt-merchants, who have purchased the right to supply
certain areas of consumption. By treaty, the importation of
foreign salt is prohibited. For the collection of the tax, China
is divided into 11 circuits. Each of these has its specific means
of production, and it is forbidden to transport salt from one
circuit to another. The cost price varies, and is generally from
1 ^ to 4 cash per catty, or weight of 1 ^ lbs avoirdupois. The
retail price varies also from one district to another, and averages
from 25 to 60 cash per catty. The total annual consumption
of salt throughout the 18 Provinces is estimated at 25 million
piculs or 1,488,000 tons.

Salt is largely smuggled, and when seized, is liable to
confiscation.

Imperial Harltlme Customs. — (See further on. p. 325).

I<lklii jH '^^ — This is a recent fiscal regulation, and is
levied upon goods while in transit from one Province to another,
or from one district to another within the same Province. It was
originally imposed to defray the expenses of the Mahomedan
and T'oipHng rSbeUions, and was not in force before 1853,
nor extended to the whole country till 1861. Stations are placed
at all large towns, and along the main routes of commerce
whether by land or water. These barriers are very numerous
in some places, as along the lower parts of the Grand Canal,
where they follow one another at intervals of 20 miles or so.
In places where trade is scanty, barriers are few and can

CHAPTER I. REVBNWB AND EXPENDITURE. 323

sometimes be avoided by detours. A tariff is published for the
information of officials and traders, but practically it is ignored.
Nearly all merchants and boats make a bid, and haggle until
they come to terms. Guilds and regular traders pay lump sums.
The tax collected is generally 3 per cent at the departure station,
and 2 per cent at each inspection station. The amount collected
within the Province, seldom exceeds 10 per cent, but when
goods travel through several Provinces, it easily reaches 15 and
20 per cent. The general amount to be collected and the number
of toll-barriers in each Province are fixed by the Governor.

As stipulated by treaty, goods imported and exported by
Foreigners are exempt from likin taxation at native barriers, on
payment to the Imperial Maritime Customs of half the import
duty, plus the usual ad valorem tariff.

The likin regulations are a serious hindrance to native as
well as foreign trade, and according to the recent treaties concluded
with Great Britain, the United-States and Japan, they are to be
permanently abolished. To compensate for this abolition, "foreign
goods are to pay, in addition to the effective 5 per cent import
duty, a special surtax equivalent to 1 ^ times the said duty,
whereupon they shall be immune from all other taxation,
examination or delay" (British Treaty, 1902. Article VIII. Section
I. and Appendix B (1) and (2). — Commercial Treaty between
the United-States and China, 1903. Article IV).

NatiTe C!iiBtoms. — The organization of the Imperial
Maritime Customs has not abolished native custom houses. At
the open ports and at important stations on the coast and inland,
Government has native custom houses, which control the trade
carried on in native junks. These custom houses are farmed
out, and each collector is bound to pay a fixed mimim.'um awn.
If he returns more, he can claim a reward for his extra diligence.
— Of late, several native custom houses have been transferred
to the Imperial Maritime Customs.

JTative Opiam. — Up to recent years, the growth and
manufacture of opium were prohibited in China. They were

324 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOfiRAPHY.

finally allowed on condition of paying a tax. The collebtidn
of this tax is entrusted to the PrbvinCial authorities. They
are to keep a separate account of it, and hand over the sum
collected to the Board of Revenue.

The total amount of native-grown opium is estimated at
about 400,000 chests per year.

KlBcellaneons and undefined taxes. — Under this
title are comprised various items, as land transfer fees, pawn-
brokers' and other licences, sale of official titles or brevet rank,
duties on reed flats, exemption from forced labour and purvey-
ances.

Expenditure of the Empire (in 1901). — The expenditure of the Empiiie. for
the year 1901 was divide 1 as follows : ',

'■'■■'-'

Hk. Tls.

Imperial Household and Central Government

12,480,000

Navy ,

5,000,000

Army

30,000,000

Kmbassies and Legations

1,000,000

Interest and Eepaylnent of Foreign Loans

. 2*1,000,000

Railway Construction

. 800,000

River Conservancy Works

940,000

Customs, Lighthouses and Revenue Cruisers

3,600,000

Provincial .Administration

20,300,000

Reserve Funds

3,000,000

Total

101,120,000

Foreign Debt. — China had no foreign debt tiU the end of 1874, when a loan of
£ 627,075, bearing 8 per cent interest, was contracted through the Hongkong and
Shanghai Bank, and secured by the customs revenue. Afterwards, a number of other
loans were contracted through the same bank. Dp to the war with Japan in 1894, the
total foreign debt was inconsiderable, but since then extensive borrowings were made
to meet the expenses of the war and the large indemnity demanded by Japan, which was
Tls. 200,000,000 (at exchange of 3 s. 3 i d), with a further sum of Tls. 20,000,000 for
the retrocession of the Leaotung Peninsula. The last instalment of this debt was
paid'in 189S, and the total indebtedness of the country up to 1900 was j? 55,755,000,
the principal loans being the Russian of 1895, the Anglq-German of 1896, and another
Anglo-German in 1898, each of £ 16,000,000, and bearing interest at from -V to 7 i»er
cent. Recently, several minor loans, amounting in all to about £ 4,000,C00, have been
contracted for the purposes of railway construction. In January 1907, a further small
loan of £ 650,000 at 5 per cent has been contracted for the complfitic(D of, the railway
from Shanghai to Nanking. In 1901, the country's obligations were increased
consequent upon the Boxer uprising by a sum of Hk. Tls. 450,000,000, the amount
of the indemnity to be paiii to the Powers, to meet the expenses of their expedi-
tionary Joroes, and compensation for losses to commercial . societies, missions and

, -CHAPTER Ij IMPERIAL MARITIME CUSTOMS. 325

inilividuals. This sum constitutes a gold debt calculated at the rate of the Haikwp.n
Tael to the gold currency of each country (3 a. for Great Britain), and bearing interest
at 4 per cent. The capital is to be reimbursed by China in® years. The amortiza-
tions are to be paid annually, and began January 1"' 1902. The revenues assigiiAd
as security are the following: the Imperial Maritime Customs, the revenues of the
native customs, administered in the open ports by the Imperial Maritime Customs, and
the total salt revenue, except a fraction already set aside for other foreign loans.
(Imperial Edict. May 29"" 1901, and Final Protocol signed at Peking, September
7'" 1901).

The total foreign debt of China amounts at the close of 1906 to £ .54,500,000, upon
which the interest due is £ 2,500,000.

2" Imperial Maritime Customs.

Origin and Development. — The Imperial Maritime
Customs, or Sinhaikwan i^ ^^, commenced in 1854. The work
started in Shanghai, the first Inspector-General being M' H. N.
Lay. Owing to the T'aip'ing rebels capturing the native city,
the collection of custom dues, especially on foreign ships, was
placed in the hands of Foreigners, and this developed into a
permanent institution, with a large and efficient staff recruited
from most of the European nations, though the English are in
the majority.

At the head of the service is an Inspector-Oeneral, Sir
Robert Hart since 1863, assisted by a Deputy Inspector-General
and about 40 Commissioners, one of whom is generally in charge
of a custom house.

By an Imperial decree of May, 1906, the Maritime Customs
Department was transferred from the control of the Waiwu Pu
to that of the Board of Revenue, and two Administrators-General
were appointed.

Organization. — The administration is divided into 3
departments : 1° Eeventie or the collecting of dues ; 2° Coasting
and Harhowr duties; 3' Postal service.

The first of these departments is that which is generally
styled Imperial Maritime Customs.

The Indoor, Outdoor, Lighthouse and postal staff, totalled
(1st July 1906} 1,345 Foreigners and 10,636 Chinese.

The Maritime Customs are entrusted with the care of

326

SECTION t. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEO&RAPHT.

buoys, beacons and lighthouses on the coast of China, the police
of rivers and harbours in the open ports, and principally with
the collecting of custom dues at the treaty ports. The duty is 5
per cent ad valorem, and is levied on all imports and exports.

Custom houses are principally stationed in the ports which
were opened to foreign trade.

The following is a complete list of these ports. It has been
made out according to the chronological order in which it is pro-
vided for their opening. The first five treaty ports were opened
in accordance with the treaty of Nanking, August 29''> 1842.

The name of the Prefecture on which the port depends, is
omitted, when the port itself is a Prefectural city.

Ports and Marts open to Foreign Trade. 1842-1906.

Number of

PoBT.

Foreign
Settlements

Pbefectube.

Pbotince.

I

Canton

2

Mnfft

Kwangtung.

2

Amoy or HsiamSn

2

W. P!

Ts'iienchow Fu.

Fokien.

3

Poochow or Pagoda

I

mmm

Fokien.

4

Ningpo [Island

«&»

Ch^kiang.

5

Shanghai

2

hmm

Sungkiang Fu.

Kiangsu.

6

Chefoo or Yent'ai

^ s

T€ngchow Fu.

Shantung.

7

Swatow or Shant'eu

?iii m

Ch'aochow Fu.

Kwangtung.

8

Hoihow or Haik'ow

m u

K'iungchow Fu.

Hainan I.

9

Newchwang Sze

2

+ffisi

Fungt'ien Fu.

Manchuria.

lO

Chgnkiang

I

mum

Kiangsu.

II

Nanking

m m

Kiangsu.

12

T'ientsin

8

jmm

Chihli.

13

Kiukiang

I

%um

Kiangsi,

14

Hank'ow

5

m p

Wuch'ang Fu.

Hupeh.

i5

Ich'ang

sa^

Hupeh.

i6

Wuhu

mnm

T'aip'ing Fu.

Nganhwei.

17

WSnchow

w.mi^

Ch^kiang.

i8

Pakhoi or Peh-hai

* m

Lienchow Fu.

Kwangtung.

19

Ivungchow

iiwB

T'aip'ing Fu.

KwangsL

20

MSngtze

susn

I<inngan Fu.

Yunnan.

21

Ch'ungk'ing

I

m^m

Szechw'an.

22

Yatung

Tibet.

23

Hangchow

I

fgii^m

Ch8kiang.

24

Soochow

2

Wfnrn

Kiangsu.

CBAPTER I. lUPKRIAL MARITIME CUSTOMS. 32t

Ports and Harts open to Foreign Trade, 1842-1906. (continued).

Number of

POKT.

Foreign
Settlements

Pbepecture.

Pkovinoe.

25

Shashi

I

» fU

Kingchow Fu.

Hupeh.

25

Hok'ow

m q

K'aihwa Fu.

Yunnan.

27

Szemao

.©^B

P'ueul Fu.

Yunnan.

28

Samshui or Sanshui

3!Mi

Kwangchow Fu.

Kwangtung.

29

Wuchow

mmM

Kwangsi.

30

Tengyvteli or Momein

m&si

Yungch'ang Fu,

Yunnan.

31

Yohchow

mmm

Hunan.

32

Santungao or Santuao

Bmk

Fuhning Fu.

Fokien.

33

Ts'inwang-tao

iRift

Yungp'ing Fu.

Chihli.

34

Woosung

^ m

Sungkiang Fu.

Kiangsu.

35

Nanning

mmm

Kwangsi.

36

Kongmoon or Kiang-

U P5

Chaok'ing Fu.

Kwangtung.

37

Ch'angsha [men

&^m

Hunan.

38

Wan hsien

^ m

Kw'eichow Fu.

Szechw'an.

39

Ngank'ing or Ank'ing

^$LM

Nganhwei.

40

Hweichow

jRmm

Kwangtung.

41

Tsinan

iS^fflf

Shantung.

42

Wei hsien

m n

Leichow Fu.

Shantung.

43

Chowts'un or Cheuts'un

m n

Tsinan Fu.

Shantung.

44

CTiangteh

^^.M

Hunan.

45

Gyantze

Tibet.

46

Gartok

Tibet.

47

Ngantung or Antung

^ItL^

Funghwang T.

Manchuria.

48

Mukden or Fungt'ien

^^W

Manchuria.

49

Dalny or Tairen

Manchuria.

In the VIII"' Article, Section 12 of the British Commercial Treaty with China,
signed at Shanghai, September 5"" 190i, it has been agreed to open to foreign trade 5
ports : Kongmoon, Ch'angsha, Wan hsien, Ngank'ing and Waiohow (Hweichow), but
up to present, the 3 latter have not yet been effectively opened.

The Revenue collected by the Imperial Maritime Customs has cons-
tantly increased, as can be seen by the following table :

Customs Revenue 1900-1905.

YEAR.

Hk. Tls.

1900

22,873,986

1901

25,537,574

1902

30,007,044

1903

30,530,688

1904

31,493,156

1905

35,111,004

3281 SECTION V. .POUTICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

These duties are apportioned between the Foreign and Home Trades as follows :

YEAR.

Foreign . Trade.

Home Trade.

Total.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1900

18,182,815

.4,691,171

22,873,986

1901

19,860,900

5,676,674

25,537,574,

1902

24,180,574,

5,826,470

.30,007,044

1903

24,054,785

6,475,903

30,530,688

190A

24,788,638

6,704,518

31,493,156

1905

27,541,295

■

7,566,709

35,111,004

The ports where trade is most important are the following :

1S03

190«

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shanghai

118,812,899

145,480,170

176,979,193

Canton

110,559,826

96,247,076

■. 92,243,650

Hank'ow

99,129,500

107,449,374

111,043,046

T'ientsin

68,729,061

68,954,694

96,565,672

Newchwang

47,632,059

41,517,878

61,752,905

Swatow

43,792,227

49,280,786

48,005,306

Kowloon

42,501,795

43,771,566

42,946,800 ,

Chefoo

38,183,912

34,255,175

39,131,384

ChSnkiang

34,439,707

32,323,204

33,344,208

Ch'ungk'ing

29,222,120

29,403,966

27,731,627

Wuhu

24,542,783

23,223,383

30,623,809

Kiukiang

22,935,794

24,347,560

23,228,644

Ningpo

22,240,093

21,297,412

19,163;6.%

Amoy

16,985,898

17,204,571

18,654,610

FoOchoW

16,738,718

17,265,968

17,724,198

Hangchow

15,607,133

17,747,662

17,486,980

4' Army and Ncaiy.

Army. — China has two independent sets of military
organizations : the Munehu or Imperial Army, and the Provin-
cAal Farcea. Important changes however, as stated further on,
will soon completely alter the above organization.

Manclin or Imperial Army, called also the Eight Bemners

(Pahk'i A jK)- — This army is composed mainly of Manchus,

CHAPTER I. ARMY AND NAVY. 329

Mongols, and the descendants of those Chinese who first joined
the Manchu dynasty in the early part of the XVII"' century.
The Banners are distinguished by 4 colours : yellow, white,
red and blue, and are further divided into 3 superior (Shangsan-
k'i Jb, H M)i *"d 5 inferior (Hsiawuk'i ~f 'S. M) Banners.

Each adult Manchu is by birth entitled to be enrolled in
the Eight Banners, and as such to receive his allowance of
tribute-rice, whether in active service or not.

All these soldiers, Manchus, Mongols and Chinese, are called
S'iJSn ^ \ OT Bannermen. Those stationed in the Tartar or
Interior City (Nei-ch'eng J^J^), in Peking, occupy the garrisons
set apart for each Banner.

Sondservants or Fao-i ^, :^ (from the Manchu Bo-i, a
slave), recruited from the three upper Banners (Shangsank'i
Pao-i _h H ]K "Q ^)i are garrisoned in the Forbidden City
(Tzekin ch'Sng fj^ *S ^), and do service in the Imperial House-
hold. Their principal duty is to keep guard over the Imperial
Palaces. Those of the five inferior Banners are attached to the
various Princely houses or Wang Fu J ^ (Palaces of Princes
of the Imperial Lineage).

The Banners have also branch garrisons in various Pro-
vincial aiies. As in the Capital, the men are entitled to draw
a pittance from the provincial taxes as rations. These garrisons,
or Chiufang f^ ^, are stationed in the following places :

Singan Fu

M ^M^

in Shensi

mm

Ninghsia Fu

wx;ff.

in Kansu

■wm

Kiangning Fu

iL%M

or Nanking

f& ^I

in Kiangsu

iLM

Hangchow Fu

l£ jW JiJi

in Chfikiang

mu

Foochow Fu

mi^M^

in Fokien

mm

Ch'fingtu Fu

^mM^

in Szechw'an

0 ;ii

Kingchow Fu

m m M,

in Hupeh

ffiiB tC

Kwangchow Fu ^ ^ j^, in Kwangtung ^ ^
At the head of these 8 Garrisons is a Manchu Oeneral-inr
CMef or TsiangJeun JHf |^.

It is computed that the total number of Manchii troops

330 SECTION T. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GE08HAPHT.

amounts from 200,000 to 220,000 men, of whom 15,000 are
stationed near Peking :j[^ ]}r, and 20,000 within the city itself.

ProTinclal Forces or Army of tlie Oreen Standard

(Luhying H^ ^). — The Provincial Forces are divided into the
lAtnA Army or ImMu J^ ||§, and the Navy or Shuishi ijC gjj
(for this latter, see below, p. 333).

The nominal strength of the Land Army is from 20,000 to
30,000 men in each Province, thus aggregating from 400,000
to 500,000 men all told. The actual strength, however, does
not exceed 150,000 or 200,000 men. They are enrolled for the
purpose of maintaining peace and order throughout the Provinces,
and are in fact more like a local constabulary force than a
national army.

They are distributed in small camps or garrisons in the
principal towns. They are miserably paid, ill fed, badly drilled,
and as a fighting force are practically of little value.

Each JProvinciaZ Armff Corps is under the command of a
JPntvindal CtenereOr-inrCMef or T*ituh |g §, vulgo OCWtU |g
J. The bulk of the troops which he commands is called Pipiao
% ^, or T'ituh's brigade.

A snuUl body of troops is specially enrolled to do duty in the
Frovint^al Capital. It is called the Fupiao HH ^ or Governor's
brigade, and is under the control of the Provincial Governor.

The Viceroy has also his special hrigaae, called Tuhpimo

The forces winder the wmmand of the Frovinctea OenereU-
imrchAef are divided into Chhvpia» ^ ^ or irigades, and those
again into regiments or Hsieh ^. The Hsieh are divided
into baMaiimis or Ting ^, and the Ying is further divided
into mttUary posts or Shao pf , and the posts into patrols or
Sxe %.

The Cfrain Transport Administration, for the conveyance
of tribute-rice to Peking (now principally despatched by the
"China Merchants Steamship Company"), had a special military
organization under its control, designated by the name of T«*a«-
piao If ;|^, or grain-transport brigade.

CHAPTER I. ARMY AND NAVY. 331

Irregnlars or "Braves". — To the regular army must be
added the so-called "Braves" or PttM^^,also styled Volunteers.
They are called "Braves" from the character Tunff ^ (meaning
brave) being written on the back and front of their jackets. They
are better paid and armed than the regulars, and are now
drilled in foreign style.

Since the Japanese war, they have been quartered near
Peking 4t ^ and T'ientsin ^ ^, and are generally spoken of
as the "Army of the North".

They are grouped in 5 divisions, under the command of a
Generalissimo, and number about 70,000 or 80,000 men.

Tbe ne^v Ohinese Army Scbeme. — An Imperial decree, issued in 1901,
ordered the reorganization of the military forces of the Empire. The scheme comprised
the 3 following divisions : campaign, reserve and police corps.

Another and more recent decree suggested to the Emperor by the Board of
Army Eeorganization (Lienpingch'u W^M)t appeared in 1905. This decree laid down
the following regulations (On the old military examinations, now obsolete, see Ch. II.
Kducation).

1° Training Schools for Officers of the land forces shall be oifour hinds :

a) A Lower or Preparatory School, called LuhkUn Siaohsioht'ang ^W ^ 9tSt
(Military lower school).

b) A Middle-grade or Secondary School, called Luhkun Ghvmghsioht'ang ^ 3p
•t* ^ ® (Military middle school).

c) A Training College for Officers, called Jjuhkiin PingJcwan Hsioht'ang g| ^
ii? "^ S S (Military officers' college).

d) A Military High Academy, called Luhkiin Tahsioht'ang S ¥ A 4^ 1£.
In this latter, the higher branches of miUtary science will be taught.

The first course will comprise 3 years of instruction, and the second 2. When these
5 years are over, cadets wUl pass four mouths in the army, to learn the duties of
officers. They will then enter the Training College for Officers, where they are to remain
for a year and a half. They will subsequently go back again to the ranks, for a period
of 6 months, with the title of Instructor. At the close of this stage, they wiU return
to the College for Officers, and undergo there an examination. Those who obtain good
maris will be definitely classed as officers. After two years, the most distinguished
among them wiU be admitted to the Military Sigh Academy, to study for a further
course of two years. They will then graduate with the title of Military Staff-Officer.

2° A lower or preparatory school will be opened in each of the 18 Provinces, as
weU as in each of the military divisions of Manchuria.

3° There will be 4 middle-grade schools for the whole Empire, one in each of
the following Provinces : Ohihli jS^, Hupeh ^ j):, Shensi R M, and Kiangsu izM-

4° The training ooUege for Officers, and the Military High Academy will be
established at Peking 4; J(.

33? SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

.,■ 5° A short training-course school or LuhkUn Suhch'eng Hsioht'ang}^^^^
^ S (militei'y hasty-formation school), for the expeditious training of Officers, will be
opened at Peking, with accomodation for 800 applicants.

0° A special short-training school for Instructors, or Luhkiin Suhch'eng
Shifan Hsioht'ang '^W^ ^ & &. ^^.> '^^ ^^ likewise opened in the Capital.

Reorganisation of the Army. — The new army is to be
organized on the following lines :

Army Council and Oeneral Staff- — This Department will
have : 1". A War Office with 6 bureaux ; 2°. A General Staff
divided into 3 sections, and entrusted with the drawing up of
plans of campaign ; 3°. A Directorate of Military Education for
the instruction and efficient training of Officers.

Active Army. — The active army is to be distributed into
20 territorial sections, that is, one to each of the 18 Provinces,
one in Chinese Turkestan, and one near Peking.

Hach section will have two fuU divisions forming together
one army corps.

Hach division, will comprise : 12 Infantry battalions,,

1 Cavalry regiment,
3 Batteries of artillery,
1 Company of engineers.

A division will number 12,000 or 12,500 men, and so the 40
divisions will make a total effective force of 480,000, or 500,000
fighting units.

JReserve Force. — All soldiers after their time of active
service will pass 9 years in the First, and 3 years in the Second
Reserve Corps.

The men of the First Reserve Corps will drill every year
during a month, in Autumn, and another month, in the
Spring.

The Second Reserve Corps will be called in annually, for a
few days service.

The above scheme of reorganization will be fully carried out
in 1910. ■■

Army instructors and XSquipmenU — Instructors for the
Chinese Army are engaged especially in Germany and Japan.

CHAPTBH I.

ARMY ANDi NAVY.

333

Some measures have already been taken to effect uniformity in
artillery (heavy guns and rifles), in the pay of officers and men,
in regimental uniforms, manoeuvring and drill. Of the present
Provincial troops, the best organized are those of Ohihli j|[ ^
and Hukwang ^ ^ (combined Provinces of Hupeh ^ 4t
and Hunan jjj| ^). The Generalissimo of the former is Yuen
Shik'ai -g ift f[, Viceroy of Chihli. At the close of 1906, this
army numbered 80,000 men. The Hukwang troops are under
the control of Chang Chitung iH ^ j|^, Viceroy of Hupeh and
Hunan Provinces, and number from 30,000 to 50,000 men.

EfTectives of tbe Provincial Army dpwn to 1904 (at least as returned on
paper). — We append here the units of the Provincial Army, or Green Standard, down
to 1901. The figures given, are those published in 1904, by the NVar Office of China
The aocompanying dates indicate when the returns were made.

Pbovince.

Effectives.

Year.

Pbovince.

Effectives.

Yeab.

Ch^kiang

17,995

1903

Kwangtnng

69,000

Chihli

.18,490

1904

Kweichow

7,670

1902

Fokien

34,908

1902

Nganhwei

3,451

1903

Honan

1,287

1902

Shansi

25,600

Hunan and Hu-

7,112

1903

Shantung

20,200

Kansu [peh

55,800

Shensi

42,300

Kiangsu

50,000

Szeohw'an

21,796

1902

Kwangsi

23,400

Yunnan

17,996

■ 1902

WaTy or Shnlslil 7)^ gp. — At the outbreak of the war
with Japan in 1895, the Chinese Navy consisted of 2 divisions,
the Northern (Pehyang ^\^ f^) and Southern (Nanyang ^ f^),
each Under the control respectively of the Viceroy of Chihli and
the Viceroy of Nanking or Leangkiang, with the title of Shuishi
T'ungling 7jC BiS S£ ^' °^ H'&h Admiral. During the war, \0
important war vessels of the Northern squadron were sunk or
captured by Japan. The Southern division remained in the
waters of the Yangtze, and took no part in the conflict. In 1900,
the Allied Forces further captured and appropriated 4 destroyers
built in 1898-99. Various attempts have since been made to
restore the fleet. China (including a flotilla under the control

334 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftEO&RAPHY.

of the Viceroys of Foochow and Canton, for the suppression of
piracy) now possesses 2 second-class (4,300 tons), and 11 third-
class cruisers (875-2,500 tons), 3 torpedo gunboats (350-1,000
tons), 4 river gunboats (215-412 tons), 32 first-class and 12
second-class torpedo* boats. Of the torpedo boats, about half
only are fit for action, the others being allowed to fall into the
ordinary decay common to Chinese administration. The full
compliment of men is about 2,500.

The combined divisions of the North and South were lately
placed under the control of a Commander-in-chief (Admiral Sah)
with the task of reorganizing the navy. A naval school will
be established at Shanghai, near the Arsenal dock. The regu-
lations and curriculum will correspond with those issued for
the reorganisation of the army.

Arsenals and dockyards. — There are military arsenals
at T'ientsin 5^ ^, Shanghai _h ^ (this now competes with
private dockyards), Nanking "^ ^, Wuch'ang ^ g, Ch'6ngtu
^ ^ and Canton (Kwangchow Fu ^ jHl ^)) besides smaller
establishments in other principal centres of the Empire. Several
can turn out heavy guns, and also rifles and ammunition (inclu-
ding smokeless powder) in large quantities.

There is an important naval arsenal and shipbuilding yard
at Pagoda, 9 miles below Foochow, in Fokien ^ ^ Province.
It is in the hands of French engineers in the employ of the
Government {see p. 223).

Forts. — A great number of forts and batteries have been
erected at the entrance to the principal rivers. The most impor-
tant are the' Kiangyin fx. ^ forts commanding the entrance to
the Yangtze ^ ^, the Min-kiang f^ fX. forts commanding the
approaches to Foochow in Fokien, and the Bogue or Bocca
Tigris (Hu-m6n J^ P^) forts at the entrance to the Canton or
Pearl River. These forts and batteries are armed with powerful
guns of European manufacture.

The Taku ^ ^ and T'ientsin ^ ^ forts have been demo-
lished as a sequel to the Boxer revolt of 1900.

CHAPTER I. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

335

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Jemigan T. B. — China in Law and
Commerce. New- York, 1905. (Taxation.
Ch. VI. p. 154-175. — GuOds. Ch. IX. p.
205-221. — Banks. Ch. XI. p. 275-290. —
Weights, Measures and Currency. Ch.
XII. p. 291-308. — Tenure and Transfer
of Property. Ch. V. p. 132-1.53).

Hart Sir B. — Suggestions concerning
Uniform Currency (N. China Herald.
JiUy 3. 1903. p. 51).
Little E.S.— A Plea for Immediate Action
with a View to an Establishment of a
Gold Currency in China. (K. China
Herald. Jan. 21. 1903. p. 126-28).
Palmer G.B. — The Currency Question. —
Points against a Gold Standard. — China
not civilised up to Gold. (N. China
Herald. Jan. 27. 1903).
Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1896-97. (Currency in China. Part II. Ch.
V. p. 177-185. — Native Banks and
Guilds, p. 240-252. — Despotic Power of
Bankers. — Trading and Exchange. —
Guilds and Exchange. — The Boycott,
p. 307-319. — The Compradore and the
Compradore System. Part II. p. 323-330.
— Depreciation of Silver. — Scarcity of
Copper. — Revision of System, p. 344-
358).
Jamieson J. W. — Foreign Trade of
China for the Year 1903. Foreign Office,
1904. (Diplomatic and Consular Reports.
China. N° 3280. — Change of Standard,
p. 8).
Bosie A. — Foreign Trade of China for
the Years 1904-1905. Foreign Office. 1906.
(Diplomatic and Consular Reports. N°
3725. Exchange Fluctuations, p. 6 and
58. — Depreciation through excessive
• Minting, p. 13 and 59. — Abortive

Currency Reform, p. 13).
British Commercial Treaty with China.
1902. (Article II. Currency Reform. —
Abolition of Likin agreed to. Art VIII).
Commercial Treaty between the United-
States and China. 1903. ( Likin to be
abolished. Art. IV. — China agrees to a
Uniform National Coinage. Art. XIII. —
Reform of Judicial System; U. States
willing to assist. Art. XIV).
Commercial Treaty between Japan and
China. 1903. (Uniform National Currency
agreed to. Art. VI. — Also Uniform
Standard Weights and Measures. Art.
VII. — Reform of Judicial System; Japan
agrees to give assistance. Art. XI). .

22

338

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC fiEOeRAPHY.

IMPEBIAL MARITIME CUSTOMS ;

Ooidier H. — Les Douanee ImpSriales

Maritimes Chinoises, (T'oung-pao, 1902.

p. 222-240).
Oordier H. — Les Douanes Imperiales

Maritimes Chinoises. (Bulletin dn Comitfi

de I'Asie Franjaise. Fiv. 1905. p. 72-78).
Oordier H. — Les Dotianes Imperiales

Maritimes Chinoises. Les Origines et le

Dfiveloppement. — Gage des Emprunts.

(T'oung-pao. Ootobre, 1906. p. 515-S25).
Gauthier. — Les Douanes Maritimes de

la Chine. (Bulletin de la Soc. Geogr. de

Paris, 1890-91. p. 380-430).
Norman H. — ^ The Peoples and Politics

of the East. London, 1895. (The Imperial

Maritime Customs. Ch. XTI. p. 231-243).
Gondry R. S. — China Present and Past.

London, 1895. (The Imperial Maritime

Customs. Ch. IX. p. 183-200).

Hicliie A. — The Englishman in China.
London, 1900. (Chinese Maritime Cus-
toms. — Creation of Foreign Customs.
Vol. I. Oh. IX. p. 143-156.— The Foreign
Customs nnder the Peking Convention,
Vol. II. Ch. XX. p. 156-167).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shanghai,
1903. (The Imperial Maritime Customs,
p. 192-194. — Lighting of the Coast and
open Ports, p. 395-396. — Chinese Im-
perial Post Of&ce Duties, p. 578).

Report on the Working of the Chinese
Imperial Post Office for the Tear 1905. —
(I. M. C, Abstract of Statistics. Shanghai,
1906. p. XXXI-LXXin).

China. — Trade Reports (Annual and
Decennial) of the Imperial Maritime
Customs. Statistical Department. Shang-
hai.

ABMY AND NAVT ;

G^DfiralFi^y.— L'Arm^eChinoise. 1903.

Dabry. — Organisation Militaire des Chi-
nois. Paris, 1859.

MSmoires sur les Chinois. Tome VII. (Art
militaire des Chinois).

L'ArmSe Chinpise. — (Echo de Chine. 19
et 20 Avril, 1905).

Dforets sur les feoles MUitaires. (ibid. 12
F^vrier, 1905).

D. Pauli. — Die Chinesisohe Armee. (In
Sohorer S. Familienblatt. 1892).

de Grandprey. — Les Armies de la Ctiine
en 1903.

Jamieson G. — Army and Navy of China.
— Arsenals and Dockyards.— Forts. (En-
cyolopsedia Britannica. London, 1902.
Article on China).

Mayers F. W. — The Chinese Govern-
ment. Shanghai, 1886. (The Manchu
Military Organization. Part VI. — The
Chinese Army. Part VII).

Hoang P. — Melanges sur 1' Administra-
tion. Varifitfis Sinologiques. N°21.Chang-
hai, 1902. (Des Mandarins des Banniires.
p. 186. —r Des Mandarins Militaires. p.
187. — Mandarins Militaires. Expose II.
p. 48-51. — Des huit Banniferes. Expose
Vin. p. 107-114).

Chinese Eepository. — Military SMU of
the Chinese. (Vol. V. p. 165-178). - The

Soldier's Manual. (Vol. XI. p. 487-496).

— Important Instructions for Soldiers.
(Vol. XII. p. 69-75).

Onmingtaam. — The Chinese Soldier and
other Sketches.

Wade Sir T. — The Army of the Chinese
Empire. (Chinese Eepository. Vol. XX.
May, June and July. 1851).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (The Chinese Army. p. 45-54.

— Navy. p. 473-477).

Mesny "W. — Chinese Miscellany (passim).

Parker B. H. — The Chinese Army. 1903.

Parker E. H. — China, her History, Di-
plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(The Army. — The Banner System. — ^Pro-
vincial Tartar Troops. — Braves. Ch.
XIII. p. 244-259).

Parker E. H. — John Chinaman. London,
1901. (Army and Navy. p. 229-262).

Boulger D. E. — A Short History of Chi-
na. London, 1893. (Army and Navy.
Ch. XXII. p. 369-371.— M' Lay's abortive
Scheme of a Chinese Navy. p. 311-13).

Kraasse A. — The Far East. London,
1903. (The Chinese Army. p. 161-62. —
Navy. p. 159-161).

D'Ollone. — La Chine Novatrice et Guei>
riAre. Paris. 1906.

CHAPTER II.

Population. — Languages. — Religions. — Education.

1". Pugiuktiion.

The population througheut the greater part of the Empire
is made up of the Chinese race, except in the Southern Provinces,
where the aborigines or alien element predominate. In the
Provinces bordering on Tibet, Turkestan and Mongolia, elements
belonging to the different peoples of these countries are mixed
with the Chinese, the latter being however in the majority.

The Chinese race is very ancient. According to the oldest
records, it first occupied the valley of the Yellow River in Kansu
•^ ^, Shensi ^ ^ and Honan f^ ^. If we wish to solve the
problem as to where it came from, indications seem to point
that it was from Chaldaea or Assyria. These first Chinese settlers
are called in the native annals the Htmdred FamUies {Pehsing
*§" ^), or the btack'haired people {Limin ^ J^. FuhH ^ ^
is credited with having been their first chief. Among the ancient
Emperors, BwimffU ^ ^, Tao^ and Shun^, are those more
widely known.

Confined in the beginning to the Northern Provinces, this pri-
mitive race did not begin really to expand until under the Ta^in^
dynasty, 249 B.C. Under the jaTaw ^ dynasty, 206 B.O.-203 A.D.,
it occupied a large portion of the present Eighteen Provinces,
except the coast-region of Ch6kiang jj|f ^, Fokien jg ^, and
Kwangtung J| ^. The native tribes were also numerous and
inhabited the S. and S. W. They were called IMas H ^
(barbarians), and have several branches still extant : the Sifans
g § in the W. of Szechw'an ^ )\\ ; the Mantte ^ ■? or

340 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

iMlos |g ^ in the S. W. of the same l^rovince and in Yiinnan ®
^; and the Miaotze U^F inhabiting Kweichow ;^ jltl, Kwangsi
;j| 'gf and Kwangtung gf ]^ [see p. 4, and below, p. 342).

These aborigines are sometimes called the precfUnese racee,
because they occupied the country previous to the coming of the
Chinese. The prechinese races, thoroughly homogeneous and
prosperous, once formed powerful states along the Yangtze ^
^ valley. Among them, we may mention the Wu ^ kingdom
(1122-473 B.C.), which comprised in the days of its splendour the
present Provinces of Kiangsu tCjl^, Nganhwei ^^ and North
Kiangsi ^H; the Ch'u ^ kingdom (1122-223 B.C.), which
occupied Hukwang |^ ^ (actual Hupeh and Hunan), and parts
of Honan |p[ ^ and Kiangsu JX 1^, ^nd attempted constantly
to annex North Kiangsi f£ ^, which owed allegiance to the Wu
kingdom; the Sftw/* g kingdom (A.D. 302-347), which lay in
Central and Southern Szechw'an gg Jl|, and in Southern Hupeh
fjg 4t; the Vueh ^kingdom (2057?- 334 B.C.), which comprised
actual Chekiang ^ ^, Fokien 1^ ^ and Kwangtung ^ %.
This last completely overthrew Fuch'ai ^^, Prince of the Wu
^ state, and annexed his territory, 473 B. C.

Somewhat less than a century afterwards, the King of Yueh
^, whose name was Wukiang ^ ^, declared himself vassal
of the feudal Prince of Ch'u ^, 356 B. C, and the state thus
became extinct, 334 B.C. The Ch'u kingdom, conquered in its
turn, lost its independence, and was annexed by the Emperor
TsHnshih Hivangti ^ ^ ^^, 223 B. C.

Pbyslcal cliaracteristics of tbe Chinese race. — With
regard to physical characteristics, the inhabitants of the 18
Provinces differ widely from one another, and the same may be
said sometimes even of the inhabitants of the same Province.
There are however certain features which are common to the
race. The stature is below the average, and seldom exceeds 5
ft. 4 inches, except in the North. The head is normally brachy-
cephalic or round horizontally, and the forehead low and
narrow. The face is roundj the mouth large, and the chin small
and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes almond-

CHAPTER II. POPULATION. 341

shaped, oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse,
lank and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and
remains generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight, and the
iris of the eye is black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat.
The hands and feet are disproportionately small, and the body
early inclines to obesity. The complexion varies from an almost
pale-yellow to a dark-brown, without any red or ruddy tinge.
Yellow however predominates, as with the Japanese, Manchu
and Mongolian races, and so the appellation of "yellow race" is
generally applied to these people collectively.

Moral cbaracterlstics of tlie Chinese race. — To sum

up briefly the character of the Chinese is a complex and difficult
problem, and perhaps as hard to decipher as the language. By
some, it has been over-estimated, and by others undervalued.
Considering that truth is fairly in the mean, we shall deal with
it on broad lines.

With regard to the intellectual qualities of the race, it is
admitted that the Chinese mind is rather of a practical and matter-
of-fact kind than of speculative or abstract. The educational
system of the country develops wonderfully the memory, but
cramps the reasoning powers, hence there is generally but super-
ficial knowledge, lack of precison and order in ideas (called by
some intellectual turbidity, by others topsyturvyism), and a total
absence of the critical spirit. There is also lo be noticed a pre-
vailing lack of foresight, of consideration of cause and effect, in-
capacity of taking a general view of things, and in the individual
and social acts of life a great amount of credulity and silliness.

The general temperament of the people is morose and leth-
argic, but when excited, they are fitfully vehement.

With regard to moral qualities of the humbler kind, the
Chinaman is patient, frugal, laborious, peaceable, law-abiding and
respectful of authority. He is polite and ceremonious, and displays
great veneration for parents and elders. He has a wonderful
aptitude for agriculture and commerce. The honesty of the
merchant-class is proverbial and deserves all praise. On the other
hand, he is not over nice or particular about truth, and will

342 SECTION T. POLITICAL AND BCONOHIC ftBOGRAPHY.

easily lie to eonceal neglect, or secure some personal advantage.
In many cases he eonsiders it impolite to plainly contradict or
give a direct refusal, and in general does not see the claims of
truth and sincerity as clearly as Westerners. He is also said to
be proud and conceited with his own superiority; he is avaricious,
and can seldom handle money with honesty ; he is cruel and
vindicative, callous to the sufferings of others, and backward in
showing gratitude for benefits. He likes gambling and litigation,
and will be profligate whenever opportunity offers. He has an
utter disregard for time and punctuality. He hates Foreigners,
because their excellence is conspicuous, and he fears their in-
fluence. He is not particularly clean, either in his person, habits
or surroundings, and is rather indifferent about smells and
noises. He has no lofty ideal of life, and is deficient especially
in the higher moral qualities : sense of duty, trustworthiness,
sacrifice for the general welfare, public spirit, enthusiasm and
active courage in danger.

Aboriginal Tribes and Renmante of Former Races.

The liolOsJB A, also written !^)|^(Laolao) and ]{(K (Liaoliao). Wild hunters).
— The Lolos state that they came from the region situated between Tibet and Burma.
At the origin of their history, they place 12 patriarchs, who are said to have taught
them the use of clothing and to work for their living.

They are divided into two classes: the White and Black Lolos, being distingui-
shed from each other by the colour of their head-dress.

The Lolos are of the Indo-European or Aryan race. The skin is white, the nose
hooked, the hair brown, the iris blue or grey, and the eye not almond-shaped. The roofs
of^the houses are flat. The dead are buried in caves or clifia. Woman is the equal of
man, and infanticide is unknown. The Lolo is a warrior and hunter, sometimes a pastor,
but seldom a tiller of the ground. As to his religion, he worships Nature and has a
great fear of evil genii.

The Lolos have no affinity with the Chinese, either in language, customs or
character.

The Chinese treat them with the greatest contempt, and consider that "though
they have a human form, they are little removed from the brute creation".

The Lolos are found chiefly in Kweiohow Jf )f\ and Yiinnan S f^. The Sze-
chw'an Lolos are called McmUe 9 ■f (barbarous tribes of the South).

The Lolos have their own language, which is very simple. AH the words are
formed by a single consonant and vowel. There is no diphthong and no final oonson.
ant. Each of these monosyllabic words has its special and distinct meaning.

The language is the same everywhere, though it is divided into a great number
of dialects.

CHAPTBR II. POPOLATION. 343

The written language was originally ideographic, but like that of the Chinese, it
underwent transformation during the course of ages, and so it is difficult in its present
state to retrace the objects which the ideographs primitively portrayed. The Lolo
language is represented by about 3000 written characters. (On the Lolos, see p. 112).

The Hiaotze "g -J- (shoots, children of the soil). — In their language, the
Miaotze call themselves Meng (Burmese equivalent, Mong; in Siamese, Muang). —
They state they came from the East. They are divided into a great many tribes,
numbering it is said more than 50. They are often called, from the colour of their
dress, tehite Miaos (Peh-miao S 8f). hlaclc Miaos (Heh-miao |K |S), and flowery or
embroidered Miaos (Hwa-miao ^ U. The women of this tribe engage in embroidery-
weaving, and wear beautiful dress-sleeves, hence the name).

Like the Lolos, their language, customs and habits differ widely from those of
the Chinese. They are a simple and hospitable people.

In Tiinnan 9 ^i the Miaotze are nomads or pastors, and hence are seldom
found in large numbers together.

Miaotze and Lolos are great wine-drinkers, and celebrate annually the arrival of
Spring by music and dancing.

It is considered by some that the Japanese are descendants of the Miao tribes,
who migrated from South China to the islands of the North. (On the Miaotze, see also
above, p. 112, 181, 188). .

The Ikias 5£ St (barbarians). — This is the name given by the Chinese to all
the tribes of the S. and S. "W., and especially to certain tribes inhabiting Kweiohow
U ^ and Kwangsi Jl[ fS- It was also formerly employed by Officials to designate
Foreigners, but is now forbidden by treaty to be used in official documents.

The IMas difier little from the Miaotze, and are often confounded under the same
name, or under that of Sham, tribes inhabiting the border-land of Burma and Siam.
The word "Shan" comes from the Siamese "Sayam" (brown-red, alluding to the colour
of the people). The Shans are called by the Chinese Pai-f JS ^ or P'ohri ^ ^, but
style themselves Luk-tai, or children of Tai. (On the Ikias, see above, p. 188, 198,
199, 207).

The Hakkas or K'olikias ^ St (alien or guest families, squatters). — The
Hakkas are located principally in Kwangtung and Kwangsi, but are found also in
PoMen, Kiangsi, ChSMang, Formosa and Hainan.

They live in small and scattered groups, but in the Prefecture of Kiaying Jf J|,
in the N. E. of Kwangtung Province, they are almost the sole occupants.

Their language holds an intermediate position between the Mandarin and
Cantonese. It is spoken by about 4 millions of people in the Kwangtung Province
alone.

Generally speaking, they are poor, although there are rich men among them, as
well as literary graduates.

The sexes are not so separated in domestic life as with the Chinese. The women
do not bind their feet, and their dress differs somewhat from that of the Cantonese,
their jackets reaching down nearly to the knees, while their heads are covered with
broad-brimmed hats, through which protrudes a top-knot of hair.

The Hakka children often have a ring of silver round their neck, though this is
not the custom with the Cantonese children.

The Hakkas are generally a simple people, but very contentious, and hence
constantly engaged in lawsuits.

344 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOIIUC OEOORAPHY.

A great number of them work at Hongkong as barbers and stone-cutters.

They are rather numerous in the Straits, where they are known as Kheks or
Kehs, this being the Swatow and Amoy pronunciation of the word Hak.

As to their origin, we have indicated it above, when describing Kwangsi and
Kwaogtung (p. 199 and 207); where they are mingled with the Ikias. With regard to
those of Kwangtung, the following is the story gathered from their family traditions.

They were located formerly, some in Shantimg and Shansi, and others in Ngan-
hwei. A first persecution, under the Ta'in $^ dynasty (B. C. 249-209), drove them from
Shantung, and compelled them to settle down in Nganhwei, Honan and Kiangsi. — A
second persecution, under another Tsin •§ dynasty (A.D. 419), scattered them into the
mountainous regions in the S. E. of Kiangsi, and to the borders of Fokien. — A third
persecution, under the T'ang ^ dynasty (A. D. 620), compelled them again to take
refuge in the mountains of Fokien, and the high chains which separate Kiangsi from
Kwangtung. — Under the Sung ^ dynasties (A. D. 960-1280), many became soldiers,
and thousands of them perished with the last Chinese Prince of the Southern Suug,
in- A.D. 1279, "West of Macao. — At the beginning of the Miiig |9 dynasty (A. D. 1368),
when they were driven from Fokien by disturbances which agitated that Province,
they finally settled down in large numbers in the N. of Kwangtung. Henofe they
spread over the W. and S. W. of Kwangtung, and over different parts of Kwangsi.

An implacable strife, in which about 150,000 perished, took place between the
Hakkas and Pgnti (original or native stock), in the S. W. of Kwangtung, from A. D.
1864-1866. The Chinese Government was then obliged to take vigorous measures and
remove a large number of them to Kwangsi, the Island of Hainan and other parts of
the country, (On the Hakkas, see above, p. 199 and 207).

The Hoklos or Hsiolaos ^ ^ (people from Fok, or, as it is locally pronounced,
HoA; Province, i.e. Fokien Province). — The Hoklos or Poklos are found principally in
the N. E. of Kwangtung Province.

Their language, which is akin to that of Fokien, is spoken by 3 millions of these
immigrants in Kwangtung.

They migrated to this latter Province from Fokien a few centuries ago. They
are a rougher, wilder, and also stronger set of men than the Southern Cantonese.
There are a great number of them in Hongkong, where they are employed as chair-
bearers. Many Hoklos emigrate, and are to be found in the different regions of theN.

In the Straits, they are known as Tew-chews, an appellation derived from the
Prefectural city of Ch'aochow jH ^ (pronounced Tew-chew in the local dialect), from
which place many of them come.

The Yao iRS (jackals) or Tu tribe. — The Yao tribes inhabit principally the
S.W. of Kwangtung, and are also found in the S.W. of Hunan. The Hunan tribe is
little known. The Kwangtung Yaos number about 30,000, and are located in the Prefec-
ture of Lienchow 9e iHI, near the gulf of Tongking. They seem to be of Burmese origin,
and migrated from Kwangsi to Kwangtung in the XII"" century. Their hair is worn
long, they are of short stature and have scanty beards. They are at present confined
by the advancing Chinese to the high and inaccessible mountain regions. They are
miioh considered by the other races for their knowledge of medicine, but their vengeance
is feared, and the more as it is transmitted from father to son through several genera-
tions. They haVe no written language, and their speech is quite different from that of
the Chinese (see above, p. 207).

The Sal, Si or Li tribe. — This tribe is located in the Island of Hainan, where it
has maintained its independence against the Chinese, for nearly 2000 years, withdrawing

CHAPTER II. POPOLATION. - 345

from the coast into the mountains of the interior. They number about 100,000. There
are also some Miaotze among them. They are divided into civilised and uncivilised
Xis, and are a strong and well-built race. Their writing is most curious, and there
is such great difference in their tribal dialects that they converse sometimes with one
other in Chinese. The women are tattooed.

In the N.W. of Yiinnan S '^ are found the MofSOS ^ '^ (Mosuh) or Mnsus.
They are a branch of the Miaotze, and live near Likiang Fu. Their houses are huts built
of planks and branches. They live mostly on barley, but many hunt for musk, deer and
other animals. The prevailing religion i? Buddhism. The Mosos constituted formerly
a powerful state, which extended over part of Eastern Tibet and of actual Yiinnan.

Further to the S., are the Lisas ^ ^ (Lihsuh). They live in the mountain
recesses of the Likiang valley. Their clothes are made of grass and planfs, and their
hair is worn twisted into a knot. They hunt birds and beasts for food, and never lay
their arms aside even at night (see p. 181).

The Minkias or Minchias Si aj? (MinMa) live along the shores of the Eulhai
lake to the E. of Tali Fu, which was formerly the capital of their tribe. They are the
descendants of the White Prince or Peh Wang Q 3E, who ruled about the time of the
christian era. They have no written character, but many of them study Chinese, and
some have taken degrees in the civil or military examinations (see Tali Fu. p. 181).

The W. and N.W. of Szechw'an, and the Western border of Kansu are inhabited
hj SiSatts^^ (Western ahoriginea or barbarians). Most of them have recognized
the supremacy of China, and are governed by Chinese OfBcials.

Distribatlon of tlie Population. — The density of the
population of China differs greatly in different parts of the country.
The great plain of N. China, the Yangtze ^ ^ basin, the Sze-
chw'an H j|| table-land, the coast-region and the Si-kiang |f jQQ
delta, are the parts the most densely populated of the country.

The Provinces which have the largest population are Sze-
chw'an, Shantung, Hupeh, Kwangtung, Kiangsi, Kiangsu, Ngan-
hwei and Fokien. In each of these 8 Provinces, the number of
inhabitants ranges from 60 to 20 millions. The Provinces which
are least populated are Yiinnan, Ch6kiang, Kansu, Shensi and
Kweichow. Here the number of inhabitants in each Province
dwindles from 12 down to 7 millions (see p. 8),

The Mussulman revolts, which broke out in the Provinces of
Yiinnan ^ ^ and Kweichow ^ »lt|, and also in those of
Kansu [{■ '^ and Shensi ^ W ! the T'aip'ing pfj zp rebellion
likewise, chiefly in the Yangtze ^ ^ valley, have exerted a
most depopulating effect on large tracts of the Empire in the
second part of the XIX* century.

It is well nigh impossible to calculate at the present day the exact number of
the inhabitants of China. The country has no census taken on European principles,
but an attempt is made to ascertain the number of households for the purpose
of collecting revenue, and from these a return of the total inhabitants is made out.
The official census therefore which we have followed in this work (see p. 5 and 8),
must be considered only as approximative. T\he different censuses taken by the
Chinese in the past are however worthy in many ^instances of a considerable amount
of credence, and in fact, form the only retarns available for the entire Empire. Compared

346

BBCTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOaRAPHT.

with some estimates made by foreigners, they may be said to be tolerably trustworthy.
From these censuses, it will be found that the population has considerably
increased during the preceding centuries. The following table will exhibit some statis-
tics showing this increase.

YEAE

NUMBEB OP FAMILIES.

Population.

609

8,700,000

1

755

9,619,000

53,000,000

1014

9,055,000

22,000,000

1097

19,435,000

33,000.000

1195

7,223,000

48,000,000

1393

16,000,000

60,000,000

1578

10,621,436

61,000,000

1736

?

125,000,000

1741

?

144,000,000

1792

?

333,000,000

1812

?

360,000,000

1897

?

410,000,000

(If these statistics are reliable, and taking into account the increase of land
under tillage, it must be admitted that they show a really great increase in the
poptilation of the Empire).

Foreign Population in Ohina. — According to statistics published by the
Imperial Maritime Customs, the total foreign population of China, and the number
of foreign commercial houses, for the years 1904 and 1905, were as follows :

COMMBBCIAL HOCSES.

Persons. |

Nationality.

^

1

wa

1905

1901

1905

Japanese

650

729

9,139

16,910

British

436

434

5,981

8,493

American

106

105

3,220

3,380

German

173

197

1,871

1,850

French

67

77

1,374

2,143

Dutch

15

9

209

181

Danish

11

13

198

. 201

Spanish

3a

7

278

249

Norwegian

8

10

186

166

Swedish

1

1

122

137

Eussian

21

19

308

682

Austrian

15

17

205

250

Belgian

6

8

286

273

Italian

22

22

366

412

Peruvian

2

Brazilian

3

8 ■

Portuguese

36

44

3,387

2,462

Korean

22

49

Non-Treaty Powers

3

1

70

155

Total

1,602

1,693

27,227

38,001

CHAPTER II. LANauAOES. 347

2^. Languages.

The Cbloese Iiangnage. — Chinese is spoken throughout
the length and breadth of the land, but with widely different
pronunciation, constituting thereby an obstacle to its being
understood by those who come from different regions within
the Empire. It may be divided into 2 kinds : the Booh Style,
and the CoUoquial or spoken language.

The various forms of the Booh Style are as follows :

1". The AncieiU Style or Kuw^ 'S' it- — This is simple
and concise in its construction, obscure and unintelligible with-
out explanation, even for Chinese scholars themselves. The
Classics and the early dynastic Annals of the Empire are written
in this style.

2'*. The JMerary Style or WhiU ;^ S- — This is a little
more diffuse, but nevertheless stilted and filled with allusions
and word-particles, either difficult or impossible to translate
into English. The essays of candidates who compete at the
public examinations are composed in this style.

Z'. The Official or Business Style, called Siao WhM ,Y> ^
g|. — This is good prose with few particles. It is generally
used in government and official documents, legal and statistical
works, history and business correspondence.

The Spohen iMnyuage. — This is divided into numerous
dialects with their local pronunciation, intelligil)le to the people
of the places where they prevail, but unintelligible to outsiders.
The higher ranks and the learned also use them, adding a few
book phrases, which are pronounced as in the dialect. Books
are generally not written in the colloquial. It is considered to
be beneath the dignity of a scholar to write books in the local
dialects, and abandon the style of the Classics.

The Miandarin Imnffumge or SwanJvwa '^ f^. — This is the
common or public language spoken in the Chinese Empire, as
opposed to the various local dialects. Though not universal, it is
the most widespread, being spoken in 14 or 15 of the 18 Provin-
ces, or by about 250 millions of people. It resembles the written

348

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOftRAPHY.

language more than any other dialect, but is more diffuse,
and contains synonyms and particles to render the sense clear.
Mandarin has 3 marked varieties : the Northern or Pekingese,
the Southern or Nankingese, and the Western.

In the Eastern (S. Kiangsii, Ch§kiarig, Fokien and Kwangtung) and Sonthern
Provinces (Kwangsi and Kweichow), other dialects are spoken by the people. These
are more or less akin to Mandarin, but nevertheless eufficieutly different to bp
unintelligible to a mandarin-speaking Chinese coming from other Provinces. The
following is a list of those dialects with the approximate number of people who ' con-
verse in them : ' -

DiALPCTS OF THE E. AND S.

, Spoken by.

1° The Cantonese Dialects, comprising :

1 — The Caiitonfese proper.

' 15,000,000

2 — The Hakka.

5,000,000

2° The Mill PJ or Fokien Dialects, comprising:

1 — The Amoy dialect.

10,000,000

' 2 — The Swatow (Hoklo) dialect.

5,000,000

3 — The iPoooliow dialect.

5,000,000

3' The Ngew ^ or Wu Dialects, comprising ■'

1 — The 'W^ohow dialect.

1,000,000

2 — The Ningpo dialect.

25,000,000

3 — The Sungkiang or Shanghai dialect.

18,000,000

A' sub-dialect of this latter is spoken at Hweichow St ^1 in Southern Nganhnei

The number of syllables in some of these dialects varies considerably. That
generally assigned for the principal dialects, including also several varieties of Man-
darin, is as follows : •,

DlAlECT.

numbeb of
Syllables.

Dialect.

numbek of.
Syllables.

1. Amoy.

846

7.

Pekingese (mandarin).

430

2. Cantonese.

780

8.

Shanghai.

660

3. Foochow.

786

9.

Swatow.

671

i. Hakka.

700

10.

W^nohow.

452

5. Hank'ow (mandarin).

316

U.

Yangchow (mandarin).

415

6. Ningpo.

444

Hainan has a dialect of its own, called the dialect of K'iungohow Fu which is
the most widely spread in the island. It is near akin to the Amoy and Swatow dialects,
andiis spoken by 3 million inhabitants. It is also used in the Leichow peninsula.

CHAPTER II. LANaUA&ES. 349

Characteristics of ttae Clilnese I<anguage. — The

principal cliaracteristics of the Chinese language may be reduc-
ed to the 4 following:

1". It is motMsyUabic. This must however le restricted to
the book style, for the spoken language has several dissyllabic
expressions, formed either by a combination of two symbols, or
by the addition of an auxiliary particle joined to the primitive
ideograph.

2''. It is «niMj^c<e<I, which gives it a simplicity and terseness
unparalleled in any other language. The relations of words to
one other are determined by position and the use of auxiliary
particles. These latter precede or follow the symbol, and thus
perform the duty of affixes, prefixes, noun and adjective termi-
nations, tenses, prepositions, conjunctions, and all that is called
grammar in Western languages. This terseness and economic
simplicity constitute the great difficulty of the language.

3°. Tfte ideographs or symbols express neither letters nor
words, but things or notions.

4°. It has no alphabet, but a system of initials and finals
called "fants'ieh" ^ ^ (fan, meaning to turn back ; and ts'ieh, to
cut), and introduced by Buddhist monks from India. This helps
to give the sounds of the ideographs, the tone or sheng ^ being
indicated by the word used as flnal. In this system, the initial
of one sound is joined to the final of another, to form a third
which expresses the sound of the given character, as f-ang "ff
and w-en ^ make fen ^. (On the Mongolian language, see
below. Book II. Ch. I. and II.).

Chinese Ciiaracter-wrltlng. — The early Chinese charac-
ters seem to have been pictorial representations, or rough symbols
of natural objects and phenomena, each symbol representing a
single object, as {{(^ (chw'an) running water or stream, jlj (shan)
a mountain, \ (jen) a man, p (k'ow) the mouth etc.... These
symbols however, gradually underwent modifications, and it is
difHcult to make out in the present characters the objects which
were originally represented. The number of written symbols
or characters is considerable. K^anghsi?s ^ ^ dictionary

350 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OBOftBAPHY.

contains 44,449 of them. No scholar knows them all thoroughly,
and practically there are but 7 or 8,000 of them employed. Bach
character comprises two parts : a radical or key, indicating the
general meaning, and a phonetic part indicating the pronuncia-
tion. The number of radicals varied, some lexicographers giving
500, others 300, and under the Ming B^ dynasty , 214. The
authors of K'anghsi's dictionary adopted this last number, and
this method has been followed down to the present day.

The written symbols are the same throughout the whole
empire. The inhabitants of Fokien, Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Ch6-
kiang and S. Kiangsu pronounce them differently, and even add
some other characters, to express sounds and idioms peculiar
to their own dialects.

Iiesser Dialects. — The Miaotze, Ikias, Lolos, Mosos and
other tribes, have their own dialects and manner of writing,
which are completely different from those of the Chinese. Some
tribes employ symbols or ideographs, while others have rudi-
mentary alphabets.

Chinese Uteratnre. — The literature of China is very
voluminous. The Emperor K'tenlung ^ ^ (1736-1796) divided
all these works into four classes : 1°. Classics or King ff ;
2°. Historical works or Shi ^ ; 3". Philosophical works or Tse ^p;
4*. IMerary eompUati^Mis or Tsffi ^. This last category com-
prises especially collections of celebrated authors.

3°. Religwms.

Religion is taken here in the sense of doctrine or system.
Thus there are in China three principal reUffions, called by
the name of the 3 doctrines or Sankiao ^ ^ : Confttciantsm,
the only orthodox doctrine ; Taoism, and Buddhism. Of these
3 systems, the two former are indigenous, Buddhism being
introduced from India in the early part of the christian era.
Taoism and Buddhism have received at times official patronage,
and a large amount of toleration, because it was thought that
their doctrines agreed with Confucianism, but they were also
often persecuted, one or the other, by the Government.

CHAFTRR II. HBLiaiONS. 351

ConAt^otenisni or Juhiao ^ ^ (doctrine of the literati). —
Confucianism is chiefly the system of the literary class. It is
not so much a religion as a poliHeo-etMoal code of state-govern-
ment, and social etiquette, gathered from the writings of Confucius
(K'ung Futze ^ ^ ^. B.C. 551-479) and his disciples. There
is no place in it for a primary cause, and no relation between man
and this cause. Man is said to know good, but fails to perform
it. Instruction and example are set forth as remedies against
this weakness. The Sage insists on the fulfilment of social
duties — obedience to authority, filial piety, kindness, friendship,
concord with neighbours, moderation and economy, propriety
and courtesy — because they lead to temporal happiness and fame,
and will be rewarded in man's posterity. He had a poor idea of
man's happiness. The whole system is incomplete, and proposes
a commonplace ideal, which pervades all Chinese life and
conduct.

Though he died in 479, it was not until B.C. 49 that his
doctrine obtained favour at Court. It reached its acme under
the Sung ^ dynasty (A. D. 420-478), and was subsequently
expounded by Chuhsi ^^ (A.D. 1130-1200), as a great political
means for paternal government and social order.

Confucius received the titles of "tetusher and example for
ten thousand yearaf', and "equal with heaven and earths'
(these two latter are the supreme object of state worship).
His temples abound throughout the land, and are placed in
large areas ornamented with trees and water, and in close
connection with the government examination-halls. Sacrifices
are offered to him by the Emperor, at the vernal and autumnal
equinoxes. Oxen and sheep are slain, and silk, wine and fruit
offered. The mandarins are present. No prayers are used, but
prostrations are made before the tablet of the Sage. Children
on entering school make the same reverences, and also literati,
after taking their degrees.

Taoism or Taohiao ^ ^ (doctrine of the right way). —
Taoism is a more abstruse philosophical system than Confucian-
ism, and is filled with misty and enigmatic ideas. It may be

352

SECTION T. PO^J^TI€AL AND E{GONOMIC aEOaBAPHY.

called a crude attempt to explain, how all things evolved oat.of
chaos, or the vague unknown. The system is chiefly exposed iji
the Taoteh King jl ^ .@ or Taoiat daasic The work was w.rltten
by iMOtzey^^ (Grand old man, or venerable philosopher. Bom
B.C. 604; time and place of death unknown), and contains
5,320 charactprs. The return to Tao, whatever that may mean
(the right; and correct course, or the simplicity of nature),
is held to be the, key to human happiness.

, Taoism as a religion nowise represents the abstractions of
Laolze, but was invented by the disciples of the; philosopher.
These also borrov\5ed much from Confucian and especially from
Buddhist iliterature. At the present day, this so-called religion
is a medley of grotesque polytheism, in which gods, goddesses
and genii are numerous. It also panders much to the Chioamanls
dread of spirits, and dispenses magic swords, incantations and
charms to ward off evil influences.

Buddtaism or Fohki€io -^ H; (doctrine of Fo'h Or Fuh). —
Chinese Buddhism is of more recent date than Confuciiahism br
Taoism. Confucius and Laotze lived both in the VI''' century B.C.
The official introduction of Buddhism into China dates' only
from the first century of the christian era. In the year A. D. 6!,
the Emperor Mingti B^ ^ had a dream, in which a mysterious
person told him to go to the W. and seek his law. Hereupon,
the Emperor's brother went to India, and brought back Buddhism,
instead of the true religion of Christ, which was then being
preached in the country. Buddhist literature thus entered China,
and subsequently penetrated into Korea and Japan. Buddhism,
throueh often persecuted by the Emperors of China, and obnox-
ious to the literati, was easily accepted by the people. It
somewhat degenerated in the XIII"' century, but there was a
revival in the XV'^. At the present day, Buddhism consists in
inviting priests for burials, making prostrations before Buddha
or Omit'ofuh ppf 3^ P'S -^i and his disciples, and burning joss-
sticks (sticks of incense made from the dust of various scented
woods, mixed with a little clay, and used in temples for worship)
before their statues. Buddhist monks or boftzes (fromthe Japanese

CHAPTER II. RKLiaiONS. 353

'Bonso, a Buddhist priest, and in Chinese, HoShang igj ^), are
generally very ignorant and little considered, though there are
found among them a few scholars. They are despised by the
people, and held up to contempt and ridicule. The nuns like-
wise hold a very low position in the public estimation.

These three religions are practically blended into one
in the eyes of the great bulk of the people, who practise
indiscriminately one or the other, as occasion requires. They
add to them the worship of Ancestor s,v/ho have also their temples
or tz'et'ang |^ ^, and tablets or p'aiwei ^ -fir (a board with
the name of the deceased on it). They worship afso evil spirits
or mokwei ^ j|, believe in the transtniifration of souls, in merU
acquired by sparing animal life, and numerous other superstitious
practices.

Besides these three religions, the most widely diffused in
China are Shamanism,, ChristianUy and Mahomedanistn.

Shamanism prevails chiefly among the tribes of Yiinnan
and Kweichow, in S.W. China. They fear spirits, worship
natural objects (the sun, wind, mountains, rivers etc.) and have
wizard-priests, who propitiate with offerings the malevolent
spirits.

Clirlstlantty is spread throughout the whole of China, in
two different forms, the Ckttholie and the Protestant,

CMiboIlclsm is called in China Vienchu-kiao 5f ^ ffc, or
Setigion of the lAtrd of Heaven, th\s name having been adopted
to signify that the proper object of its worship is the true and
living God, Creator of Heaven and Earth, and not the material
heavens, which together with the earth, are the object of Imperial
worship in China. Catholicism is the ancient religion revealed
by God to man, at the origin of the world, and which Christ,
Son of God and God himself, perfected 1900 years ago. It
teaches that there is but one personal and supreme God, who
is the Creator of heaven and earth, and to whom alone is due
divine honour. It acknowledges but one true and universal

23

354 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OBOGHAPHT.

Church, to wbich all men are called. The power and mission
of this Church do not come from man, but directly from God,
and its object is to help all men to be good, to save their souls
and lead them in accordance with God's will to eternal hap-
piness in heaven.

The Catholic Church reckons at present in China about one
million believers.

Whether S' Thomas, one of the twelve Apostles of Christ, carried the Ught of
the Gospel to the Chinese Empire, is not sufficiently guaranteed, but certain it is
that some of his disciples early announced the new faith to the country.

The first historical monument attesting the introduction of Christianity into
China -dates from' the VHI'S ceiitury.- K is a stone slab discovered in A.D. 1625, near
the city of Singan Fu, in Shensi. It bears the date of A.D. 781, and was erected by the
Nestorians, a Christian sect separated from the main body of Catholics, and who pro-
bably came from Syria or Persia. -According to this slab, the Nestorians then possessed
several churches and monasteries, and enjoyed liberty to preach the Gospel. They may
even have erected their first church as early as 636. The Nestorians were banished in
A.D. 845, by an edict of the Emperor Wutsahg ^ ^, of the T'ang )S dynasty.

Scattered groups however continued to live in China during the following
centuries, and the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, found several Nestorian congregations
at Kasbgar, Samarcand, and even at Peking, toward? the close of the XIIJi' century.

In the second half of the same century, and during the XIV"', several Catholic
Missionaries were sent to China by the Eoman Pontiffs and by Catholic Sovereigns.
The best known are the Dominican Andvew of Longjumeau, and the Franciscans .Tofoi
de Plwno Garpini, William of Bubruquis, and John of Montecorvino. In 1307, this last
reached KhwnbaUg (Peking), the capital of China, and was appointed Archbishop,
with seven suffragans, by Pope Clement V"". He retained his bishopric until his death
which occurred in 1330. His successor in the see of Peking was Nicholas Bonnet.

The Mongol invasion of Tamerlane closed the land-route to China, and so the
Missionaries had henceforth to reach the country by sea.

Dominicans and Franciscans attempted at various times to found churches in
the S. They set out from Manila and Macao. The Portuguese occupied this latter place
towards the middle of the XVl"" century, and a bishopric was erected there in 1.557.

St Trancis Xavler was the first Jesuit who attempted to enter China. He
started from Malacca, but died in 1552, at the island of Shangchw'an or Sancian, off
the Canton coast. Shortly afterwards, a missionary of the same Order, Mntthew Bicci
(called in Chinese Li Matow ^J 3(C JP), succeeded in entering the country. In 1583,
Ricoi settled at Chaok'ing Pu ^ R JfiF, then the official capital of the Two Kwang Pro-
vinces. In 1588, he removed his residence to Nanoh'ang Fn ^ g ^, in Kiangsi Pro-
vince. He subsequently extended his labours to Nanking '^ Tg, which he reached in
1595. Here, observing that the success of his mission was at the mercy of local
mandarin caprice, he set out for Peking, and after two unsuccessful journeys (1595 and
1598), finally settled in the capital of the Empire, in the year 1601. He there secured

CHAPTER II. RELIGIONS. 355

the esteem and good-will of the Emperor, and of the learned class, and was thus enabled
to open China to other Missionaries. One of his principal converts in the capital was
the HanlinDoctor Sii Kwangk'i^ j%8)C, anative of Shanghai. The tomb of this
famous man is at Siikiahwei tS( % R (locally pronounced Sicawei), and the Jesuit
Observatory is so called from its being in the vicinity of the monument. When Eicci
died in 1610, the Emperor himself offered a burial ground for his mortal remains, and
a great concourse of the literary class attended his funeral.

After Bioci, several Catholic Missionaries : Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans,
and Augustinians, came to preach the Gospel in China.

It was owing to his scientific knowledge that Eicci won the favour and esteem
of the Chinese. His successors retained them by the same means. Among them, two
are especially famous ; Schall and Verbiest.

Aiiam Schall von Bell (I591-166fi), known in China under the name of T^ang
Johwang ^ ^ S> reached the country in 1622.

Schall settled at first in Singan Fu, in Shensi Province. Summoned to the Court, to
reform together with Fr. James Eho the imperial calendar, he was appointed President
of the Board of Astronomy and Mathematics. The Emperor Ch'ungchf'n ^|g held him in
great esteem,and when this prince succumbed in the catastrophe of the Ming B9 dynasty,
the new Emperor of the- Tats'ing ;Ac J^, or . present reigning house, maintained the
Missionary in the same honourable position. Schall obtained an imperial decree
securing the preaching of the Gospel throughout the Empire, and guaranteeing pro-
tection for converts. Thanks to this favour, 100,000 Christians were received into the
Church in the short space of 14 years.

Verbiest (1623-1688), known in China under the name of Nan Ewaijen Ig^'t,
entered the country in 1659. Schall ordered him to come to Peking to assist him in his
astronomical labours. He too became President of the Board of Mathematics, and the
Emperor K'anghsi^JK showed him the most sincere friendship. When he died, the
Board of Bites prescribed the honours to be paid him, and his funeral was carried out
at the expense of the State. The Emperor wrote his eulogium, and had it engraved
upon bis tombstone.

Notwithstanding the Imperial favour in Peking, the native converts had neverthe-
less to suffer many persecutions throughout the Provinces. They did not cease however
to increase in number. The first pioneers of the Gospel were soon followed by the
French Foreign Missions, and when the Society of Jesus was suppressed in Europe, the
Vincentians or Lazarists took up and continued its labours in China.

The propagation of the Gospel, which experienced a set-back at the close of the
XVIII"" century and the opening of the XIX"", started with renewed vigour in the latter
half of the present century. Its progress was frequently hindered by persecutions, the
last of which was in 1900, when the blood of thousands of martyrs flowed at the hands of
the Boxers. The preaching of the Gospel is now officially authorized by treaty. The divi-
sion of the country into Apostolic Vicariates, and the apportionment of the field between
the various religious Orders and Congregations, thus preventing overlapping and fric-
tion, have further facilitated the task. The annexed table will exhibit in detail the
present divisions, the number of vicariates, churches and chapels, converts and appli-
cants for baptism, or in other words, the pratical result of Catholic Missionary work.

356

SECTION T. PdtlTIidjd; AND ECONOMIC SKOflBAPHY.

CATHOLIC MISSIONS IN CHINA. 1906.

Vicariates
ApoSt^ic ■

To Whom
- Entrusted

Head-
quarters
aiidPrincipal
Kesidence

•t
I

Priests

For- Na-
eign tive

Bap-
tized
Con-
verts

App-
licants
for
Bap-
tism

Chhf-
'Ches

or
Chap-
els

Firat Region. |

N. Chihli

Vincentians or Lasa-

Peking

6

40

47

90,617

20,000

456

E.

\Hsts'

Yungp'ing

6

8

1

5,270

1,000

25

w. .„'

),

Chonting

6

17

21

41,880

6,606

344 :

S.E. „

Jesuits

iHsienhsien
i(Hokien)

C

4<)

20

59,646

9,779

332

N. Honan

MiianForeigriMissiom

Weihwei

6

12

2

5,200

7,000

70

S. Manchuria' '

PariaForMgnMissiotis

Mukden

6

29

7

18,813

4,500

90

N.

„

Kirin

G

23

8

. 14,924

8,725

93

E. Mongolia
Central „

Belgian Foreign Mis-
[sions

Sungohdw-
tsnitze

Siwantze

6
6

37
44

10
21

15,716
22,.S0O

8,109
5,800

47
125

W.

It

Santao-ho

6

44

1

9,788

4,763

39

second Region.

Hi (M.)

Belgian Foreign Mis-

Hi

6

0

0

300

2

N. Kansu

[sions

Leangchow

6

15

1

2,570

230

23

S. „ (P.A.)

„

Tsinchow

6

10

3

1,031

600

13

N. Shensi

Franciscans

Kaolin

6

14

26

24,100

5,000

203

s. ^ -„■

N. Shsnsi

Foreign Missions of
[Borne
Franciscans

tCh'erigku
'(Hanohung)

T'aiyuen

5
5

14
12

3
15

11,100
16,500

6,100
5,200

61
174

s. „

„

Lungan

6

22

6

13,304

7,525

133

N. Shantung ,

M

Tsinan

6

23

17

20,719

17,305

187

E. .. „

" \sions

Chefoo

6

23

3

10,400

12,560

153j
147'

S.

German Foreign Mis-

Y&nchow

6

46

12

35,301

36,367

Third Region. 1

W. Honan (P.A.)

Foreign Missions of
[Parma

Siangch'6ng
(Hsu Chow;

6

8

0

802

800

g

S.

MilanForeignMissions

Nanyang

6

12

10

11,300

9,000

83

E. Hupeb

Franciscans ■

Wuch'ang

6

24

17

23,304

20,000

105

N.W. „

••

^Laoho-k'ow
((Siangyang)

6

12

13

16,057

7,000

-75

S.W. „

,1

Ich'ang

6

17

8

9,626

5,672

-75

N. Hunan

Spanish Augustinians

Li Chow ,

6

25

2

2,184

3,962

,32

S.

Franciscans

Hfingchow

G

10

6

G,116

1,500

22

N. Kiangsi

Vincentians

Kiukiang

6

12

5

11,000

8,000

no

E.

„

Fuehow

6

20

9

15,300

4,200

56

S.

11

Kihngan

6

17

8

7,800

2,400"

43

Gh6kiang

»

Ningpo

6

30

17

23,618

10,020

153

KiangsuandNgan-
hwei(Ki»ngn8nl

]Jesuits

Shanghai

6

127

61

152,873

87,560

984

CHAPTBR II.

RBLIOIONB.

357

CATHOLIC MISSIONS IN CHINA. 1906. (continued).

Vicariates
Apostolic

To Whom
Entrusted

Head-
quarters
and Principal
Kesideiice

Priests

For- Na-
eign tive

Bap-
tized
Con-
verts

App-
licants
for
Bap-
tism

Chur
ches

or
Chap-
els

Fourth Region.

Kweichow

Paris Foreign Mis-

Kweiyang

6

48

17

24,018

22,825

112

N.W. Szechw'an

Isions

Ch'ongtu

C

39

43

40,000

11,073

105

E.

Ch'ungk'ing

6

48

37

34,100

17,761

103

S.

Suifu

0

45

13

24,000

10,000

40

Ylinnan

Yunnan

h

30

14

9,550,

71

Tibet

"

Tatsienlu

5

17

1

2,050

14

Fifth Region.

FQOchow

Spanish Dominicans

Foochow

6

37

16

44,799

25,806

116

Amoy

»»

Amoy

6

13

1

4,225

5,806

57

Hongkong

MilanForeignMissions

Hongkong

G

11

10

13,295

2,000

73

Kwangtung(P.A.)

Paris Foreign Mis-

Canton

5

69

15

54,000

4S0

Kwangsi (PJi.)

\_sions

Nanning

0

26

4

3,431

6,546

47

Macao

U

?

1

?

?

?

Mission Agencies

28

8

Trajipists

c

6

4

■' 'Total

1218

555

952,935

129,094

5,681

Summary

Vicariates Apostolic 38

Prefectures Apostolic 4

Diocese of Macao and
, Mission of Hi

Grand Total
for China

42

Priests
Foreign

Native

1218

555

1773

Baptized
Converts

952,935

Churches

and
Chapels

5,681

The Abbreviations F.A., mean Prefectures Apostolic, and M., means Mission. In
indicating the year of report, we have given but the last figure, thus 5 means 1905, and
. 6, the year 1906. The number of Priests comprises the Bishops. The other helpers,
Foreign and Chinese, are not mentioned in this list. It may be also gathered from
these statistics that there is but one priest to attend to every 537 baptized converts ;
that out of every 1,717 such converts, one native priest is furnished for the ministry;
and finally, that for one native convert who has entered the Church, there are still 430
pagans outside the fold, or in other words, that the number of catholic converts is but
the jijth part of the total population of the Chinese Kmpire.

358

SECTION V, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOftHAPHY.

Korea and Japan. 1906.

Dioceses

and
Vicariates
Apostolic

To Whom
Entrusted

Head-
quarters

and
Principal
Residence

I

1

6
5
6
6
6
B

6

Priests

Bap-
tized
Con-
verts

App-
licants
for
Bap-
tism

Chur-
ches
or
Chap-
els

For-
eign

Na-
tive

Korea (V.A.)

Tokio (Arch D.)

Osaka (D.'

Nagasaki (D.)

Hakodate (D.)

Shikoku (P. A.)

Formosa i depends
on Amoyi

ParUFurelgiiMisaions
Spanish DonUnlcUHS

Seoul

Tokio

Osaka

Nagasaki

Sendai

Kochi

Amoy

42
35
30
35
24
7

12
18.5

10
J
i

2C
1
0

0

• 61,290
9,4.53
3,900

42,846

4,235

300

2,H3

6,430

80
200

62
39
32
64
31
5

18

Grand Total
Korea and Japan

•15

121,167

6,710

2E1

■im

The abbreviations Arch. D., mean Archdiocese; D., diocese; V. A., Vicariate
Apostolic, and P. A. Prefecture Apostolic.

ProtestenClBin is generally called in China T^sn-hiao J^

j^ ^ or Melioion of Jesu*. The Protestant form of Christianity
originated in the XVI*^ century. It rejected the headship and
authority of the Catholic Church, and set itself up as a free and
self-governing Church, based on the Bible interpreted by private
judgment. It is divided into numerous sects and denommations,
and has in China about 150,000 full adherents.

Protestantism entered China only in the beginning of the XTX"* century. The
first Protestant Missionary to the country was the Rev. Robert Morrison, who arrived
in A.D. 1807. On account of opposition to foreigners entering the country, he was then
unable to engage in direct evangelical work. He therefore directed his energy to lite-
rary undertakings, and published a large dictionary, and a Chinese translation of the
New Testament. This latter appeared in 1814. The same year, he baptized the first
Protestant convert in China. In 1818, he began, together with D' Milne, his translation
df the Old Testament into Chinese. It was printed from wood-blocks, and published
in 1823. About the same time, an Anglo-Chinese college was opened at Malacca. Here
the newly arrived Protestant Missionaries settled, and were trained in the Chinese
language and customs, till more favorable circumstances allowed them to enter the
country. Meanwhile founts of moveable types were oast, destined to replace the wood-
blocks which D' Morrison had first employed.

CHAPTER II. RBLiaiONB.

359

In addition to the English Missionaries, others came from America to Macao in
1830.

After the Nanking treaty of 1842, opening the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Fooohow
Ningpo and Shanghai, the Missionaries proceeded from Malacca to China, and others
soon arrived from home. Twelve Missionary Societies immediately established them
selves in these ports, and there opened schools, hospitals and dispensaries. Since then
more treaty ports have been opened, and numerous other Missionary Societies followed
the first, the principal being the "American Methodist Episcopalians" (South), "Baptists'
(of the Southern Convention, Missionary Union, Independent Movement, and Seventh
day), "Presbyterians" (North, South and Keformedl, and the "China Inland Mission"
which started work in 1853.

Besides the distribution of Tracts and Bibles, and the establishing of Churches,
they have opened colleges and schools, and translated numerous works, religious and
scientific, into Chinese. They publish also several periodicals, and have hospitals and
dispensaries in the principal cities where they work.

It is now one hundred years since they commenced work in China. We append
here the state of their Missions for the year 1902, as published by the Bev. Timothy
Richard, no complete statistics having appeared since that date :

Ordained Men

610

Unordained Men (including Physicians)

578

Missionaries' Wives

772

Other Missionary Women (including Physicians)

825

Native Workers (both Sexes)

6,388

Missionary Stations or Residences

653

Missionary Out-stations

2,476

Communicants

112,808

Adherents, not Communicants

91,864

Day-schools

1,819

Pupils in same

35,412

Higher Institutions

170

Students in same

5,150

Foreign Male Physicians

162

Foreign Women Physicians

79

Hospitals or Dispensaries

257

Patients during year reported

691,732

The following is a fuU list of Protestant Missions in aU China, alphabetically
arranged. The table gives the date of their starting work in China, the number
of foreign Missionaries, male and female, including physicians, the number of native
helpers of both sexes, and the total native constituency, comprising communicants
and adherents, not communicants. The results tabulated are those supplied by the
various Societies themselves.

360 8KCTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

Statistics of Protestant Missions in all China, 1902.

NAMES OF SOCIETIES.

AMEKICA.N Societies.

American Advent Mission Society

American Baptist Missionary Union

American Bible Society ■•■

Ainerioan Board of Foreign Missions

American Friends' Board of Foreign Missions ...
American Norwegian (Lutheran) China Mission ...
Board of Foreign Missions, Presb. Church, North
Board of Foreign Mission, Beforraed Church in

' America

Board of Mission & Church lEreotion, Cumb. Presb.
Board of Missions of the M. E. Church, South ...

Christian and Missionary Alliance

Dom. and For. M. S., Protestant Episcopal Church
Exec. Com. of Foreign Missions, Presbyterian

Church, South

Foreign Christian Missionary Society

Foreign Department, Y. M. C. A. North America
Foreign Mission Board, Southern Baptist Convention
Foreign Mission Committee, Presbyterian Church,

Canada

Gospel Mission (Independent Baptist Missionary

Movement) ...

Hauges Synod's China Mission

Home and Foreign Missionary Society, United

Evang. Church

Missionary Society of the Methodist Church, Canada
MissionarySociety of the Methodist EpiscopalOhurch

Mission Board of Seventh-day Adventists

Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America
Scandinavian American Christian Free Mission ...

Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Society

Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant of America
Synod of Beformed Presbyterian Church in North

America

Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, M.E. Church,

South

Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, Methodist

Prot. Church

Woman's Missionary Association, United Brethren

in Christ

Woman's Missionary Society, Methodist Church,

Canada

Woman's Union Missionary Society ..■.

CHAPTER II. BBLIGIONS.

Statistics of Protestant Missions in all China, 19Q2, (continued).

36i

•i ■

NAMES OF SOCIETIES.

u * »

Iffissionaries.l

Native Col

Communi-
cants.

stituency.

Adhereutt
not com-
municants

For-
eign.

Na-
tive.

British Societies.

Baptist Missionary Society

Baptist Zenapa Mission

1859
1893

53
11

150
20

4,652

Bible Christian Home and Foreign Missionary
Society

1885

13

4

28

22

British and Foreign Bible Society

Christian Missions (commonly called "Brethren")

1885

13

48.

250

Church Missionary Society

Church of England Zenana Missionary Society ...
Church of Scotland Foreign Mission Committee

1844
1881

1878

196

45

7

639
50
17

6,358
206

19,185
39

Church of Scotland Women's Association for P. M.

1891

3

7

Foreign Mission of the Presbyterian Church, Ireland
Foreign Missions Committee, Presb. Churcb,

1869

28

195

1,589

9,212

England

Friends' Foreign Mission Association

London Missionary Society

MSthodist New Connexion Missionary Society ...

Missions to Seamen

1847
1886
1807
1859
1885

72

13

115

14

3

240
16

283
24

4,795

16

7,000

2,640

12,600

96

4,059

2,000

Mission to Lepers in India and the East

Mission to the Chinese Blind ...

1891

1888

1

National Bible Society of Scotland

Society for Propag. of the Gospel (North China
Mission)

1863
1874

13

26

21.")
6

493

445

United Free Church of Scotland Foreign Missions
United Jf ethodist Free Churches, H. and F. Missions

1863

1804

33
13

186
141

1,0,915
, 2,500

2,965
i',490

Wesleyan Methodist ftlissionary Society

1851

83

127

2,6.'i7

3,215

Continental Societies.

Allg. evangelisch-protestantischer Missionsverein
'Bsrliner Frauenverein fiir China

1885

7
4

1
3

?

?

Danske Jlissionsselskabs

Ueutsche Blindenmission in China, in Hildesheim

1896

13
1

2

26

11

Deutsche China- Allianz-Mission

1889

. ^

15

, 68

180

'fevangelische Miasions-Gesellschaft, Basel

Frauen Verein fiir christliche Bildung des weibli-

1852

41

,144

4,141

6,197

chen Geschlechtes in Morgenlande

Ges. z. Befiirdei-ung d. ev. Missionen unter d. Heiden

Norsk Luthersk Kinamissionaforbnnd

Bheiniache Missionsgesellschaft ,.

Sallskapet Svenska Baptist Missionin

Svenska Missionsfiirbundet , ... .,.

1900
1882
1894
1817
1891
1890

1

27
13
22
6
14

65

?

23

■ 8

1,486

20

628

100

2,169

?

iNTEIlNATInNAL SOCIETY.

China Inland Mission

1P53

779 _

581

8,553

Grand Total, 68 Societies.

2,785

6,388

112,808

91(864

wives and physicians. The native helperg comprise workers of both sexes.

362 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOflRAPHY.

M»liomedantem, known in China as Hweitvweirltfiao g

@ % (returning religion, because they turn to Mecca in prayef],
was founded in Arabia by Mahomet, in the VII*'' century of the
christian era. Part of its doctrine is borrowed from the Jewish
religion or from Catholicism, while other parts are due to the
founder^himself. Mahomedans came to China for the first time
in the IX*^ century, as traders. Some entered the country from
central Asia, while others arrived through the seaport towns of
Canton and Hangchow. Much of the science and arts of the
West was brought to China by them. In 1272, a Mussulman
observatory was established in Peking. In 1311, it is^again
mentioned in Chinese annals, and lasted till 1622, when the
Jesuit, Adam Schall, was appointed President of the Board of
Mathematics. In 1645, the Mussulmans of Kashgar, Yarkand,
and Khotan, sent tribute to Peking. Mussulmans are found at
present especially in the N.W. and S.W. of China. In Shensi
|J[ H, there are 4 millions, and in Kansu '^' ]|f, about 6
millions of them. In Yiinnan ^ ^, they number' from 3 to
4 millions. These three Provinces contain four-fifths of the whole
Moslem population of the country, which according to ofQcial
censuses reaches from 15 to 20 millions. Peking has 200,000
Mussulmans, who monopolize the inn and cart trade of the N-.
Socially, they keep aloof from the Chinese, and do not intermairy
with pagans. In regard to religion, they have been treated by
China with the broadest toleration, and are eligible to all posts
in the State open to oMinary Chinese. The principal mosques
are found atSingan Fu, Nanking, Hangchow and Canton.

There have been several rebellions of considerable impor-
tance by the Mahomedans against the Chinese government. All
these troubles have grown out of the occupation of Kashgar by
China in 1760. The two principal uprisings are known as the
Tungan and Panthay revolts.

The VungoM revolt broke out in Kansu in 1861, and was
caused by the Moslem aspiration to restore the Khoja dynasty.
The rebellion spread Westward, and extended to Hi and Eastern
Turkestan or Kashgaria. In 1871, Russia occupied Hi, and

CHAPTBR II. RELiaiONS. 363

held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. In 1872, the
Chinese General Tso Tsungt'ang & ^ ^, at the head of the
Imperialists, attacked the rebels, and took successively their
strongholds, at Hami, Urumtsi, Yarkand and Kashgar. The
revolt was finally crushed by the taking of Khotan, S'^ Janaary,
1878. This Northern rebellion lasted 17 years, and exerted a
most depopulating effect upon the Empire. The number of those
who were killed is estimated to be about 10,000,000. (See p. 31).
The Fanthatf revolt originated in Yiinnan in 1856. The
Lolos also joined in it. It was caused by local tyranny, the
success of the Mahomedans in gold-mining, and the ill-will and
treachery of the Chinese officials. The Mussulmans seized Tali
Pu, and in 1858, held the whole of Yiinnan, except the Capital.
In 1872, the Viceroy Tsdng Kwohfan § ^ ^ and the Chinese
general, Yang Yuhk'o jl^ 3g j^, attacked and recovered Tali.
Relentless cruelty and wholesale massacres marked the victory.
Seventeen chieftains were beheaded, 20,000 of the defenceless
people of the city put to the sword, and 24 large baskets full of
human ears sent to Yiinnan Fu. The Sultan's head was severed
from his body, and sent preserved in a jar of honey to Peking.
The Panthay rebellion lasted 16 years, and was well nigh
wresting Yunnan from its allegiance to Peking. Like the North-
ern rebellion, it resulted in largely depopulating the Province
and ruining local industry, (fliee p. 174, 181 and 183).

Jndatom. — The Jewish religion is represented at present
in China, by a colony of about 400 Israelites, who are found at
K'aifung Fu ^ iej; J^, capital of Honan fgf ^ Province. They
are in a state of ignorance and poverty, and their creed has
almost died out in the midst of their heathen surroundings.

Their religion seems to have been introduced into China
at the close of the X*'' century, or even as late as the XII'i^, if
we CEedit some stone tablets and inscriptions. The oral tradi-
tion of the colony states however, that their ancestors came to
China under the Bmperw Mingti ^ ^, of the Han ^ dynasty,
between A.D. 58 and A.D. 76, or perhaps even before the
christian era.

364 SECTION T. POLITICAL AND ECbKOHiC OEOGRAPHT.

Old System. — In former times, China properly spealiiiig
had no educational system. Two principal forms of instruction
could however be distinguished, elementary and secondary.

Elementary ItufrucUon. — This was imparted to children
within their families, by private pedagogues^ or by teachers in
small schools. These schools were seldom frequented by more
than 20 pupils. Parents and guardians Were free to send their
children to school. There were no schools for girls, and their
education was generally neglected. Masters received no salary
from the State, but the families of the pupils paid them a small
remuneration. No certificate or grade was required for teaching,
and no book or curriculum was compulsory. There was however
a selection of books and a programme imposed by tradition.

The child began by memorizing the Classics for 4 or 5 years.
During all this time the meaning of the characters was not
explained. There was no class-system, but each boy made a
class by himself. Play was unknown, and was considered ji
waste of time. At the end of the 4 or 5 years' memorizing, ^
explanation or translation of the book style was given in easy
language {gee above, p. ,347. n" 1). This explains how a good
many Chinese can read the characters, but do not understand
them, and are in fact illiterate. If the boy wished to proceed
a stage further, he was taught letter-writing and easy composi-
tion. This latter requirefl little intelligence, being largely made up
of quotations, allusions, antithetical phrases and word-particles.

The whole system laboured under serious disadvantages,
resulted in a considerable waste of time and had no educational
value. The memory and imitative power were marvellously
developped, but the mind was not stoi-ed with vstliiable i^feWs,
nor trained to precision or accuracy, and there was an utter
lack of originality. , , ,:

Secondaty XnstrttcUon. — This comprised beydnd the" pri-
mary stage a short course of Chinese literature, a smattering of

CHAPTER II. EDUCATION. 365

[listory gleaned principally from the annals of ancient times, the
writing of literary essays, and some artificial verse-making.

The curriculum being completed, the student could test his
proficiency, and compete at the Civil Examinations. These were
three in number, and in each of them a degree corresponding
to our 6. A., M. A., L.L.D., was conferred upon successful
candidates.

The first conipeHUve txatninatUni took place in the Prefec-
tural city. The degree conferred was that of SiutsfaA f| ■:Jf
[budding talent) or B.A.

The second eataminaHoti took place at the Provincial capital.
Successful candidates were styled KUfin ^ \ (promoted scho-
lars) or M.A., also called Provincial graduates.

The tMrd eaeamineUion was held at Peking jff^ jjf,. The
degree obtained was that of Tsinshi JH i (entered scholar) or
L.L.D., also called Metropolitan graduate.

A large number of candidates competed at each of these
examinations, but only a small percentage was received. Thus
out of 12,000 or 20,000, who competed at the second examina-
tion held in each Provincial capital, the number received was
between 110 and 100. Again, out of 6,000, who underwent the
third examination in Peking, about 320 were received, or a
little over 5 per cent.

Before undergoing a superior examination, it was necessary
to have passed the preceding inferior one. There were however
some exceptions through privilege. Several inferior degrees
could be secured by purchase.

The second and third examinations were held but once
every three years. Through privilege, or on the occasion of
[mperial rejoicing, they sometimes took place more frequently.
.The exercises proposed at these examinations comprised
Ql-i'ginal poems and literary essays or Whtchmtg ^ j|t, upon
texts selected from the Classics. Each examination lasted
through several sessions or days, three for the B. A. and M. A.
degrees, and one for the L.L.D. degree.

Each Province had a fixed number of admissions for the

366 SECTION Y. POLITICAL AND ECONOUIC aEOORAPHY.

M.A. and L.L.D; degrees. Those for the M.A. were as follows:

Cb^kiang

104

Kansu 40

Nganhwei

55

ChihU

280

Kiangsi 104

Shansi

70

Fokien

100

Kiangsu 87

Shantung

71

Honan

79

Kwangsi 51

Shensi

50

Hunan

56

Kwangtung 86

Szechw'an

80

Hupeb

57

Kweiohow 50

Yunnan

64

The number of those who effectively received the M.A.
degree in 1903, was however as follows:

Name

Chinese

M.A. Graduates.

M.A. Graduates.

Approx-

of the Provinces.

characters.

Chinese.

Manchus.

imated.

Chgkiang

mu

I04

3

18

Chihli(Shunt'ien)

mum^)

230

27

Fokien

mm

93

3

18

Honan

fvm

?

Hunan

mm

57

9

Hupeh

m*

57

3

9

Kansu

■H-*

42

6

Kiangsi

itm

104

18

Kiangsu

nm

92

3

.14

Kwangsi

mn

51

9 ,

Kwangftung

nm

86

2

14

Kweichow

Hffl

50

8

Nganhwei

$*

50

8

Shansi

lllIB

70

12

Shantung

]m

74

13

Shensi

BSM

53

8

Szechw'an

ra;ii

94

II

Yunnan

«m

?

Under the name of Manchn graduates are comprisea all Manohns, Mongols, and
Chinese Bannermen, or descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchn dynasty
in the early part of the XVII"' century (see above : Army. p. 329).

It may be s6en from this table that the number of admissions for each Province
does not always tally with that which has been previously fixed. — An aji'proin'matiim
confers on the recipient no privilege for subsequent examinations.

The number of those, who effectively secured the L.L.D.
degree in 1904, was as follows :

CHAPTER II. EDUCATION.

367

ChftkianfT

20

Kiangsi

20

Shantung 20

Chihli

22

Kiangsu

25

Shensi 10

Fokien

18

Kwangsi

10

Szeohw'an 13

Honan

17

Kwangtung

16

Yunnan 10

Hunan

13

Kweiehow

10

Manchu Bannermen 8

Hupeh

13

Ngauhwei

15

Manchuria 2

Kansu

7

ShanBi

10

The session for obtaining this degree lasted from 1 5 to 20 days.

It is from the ranks of M.A. and L.L.D. graduates that
officials are generally recruited. The grade however confers
no substantive office or appointment, but paves the way to sub-
sequent official preferment.

Most of the Prefectural cities have two Directors of BOuea-
Mon, styled HaiohsM J^ gp or Xiaokwan j^ '^.

The Provincial Ebeaminera are generally officials of high
literary rank, who are appointed from Peking to serve for 3
years in this capacity. They are called Haiohehhtg $ ^,
vulgo XtsioMfai ^ m, or Provincial Literary Chancellors.
Each Province has one Provincial Examiner, who resides gene-
rally in the Capital of that Province.

Modem System of Edneatlon. — In the year 1902, new
regulations were sanctioned by the Emperor, with the purpose
of reforming the old system of public instruction avowedly
insufficient, and inadequate to the requirements of the present
day. In accordance with the same regulations, PeJMn^ :|{; ]jr
was to have a Vniveraity teaching the following branches : civil
administration, law, literature, science, agriculture, industry,
commerce and medicine. To the University were also to be
attached a Technical OoUeffe for teaching superior branches,
Facuiiies, a Preparatory Oourse, and a Special Department for
the training of officials and of teachers for government schools.

Subsequently another Imperial decree, dated September 2°'^
1905, abolished, beginning from the year 1906, the old-style
programme and method of examinations, as well as the annual
competitions in the Provinces for the obtaining of degrees.
The great power and wealth enjoyed by Western countries, the

368

SRCTION Vi POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEO&RAPHY.

assertive influence of Japan, the need of forming statesmen of
talent and ability, of giving the people substantial and practical
knowledge, and preparing them for a constitutional government,
determined China to take this step.

The neiit system comprises the study of the Chinese lan-
guage, Chinese literature and composition, the various modern
sciences, history and geography, foreign languages, gymnastics,
drill, and ih the higher grades political economy, civil and
international law.

The fdllowing is a short sketch of the various grades of Schools accofding to this
new system.

Grades of Schools.

Duration

of Course

Y«ar«.

1 — Primary or Elementary Schools

.■J

2 — Higher Primary Schools

4

3 - Middle Schools

5

i — High Schools

3

5 — University Course

3 or 4

6 — Technical College

5

Elementary Schools are to be opened ever3rwhere throughout the Empire.

Higher Primary in the District towns or Sub-prefectures.

Middle Schools in the Prefectural cities.

High Schools in every Provincial capital.

The University and Technical College are to be opened in Peking.

The study of foreign languages is generally not allowed in elementary schools,
but is confined to the Middle and High Schools. Englhh and Japanese are to be prin-
cipally studied, while French, German and Bussian are optional.

The University is to have eight Faculties, divided into 46 branches.

Degrrees In the New System. — The degrees to be conferred upon successful
candidates are as foUows.

On completing the Higher Primary Course

B.A.

„ the Middle Course

Distinguished B.A.

„ the High Course

M.A.

„ the University Course

L.L.D.

„ the Technical College Course

i T.C.L.L.D. or
h Doctor of the
( Technical College

CHAPTER II. EDUCATION. 369

Normal and Special Schools. — Besides the above-mentioned Scbobla, there
are also Lower and Higher Normal SchooU ; — Industrial ScJwols (agrioul,ture , and
manufactures) ; — and Commercial Schools. The Industrial Schools are divided into
three grades : lower, toiddle and higher.' The Normal Schools are devoted to the
training of teachers for the Industrial and Commercial Schools.

Moreover, there is to be at Peking a special course for the new L.L.D. graduates,
a preparatory department for the University (during the first years),, and a special
acKool for translating foreign works.

In future. Officials will be selected from amongst those who have received a
modern education. In Naval and Military Schools, Foreign Instructors are generallj'
employed. In the Government Schools of Chihli and Hupeh, the Foreign Teachers are
mostly Japanese.

The Government sends a large number of students abroad, especially to Great
Britain, the United-States, France, Germany and Belgium. Of late, many have found
their way to Japan. In July 1906, the number of them studying in the Universities
of this latter country attained 13,000, half of whom were maintained at Government
expense.

During the year 1906, the new system has been carried out with praiseworthy
efforts. Officialsjand gentry vied with each other in establishing Schools, elementary
and technical, but the pratical results are comparatively small. Lack of funds, and
especially of competent teachers, proves a great hindrance to real progress.

Administration of tbe Schools. — The administration of these Schools is to
be conducted as follows :

1° A Board of Education in Peking. This will be composed of High Literary
Officials. '

2° A Provincial Bureau, with a special Staff for each Province.

3° A Local Educational Bureau, to which will be admitted leading members of
the gentry of the place.

4° A Provincial Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees on
candidates from the Middle and High Schools.

5° A Metropolitan Examination Bureau, for examining and conferring degrees
on University candidates.

Primary education is granted free of cost, and is not compulsory. A tuition fee
is to be paid for all other grades, except in Normal Schools, where the expenses are
defrayed by the Government, but students must engage to teach during a period of six
years in the State Schools.

The programme and moral tone of the Government Schools are exclusively Con-
j.fcipianist, and the teaching of foreign religions is prohibited.

Private and Mission Schools. — Numerous private Schools have been
opened in the large towns and other important centres, by the local gentry, and by
leading merchants. Mission schools and colleges are also numerous throughout the coun-
try, Roman Catholic predominating. The Shanghai Catholic Mission has a University,
a College and Industrial School at Sicawei, 5 miles from Shanghai, and maintains, in and
around Shanghai, 50 other schools, with an attendance of 3,750 pupils. The Protestants
have Universities at Peking, Nanking, Shanghai and Sooohow, and several Colleges
and Schools throughout the Empire. — All these Schools offer opportunities for
general culture, and tend to develop an enlightened and useful citizen. Their aim is to

24

370

SRCTION v. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC QEOaRAFHY.

bring up "Young China" at home, and give a thorough literary, scientific and practical
education. Instruction is given in both Western and Chinese languages.

Old-Style Military Examinations. — These examinations comprised like
the civil ones three sessions. The first was awarded the title of Military B. A. or
Wu SiuWcd ^ ^ ^, the second that of Military M.A. or Wu KiijSn ^ ^ A>
and the third, that of Military L. L. D. or Wu Tsinshi ^ jg i. Little knowledge of
letters however was required of the candidate. To pass successfully, he was to be
above all a man of muscle, and show it in the lifting of heavy weights, swordmanship
and skill in archery.

The number of graduates was fixed for each Province. The aggregate for the
whole Empire was 963 military B.A. s. and 128 military L.L.D. s.

It was from the ranks of successful candidates that military officers were mostly
recruited. Having scarcely any knowledge of letters, of tactics, gunnery, engineering
or fortifications, they were generally little esteemed by the people.

The above old-style of examination is now abolished, and the New Army is
drilled, armed and disciplined in foreign style. Soldiering is becoming more respectable,
and every endeavour made to organize a national army (see above ; Army. p. 332-333).

References :

ON THE CHINESE PEOPLE.
OBIGIN, POPULATION, SOCIAL LIFE AND CHABACTEBISTICS.

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De Coarcy. — L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
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Iieroy-Beanlien P. — La Renovation
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Jemigan T. R. — China in Law and
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Tole H. — Cathay and the Way Thither.
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Doaglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
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Parker E. H. — China, Past and Present.
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De Oharames H. — Les Chinois pendant
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Wieger 1. — Textes historiques. Ho-kien
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Giles H. A. — Historic China and other
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Parker E. H. — China : Her History,
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(History. Ch. H. 15-40 ; Population. Ch.
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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
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Happer A. P. —The Population of China.
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Chinese Repository. — Population of the
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Dyer-Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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CHAPTER II. POPULATION.

371

Smith A. — Estimating the Population
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Parker E. H — Population and Revenue
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Chinese Repository. — Virtues and Vices
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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
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IJegendre D' A. F. — Deux Annies au
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Doolittle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
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Smith A. — Chinese Characteristics. New-
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Smith A. — Village Life in China. New-
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Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Parker E. H. — China : Her History, Di-
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Kranase A. — The Far East. London,
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Parker EH. — John Chinaman. London,
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Douglas Sir B. — Society in China.
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Edkins M™ J. — Chinese Scenes and
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Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese
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Holoomb. — The Real Chinaman,

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Cheng Kitung. — The Chinese painted
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Bard E. — Les Chinois chez eux, Paris,
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Conrant M. — En Chine ; Mceurs et Ins-
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lieboncq. — Les Associations en Chine.
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Pol Korigan. — Chinois et Chinoiseries.,
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Hoang P. — Le Mariage Chinois. Chang-
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Oobbold B. H. — Pictures of the Chinese
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Martins R. F. — Manners and Customs
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Le Oompte Ii. — Memoirs and Observa-
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Empire of China. London, 1697. (Of the
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Qualities. Letter V. p. 119-149. — Of the
particular Character of the Wit and
Temper of the Chinese. Letter VIII. p.
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Jones A.G. — Desultory Notes on Chinese
Etiquette. (Recorder. Shanghai, 1906).

ABOBieiNAL BAGE8 OF CHINA.

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Sifans, Lolos,

Miaotze. Vol. I. p. 22-34).
Grosier. — General Description of China.

London, 1795. (Sifans, Lolos, Miaotze.

Vol. I. Ch. V. p. 203-2221.
Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. (Tribes subjected

to the Chinese. Ch. IIL p. 144-148).
Vial P. — Les Lolos ; Histoire, Religion,

Mceurs, Langue, Ecriture. Chang-hai,

Vial P. — L'B sprit et le Cceur chez les

Lolos. (Annales des Missions-Etrangftres.

Paris, 1905. p. 129 sq.).
Deblenne. — Races de la Chine Meridio-

nale. (Mission Lyonnaise. Lyon, 1898.

p. 347-386).
Les Pan-y, les I-jen, lesTou-jen. (Missions

Catholiques, 1877-1878).
Crabouillet. — Les Lolos du Setch'ouan.

(Missions Cath. 1873. p. 71-72 ; 95-98 ;

105-107).

372

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOeRAPHY.

De Harlez. — L'Ethnographie du Midi

de la Chine.
Oavalerie. — Chez les Chony-kia. (An-

nales des MissionB-Etrangires. 1899. p.

101-107).
Les Miaotse at les Tchong-kia. — (Annales

des MissiouB-Etrangires. 1904. p. 332-

357).
Bona d'Anty. — Excursion dans le Pays

Chan Chinois. Chang-hai, 1900.
U6tard. — Les A-DjS et les Lou-Ou.

(Annales des Missions Etrangires. 190*.

p. 74 sq.).
M^moires oonoemant les Chinois. — (Tome

XIV. p. 127. Les Si-fan).
The Non-Ohinese Eaoes of Chinese. —

(Nature. 1888. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 345-

346).
Upcraft W. M. — The Wild men of Sze-

chw'an. (Recorder, Shanghai. Vol. XXIII-

475-478).
Kingsmill T. W. — The Aboriginal Tri-
bes on the S.W. Frontier of China.

(China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 103-109).
Parker E. H. — China: Her History,

Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.

(Mantze : Marco Polo's Manzi. Ch. IX.

p. 187. — Shans of Yiinnan. Ch. VI. p.

129).
Parker E. H. — Lolos. (China Review.
Vol. XVIII. p. 55).

Playfair 6. H. — The Miaotze of Kwei-
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names of 42 Sub-tribes. The Chinese
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Olark G. W. — Kweichow and Yunnan
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156. — The Minkia vocabulary, p. 293).

Olark 6. W. — The Aboriginal Tribes
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Olark S. R. — The Miao and Chungkia
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Bridgman E. O. — Sketches of the Miao-
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Williams S. W.— Notices of the Miaotze.
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Lookhart W. — On the Miaotze or Abori-
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185).

Graves R. H. — The Miaotze. (Recorder.

Vol. III. p. 265-267).
Edkins J. — History of the Miaotze Tri-
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— Vocabulary of the Miao Dialects, ibid,
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The Miaotze. — Recorder. Vol. X. p. 385-

387.
The Miaotze of Szechw'an. — Recorder.

Vol. XXIII. p. 475-478.
Henry A. — The Lolos of Western China.

Part L p. 96-107).
Baber E. O. — A Journey of Exploration
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126-127. — Ijen and Mantze. p. 119-123).
Hosie A. — Three Years in W. China. Lon-
don, 1890. (Miaotze Houses and Women.
Ch. III. 38-40. — In the country of the
Lolos. Ch. VI. p. 102-111.— Lolo and Sifan
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language. Ch. XIII. p. 224-233).
Betts G. E. — Social Life of the Miaotze.
(N. C. B. E. A. Soc. 1900. Vol. XXXIII.
p. 84-104).
The Miaotze of Canton. — Chinese Repo-
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Maego^van J. — Notes on the CheUang
Miaotze. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc. 1869. p. 123-
128).
The Aboriginal Tribes of S. W. China, in
the time of the Han Dynasty. B. C. 140-
186. — China Review. (Vol XXV. p. 103-

109).
Gaide. — Notice Ethnographique sur les
principales races indigenes de la Chine
m^ridionale. 1902.
The old Thai or Shan Empire of Western
Yiinnan. — China Review. Vol. XX. p.
337-346.
Woodthorpe R. G. —The Country of the
Shans or Tai. (Geogr. Journal. 1896. Vol.
VII. p. 557-602).
Oarey F. W. — Journeys in the Chinese
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XV. p. 486-516).
Oolquhoun A. R. — Amongst the Shans.

London, 1885.
Elias N. — Introductory Sketch of the
History of the Shans in Western Yiin-
nan. Calcutta, 1876.

CHAPTER II.

LAN6UA0BS.

373

M" Mahon A. R. — Par Cathay and Fur-
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Ch. VII. p. 161-176. — Chino-Burmese
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Eltel E. J. — An outline History of the
Hakkas. (China Eeview. Vol. II. p. 160-
164).

Eitel E. J. — Notea and Queries on China
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Eitel E. J. — Customs of the Hakkas.
(Hongkong Daily Press. 1886).

Eitel E. J. — Ethnographical Sketches of
the Hakka Chinese. (China Eeview. Vol.
XX. p. 263-267).

I>iton O. — On the Origin and History of
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Parker E.H. — Syllabary of the Hakka
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217).

Dyer Ball 3. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Hakkas. p. 323-326.— Hokloa. p. 346-347).
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Hongkong, 1881.
Jeremiaasen 0.0. — Loi Aborigines of

Hainan and their Speech. (China Re-
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Gilman F. G. — The Languages and

Dialects of N. and W. Hainan. (China

Review. Vol. XX. p. 128).
Gilman F.G. — The Aborigines of Hainan.

(China Review. Vol. XXV. p. 2-17-251).
S^v^inhoe R. — The Aborigines of Hainan.

(N. 0. B. R. A. Soc. 1871. p. 25-40).
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Vol. III. p. 46-50\
Taylor G. — Aborigines of Formosa.

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194-198; 285-290).
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TnE CHINESE LANGUAGE.
CBABACTEBS, BOOK STYLE AND LITEBATUBE, MANDABIN.

Paathier. — Ecritures Figuratives Chi-
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Lettre de P6kin aur le gSnie de la Langue
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De Humboldt. — Le genie de la Langue
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Memoires concemant les Chinois. Paris,
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CaraotJres Chinois. ibid. p. 275-322. —
Essai sur I'Ecriture des Chinois. Vol.
VIII. p. 112-132. — Essai sur la Langue
et les Caractires des Chinois. ibid. p.
133-266. Vol. IX. p. 282-345. — De in-
vention et de I'origine des Caract^res.
ibid. p. 354-363. — M^taphysique gram-
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Edkins 3. — State of the Chinese Langua-
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Edkins J. — The Chinese old Language.
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Edkins J. — Evolution of the Chinese

Language. (China Review. Vol. XV. p.

243-244).
Edkins 3. — Introduction to the study of

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Edkins J. — China's place in Philology.

London, 1871.
Parker E.H. — The ancient Language of

China. (Recorder. Vol. XVI. p. 161-174.

— The Chinese Language, ibid. Vol. XV.

p. 151-164).
The Six Modes of Development of the Chi-

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XVI. p. 10-18).
Watters. T. — Essays on the Chinese

Language. Shanghai, 1889.
Lay G.T.— A new Analysis of the Chinese

Language. London, 1811.
Franke O. — China and comparative

Philology. (China Review. Vol. XX. p.

310-327).
Sirr H. O. — China and the Chinese.

London, 1849. (Written Characters of the

Chinese. Vol. II. Ch. V. p. 59-65).
Bridgman and Morrison.— The Chinese

written Language. (Chinese Repository.

Vol. III. p. 1-37).

374-

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND. ECONOMIC aEOaRAPHT.

Chinese' System of Writing. — Chinese Re-
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Primitives and Pormatives in the Chinese
Language. — Chinese Repository.. (Vol.
IX. p. 587-616).

Meado'ws T.— Desultory Notes on China
and the Chinese Language. London, 1847.

ehalmers J. — The Structure of Chinese
Characters. London, 1882.

Williams. — Syllabic Dictionary of the
Chinese Language. Shanghai. (Radicals
a;ndPriinitives.Introduotion.Section7-8).

Remarks on the Grammatical Constitution

i of Chinese. — China Review. (Vol. VIII.
p. 347-359; 518-630. - Vol. IX. p. 3-9-334.

— Vol. X. p. 222-231).

Notices on Chinese Grammar. — China
Review. (Vol. XI. p. 317-322).

Notes on Chinese Grammar. ^ China Re-
view. <Vol. V. p. 282-286; 386-392. — Vol.
VI. p. 107-115. — Vol. VII. p. 120-124. —
Vol. VIII. p. 157).

A new Analysis of the Chinese Language.

— China Review (Vol. VII. p. 255-264).
Recent Researches upon ancient Chinese

Roots.— China Review.(Vol. XXII. p. 565-
5701.

Primitive Roots. — China Review. (Vol.
XXIII. p. 167-170).

The Roots of Language as judged by Chi-
nese. — China Review. (Vol. XXIII. p.
277-280).

Williams. — Syllabic Dictionary of the
Chinese Language. (Old Sounds of the
Chinese Characters. Introduction).

Parker E. H. — Philological Essay on
the Chinese Language. (Giles Chinese-
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Volpicelli. — Chmese Phonology. Shang-
hai, 1896.

Mdllendorf. — Classification of the Chi-
nese Dialects. Shanghai, 1896.

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Antiquity and origin of the
Characters. — Structure of the Chinese
Language. — Dialects. — Defects of the
Language. — Vol. I. Ch. X. p. 458-501).

The History of Chinese Literature. — Chi-
nese Repository. (Vol. XV. p. 90-96).

Language and Literature of China. — Chi-
na Review. (Vol. IV. p. 301-300).

Maclay B. H. — r The Classic Literature
of the Chinese. (Recorder. Vol. IX. p.
352-359). , . . . .

Leainan O.— The Book Language. (Recor-
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Giles H. A. — Chinese Literature. London,
1901.

GutzlafT O. — The Chinese^Classics.
(Chinese Repository. Vol. III. p. 97-
107).

Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
(The LanguEige and Literature of China.
Ch. XVIII. XIX. p. 330-400.

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
(Language and Literature of China. Vol.
II. Ch. I. p. 13-123).

Winterbotbam. — View of China. Lon-
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IX. p. 401-435).

Le Compte L. — Journey through China.
London, 1697. (Of the Language and
Books of the Chinese. Letter VII).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1844. (Language and liiterature. Vol. II.
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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
Tork, 1861. (Classical Literature of the
Chinese. Vol. I. Ch. XI. p. 502-541).

De Oourey. — L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
1867. (De la Langue. Liv. IV. Ch. I. p.
333-347).

Hager J. — An Explanation of the Ele-
mentary Character of the Chinese, with
an Analysis of their Ancient Symbols
and Hieroglyphics. London, 1801.

Eden O. H. — China, Historical and De-
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Poetry of the Chinese. Ch. XVI.- XVII.
p. 203-228|.

Davis Sir J. F. — Poetry of the Chinese.
Macao, 1834.

Douglas Sir R. — The Chinese Language
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Marsbam J. — Dissertation on the Char-
acters and Sounds of the Chinese Lang-
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Pantbier. — Les Quatre Livres. Paris,
1846.

Pautbier. — La Grande fitude. Paris,
1837.

De Gnignes. — Le Chou-Kng. Paris,
1770.

Pantbier. — Chl-Mng, on Livre des Vers.
Paris, 1872.

Gallery J. M. — Li-M, ou Memorial des
Rites. Paris, 1853, . ^. . :._;

CHAPTER II. LANGUA&ES.

375

Be Harlez O. — Le Yih-king. Paris, 1890.
Biot. — Le Toheou-i. Paris, 1857.
Hayers 'W. F. — The Chinese Header's

Manual. Shanghai, 1874.
Shu-Mng, or Book of Eecords. — Chinese

Repository. (Vol. VIII. p. 385-400).
Ta-hio ou La Grande Science. — MSmoires

conoemant les Chinois. Vol. I. p. 436-457.
Chung-young. — ibid. Vol. I. p. 459-497.
lieggre J. — The Chinese Classics with

critical and ezegetical Notes. 2'"i Edit.

7 Vol. Oxford, 1893.
Iiesge J. — The Li-ki. (Sacred Books of

the East, edited by Max MiiUer. Oxford,

1885).
liCgge J. — The Ylking. (Sacred Books

of the East. Oxford, 1882).
liCgge J. — lite and Teachings of Con-
fucius. London, 1872.
Ijegge J. — Life and Works of Mencius.

London, 1875.
Mac Olatcbie. — The Yih-king, or Classic

of Change. Shanghai, 1876.
Jenmngs W. — The Shi-king, or old

Poetry Classic of the Chinese. Loudon,

1891.
Allen F. R. — The Chinese Book of Odes

for English Readers.(Jonrnal N.C.B.R.A.

Soo. 1884. Vol. XVI. p. 453-478).
Giles H. A. — Chinese Poetry in English

Verse. (Nineteenth Century. 1894. Vol.

XXXV. p. 45-125).
Zottoli A. — Cnrsus Litteraturse Sinicsa. 5

Vol. Chang-hai. "Catholic Press", 1879 aq.
Convrenr V. S. — Lea Quatre Livres. —

Le Chou-king. — Le Li-ki. — Le Che-
king. Ho-kien fon, Tche-li. 1895-1897.
OouvrearF. S. — Choix de Documents.

4= Edition, 1906.
Faber K. — The Mind of Mencius. Shang-
hai, 1897.
Wieger 1. — Rudiments de Parler et de

Style Chinois. 12 Vol. Ho-kien fou, Tche-

n. 1895-1907.
Oimazy Me'. — ReoueU d'expressions et

de phrases choisies du Style Chinois

ecrit. Hong-kong, 1894.
Tissi^re. — Rudiments de la Langue

Chinoise. Paris, 1904.
Boncher Ii. — Boussole du Langage Man-
darin. 4« Edition. Chang-hai, 1906.
Edkins J. — A Grammar of the Mandarin

Dialect. Shanghai, 1804.
Edkina J. — Progressive Lessons in the

Chinese spoken Language.Shanghai,1862.
Bailer F. W. — Mandarin Primer. (Pre-
pared for the China Inland Mission).
Shanghai, 1891.
Hirth. — Notes on the Chinese Documen-
tary Style. Leipzig, 1888.
Wade Sir T. F, — Tsu ifilrh Chi : A Pro-
gressive Course of Colloquial Chinese as

spoken in the Capital. 3 Vol. Shanghai,
1886.
Hopkins 1. O. — Guide to Kuan Hua

(Mandarin). Shanghai, 1889.
Rocber L. — Manuel pratique de la Lan-
gue Chinoise vulgaire. Paris, 1846.
Bazin M. A. — Grammaire Mandarine.

Paris, 1856.
RSmasat. — Elements de la Grammaire

Chinoise. (Priucipes generaux du Style

Antique et de la Langue Mandarine).

Paris, 1822.
Piry A. T. — Manuel de la Langue Man-
darine. Shanghai, 1895.
Michels. — Manuel de la Langue Chinoise

ferite. Paris, 1888.
Oouvreur F. S. — Guide to Conversation

in French, English and Chinese. Ho-Men

fou, Tohe-li. 7« Mition. 1906.
Mateer O. AV. — Mandarin Lessons. 2

Vol. Shanghai, 1904.
The Chinese oral Language. — Chinese

Repository. Vol. III. p. 480-485.
The Chinese spoken Language. — Chinese

Repository. Vol. XII. p. 582-604.
Edkins J. — The Mandarin, a modern

form of Speech. China Review. (Vol.

XXI. p. 203-204).
Forke A. — Comparative Studies of Nor-
thern Chinese Dialects. China Review.

(Vol. XXI. p. 181-203).
Convreur F. S. — Dictionnaire Chiuois-

Pranfais. Ho-kien fou, 1890.
Convreur F. S. — Dictionnaire Classique

de la Langue Chinoise.Ho-kien fou, 1904.
Debesse. — Petit Dictionnaire Franf ais-

Chinois, Chang-hai, 1907. — Chinois Pran-

Saia, 1906.
Gazteln. — Petit Dictionnaire Prangais-

Chinois (Mandarin du S. 0.). Hongkong,

1900.
Dictionnaire Chinois-Pranfais. — (Mis-

sionnaires du Se-toh'ouan Meridional.

Hongkong, 1893).
Doolittle J. — Vocabulary and Handbook

of the Chinese Language. Poochow, 1872.

376

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHY.

Morrison R. — Dictionary of the Chinese
Language. 3 Vol. Macao, 1815-1823.

MedhurstW. B. — Chinese and English
Dictionary. Batavia, 1843. — English
and Chinese Dictionary. Shanghai, 1848.

Stent G. — Chinese and English Pocket
Dictionary. Shanghai, 1874.

Stent G. — Chinese and English Vooahu-
lary in the Pekingese Dialect. Shanghai,
1904.

Sootbill W. E. — The Student's Pocket
Dictionary. Shanghai, 1904.

Goodrich O. — PooketDiotionary (Chinese-
English) and Pekingese Syllabary. Shang-
hai, 1904.

Foster M" A. — An English and Chinese
Dictionary in the Mandarin Dialect.
Shanghai, 1903.

Bailer F. W. — Analytical Chinese-
English Dictionary. Shanghai, 1900.

Poletti P. — A Chinese and English Dic-
tionary, arranged according to the Badi-
oals and Sub-radicals. Shanghai, 1897.

Petit Diotionnaire Chinois-Fran^ais-Ang-
lais. — P6kin, 1906. (Lazarist Mission
Press).

English and Chinese Pronouncing Pocket
Dictionary. — Commercial Press. Shang-
hai, 1904.

lUacGillivray. — Mandarin-Romanized
Dictionary. Shanghai, 1905.

Williams. — Syllabic Dictionary of the
Chinese Language. S** Edit. Shanghai,
1904.

Giles H. A. — .A Chinese-English Dictio-
nary. 3 Vol. London, 1892.

DIALECTS IN GENERAL.

Williams. — The Mandarin Dialect as
exhibited in the Wu-Fang Yuen Yin.
(Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese
Language. S"" Edit. Shanghai, 1904.
Introduction).

Williams.— Range-of Dialects. (Syllabic
Dictionary. Introduction. Section VI).

Edkins J. — The Mandarin, a modern
form of Speech. (China Review. Vol.
XXI. p. 203-205).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Dialects, p. 202-211).

Forke A. — Comparative studies of Nor-
thern Chinese Dialects. (China Review.
Vol. XXI. p. 181-203).

The old Language of China. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XXII. p. 596-598).

Recent Researches upon ancient Chinese
Sounds. — China Review. (Vol. XXII.
p. 565-570).

Parker E. H. — Chinese Dialects. (Giles
Chinese-Eng. Dictionary. Philological
Essay. — The Separate Dialects, ibid.).

CANTONESE DIALECT.

Anbazac. — Diotionnaire Pran^ais-Can-

tonnais. Hongkong, 1902.
Dennys N. B. — Handbook of Cantonese.

Hongkong, 1874.
Dyer Ball J. — Cantonese made easy.

— How to speak Cantonese. i- Readings

in Cantonese Colloquial. Hongkong.
Lobscheid W. — Select Phrases in the

Cantonese Dialect. Hongkong, 1864.

Eitel E. J. — A Chinese Dictionary in the
Cantonese Dialect. Hongkong, 1877.

Chalmers J. — English-Cantonese Dic-
tionary. Hongkong, 1878.

Williams. — A Tonic Dictionary of the
Chinese Language in the Canton Dialect.
Canton, 1856.

SWATOW DIALECT.

Ashmore W. — Primary Lessons in

Swatow Grammar.
Giles H. A. — Handbook of the Swatow

Vernacular Dialect.
I/im. ■— Handbook of the Swatow.
Duffus W.— English-Chinese Vocabulary

of the Vernacular or spoken Language of
Swatow.
Fielde A. M. — A Pronouncing and De-
fining Dictionary of the Swatow Dialect.
Shanghai, 1883.

CHAPTER II. LANGUAGES.

BAKKA DIALECT.

377

Rey. — Diotionnaiie Hao-ka-Pran^ais.
Dyer Ball J. — Hakka made easy. —

Easy Sentences iu the Hakka Dialect,

with a Vocabulary.

Mnclver D. — Hakka-English Dictionary.
Shanghai. Presbyterian Mission Press,
1906.

AMOY DIALECT.

Maogo^^'an 3. — Manual of the Amoy
Dialect.

MacgoTvan J. — English-Chinese Dic-
tionary in the Amoy Dialect.

Oarstairs-Douglas. — Chinese-English

Dictionary of the Vernacular or spoken
Language of Amoy, with the principal
variations of the Chang Chew and Chin
Chew Dialects.

FOOCEOW DIALECT.

Maclay. — Manual of the Foochow Dia- I Maclay and Baldwin.— Chinese-English
leot. ' Dictionary in the Foochow Dialect.

WilNGBOW AND NINGFO DIALECTS.

Parker E. H. — The WSnohow Dialect.

(China Eeview. Vol. XII. p. 162-175).
Montgomery P. — Introduction to the

WSnohow Dialect. Shanghai, 1893.

Parker E. H. — The Ningpo Dialect.

(China Review. Vol. XIII. p. 138-149).
Morrison R.— Anglo-Chinese Vocabulary

of the Ningpo Dialect. Shanghai, 1876.

SHANGHAI DIALECT.

Edkins J. — Grammar of the Shanghai

Dialect. Shanghai, 1853.
Edkins J. — Vocabulary of the Shanghai

Dialect. Shanghai, 1869.
MaogoTvan J. — A Collection of Phrases

in the Shanghai Dialect. Shanghai, 1862.
Macintosh G. — Useful Phrases in the

Shanghai Dialect. Shanghai, 1906.
Ila-wks-Pott F. li. — Lessons in the

Shanghai Dialect. Shanghai, 1907.

Ratmuln P. — Dictionnaire Fran^ais-Chi-
nois (Dialecte de Chang-hai, Song-kiang
etc). Chang-hai, 1894.

Petition 0. — Petit Dictionnaire Fran^ais-
Chinois (Dialecte de Chang-hai). Chang-
hai, 1905.

Silsby J. A. — Shanghai Vernacular Chi-
nese-English Dictionary. Shanghai, 1900.

RELIGIONS OF CHINA.
GENEBALITIES.

De Harlez O. — Les Beligions de la Chi-
ne. Leipzig, 1891.

R^ville A. — La Religion Chinoise.

Godard. — Les Croyances Chinoises et Ja-
ponaises. Paris, 1901.

Medhurst W. H. — China, its State and
Prospects. London, 1838. (Religions of
China. Ch. VIII. p. 181-219).

Gntzlair O. —China opened. London, 1838,
(Religion. Vol. II. Ch. XV. p. 183-247).

Sirr H. O. — China and the Chinese. Lon
don, 1849. (Religion of the Chinese. Vol
II. Ch. VIII. p. 145-174).

Willinms, — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Religion of the Chinese. Vol
II. Ch. XVIII.).

378

SECTION T. POLITICAL AKS ECONOMIC aEOftRAPHY.

De Groot J. J. M.— The Religious System
of China. 1 Vol. Leyden and Amsterdam,
1894-1904.

De Groot J. J. M. — Sectarianism and
Eeligioiis Persecntion in China. 2 Vol.
Amsterdam, 1903-1904.

De Courcy.— L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
1867. (Doctrines religieuses. Ijvre II. Ch.
II. p. 218-276).

Antoaini P. — An Pays de Chine. Paris.
(Croyauces des Chinois. Ch. II. p. 63-
158).

Gainet. — Etude sur la Chine. Besan;on,
1881. (Religion des Chinois. Ch. XV. p.
326-348).

Bonacosa A. — La Chine et les Chinois.
Paris, 1847. (Religions. Ch. HI. p. 36-60).

Gennevoise F. — Souvenirs de Chine. Pa-
ris, 1874. (Diverses religions. Ch. III. p.
20-42).

Bard K. — Les Chinois Chez eux. Paris,
1900. (Les Religions. Ch. VII. p. 65-85).

D'Ollone. — La Chine Novatrice et Guer-
riSre. Paris, 1906. (La Chine religieuse.
p. 69-151).

Bnoyclopoedia Britannioa. — China. (Re-
ligion).

Marray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
(Religions of China. Vol. II. Ch. II. p.
124-159).

Eden O. H. — China, historic and descrip-
tive. London, 1877. (The Religions of
China. Ch. X. p. 126-137).

Oolbertson M. S.— Darkness in the Flow-
ery Land. New- York, 1857.

Nevias J. — China and the Chinese. New-

York. 1869. (The Religious of China. Ch. '
VI.)

Edlcins J. — Religions in China. London,
1878.

legge 3. — The Religions of China. Lon-
don, 1880.

Faber E. — Science of the Chinese Reli-
gions. Shanghai.

Hampden Dubose H. O.— Dragon, Image
and Demon. New-Tork, 1887.

Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
(The Religions of China. Ch. XVIII. p.
306-329).

Douglas Sir B. — Society in China. Lon-
don, 1895. (The Religions of China. Ch.
XXVI. p. 394-415).

Edkins J. — Early Spread of Religious
Ideas.

O-rren G. — The Religions of China. (Re-
corder. Vol. XXI. p. 84-87).

The Religions of the Chinese. — Recorder.
(Vol. XVI. p. 203-207).

Martin 'W. — Essay on the History, Phi-
losophy, and Religion of the Chinese.
T'ientsin, 1894.

Stanley Smith P. —China from Within.
London, 1901. (Religion in China. Ch. XII.
p. 172-189).

Comaby W. A. —China under the Search-
light. London, 1901. (The Three Reli-
gions. Ch. IX).

Parker E. B. — China Past and Present.
London, 1905. (The Religions of the Chi-
nese. Book III. p. 80-127).

Parker E. H. — China and Religion. Lon-
don, 1905.

STATE RELIGION.

WOBSSIP OF HEAVEN AND EABTH. — OF DEIFIED NATUBE. —
ANCEST0B8.

Du Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (Religion of the
Ancient Chinese. Vol. I. p. 639-648).

Winterbotham. — ^View of Chiha. London,
1795. (The Ancient Religion of China.
Ch. VII. p. 318-331).

Montgomery Martin B. — China, Poli-
tical, Commercial an"* Social. London,
1847. (State Religion f China. Vol. I.
Ch. II. p. 63-64).

Daryl P.— Le monde C is. Paris, 18 8 5.

(Philosophic et Religions. Ch. XI. 141-

166).
Bard E. — Les Chinois ohez eux, Paris,

1900. (Le Culte des AnoStris. Ch. VI. p.

56-64).
D'Ollone. — La Chine Novatriee et Guer-

riire. Paris, 1906. (Religion Primitive.

p. 91-95. — Le Culte des Ancfetres. p.

100-102).
Pauthier. — Sur le MonothMsme des Chi-
nois. Paris, 1861.

CHAPTBR II. RELIGIONS.

379

de Harlez O. — La Religion et les C^r6-
mouies Imp^riales de la Chine Moderne.

Doolittle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
New-York, 1867. (The State Religion.
Vol. I. Ch. XIV).

Gutzlair O. — China opened. London,
1838. (Religion of State — Fantheism.
Ch. XV. p. 186-209).

Medhurst W.H. — A Dissertation on the
Theology of the Chinese. Shanghai, 1847.

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Character and Object of Wor-
ship in the State Religion. — Nature Wor-
ship. — Official Worship required of all
Magistrates. Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 233-
236. —Ancestor Worship, ibid. p. 262-275).

Iiegge J. — The Notions of the Chinese
concerning 6od and Spirits. Shanghai,
1S53.

The State Religion of China. — Recorder.
(Vol. III. p. 49-53).

The State Religion of China. — Recorder.
(Vol. XII. p. 149-192; 302-306).

Religionof the Chinese — Notions respecting
theSupreme Being. — Chinese Repository.
(Vol. IV. p. 271-276).

Remarks on the Philosophy of the Chinese. —
Chinese Repository. (Vol.XVIII.p. 43-48).

Douglas Sir R. — China, Loudon, 1882.
(Primitive Religion. Ch. XVII. p. 305-
311).

Babylonian Origin of Chinese Astronomy.

— China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 90-95).
Astrology in Ancient China. — China Re-
view. (Vol. XIV. p. 345-351).

Ourzon G.N.— Problems of the far East.
. London, 1S96. (The Temple of Heaven.

Annual Sacrifice. Ch. VIII. p. 244-256).
Stanley Smith P. — China from Within.

London, 1901. (China's State Religion.

Ch. XIII. p. 192-198).
Oornaby W. H. —The Supreme as recog-
nized in Ancient China. (Recorder. Vol.

XXXV. p. 5-18).
Gainet. — Etude sur la Chine. Besan^on,

1881. (Du Culte des Anciens Chinois.

Ch. XVII. p. 377-408).
Worship of Ancestors among the Chinese.

— Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIII. p.
368-384).

Gundry R. S. — China, Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Ancestor Worship. Chi
XII. p. 263-289).

De Groot J. M. J. —The religious System
of China. Leyden, 1894. (The Burial of
the Dead. — The Soul and Ancestral
Worship).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Ancestral Worship, p. 30-34).

Parker E. H. —China and Religion. Lon-
don, 1905. (China's Primitive Religion.

— Nature Worship. Ch. I. p. 17-31).

G0NFUGIANI8M.

Caron P. — Confucius ; sa Vie et sa Doc-
trine. Paris, 1902.

Amiot. — M^moires concernant les Chi-
nois. Paris, 1 786. (Vie de Confucius, avec
24 estampes reprfeentant les diffirentes
circonstances de sa vie et I'arbre gSnSa-
logique de sa maison).

De Harlez. — La Religions et les Cere-
monies Imperiales de la Chine Moderne.
(Culte de Confucius, p. 370-408).

GeonevDise F. — Confucius : Essai Histo-
rique. Paris, 1874.

le Gall S. — Tchou-hi, sa doctrine, son
influence. Chang-hai, 1894.

Sketch of the Life of Confucius. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. XI. p. 411-425).

Genealogy of Confucius. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. XVIII. p. 254-259; 393-399).

Life and Times of Confucius. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. XVUI. p. 337-342).

Parker E. H. — Life, Labours and Doc-
trines of Confucius. (Asiatic Quarterly
Review. April, 1897).

Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New-
York, 1896. (Pilgrimage to the Tomb of
Confucius.— Outline of Confucianism.—
State ReUgiou. — The 3 Creeds blended.
Part II. Ch. V. p. 280-292).

Stanley O. A. — The Tomb of Confucius.
(East of Asia Magazine, Shanghai. Vol.
IV. p. 301-309).

Grosier — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Religion of the Chinese.
Vol. II. Book VI. p. 161-251).

Nevins J. —China and the Chinese. New-
York, 1869. (Confucius and Confucianism.
Ch. III).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (The Ju-kiao or Sect of the
Learned. Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 236-242).

380

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOaRAPHT.

Donglas Sir R. — Confucianism and

Taoism. London, 1879.
Faber E. — Systematic Digest of the Doc-
trines of Confucius. Hongkong, 1875.
Von der Gabelentz G. — Confucius and

his Teaching. (China Review. Vol. XVII.

p. 61-83).
Faber E. — Confucianism. (Recorder. Vol.

XXXIII. p. 159-175).
The Systems of Buddha and Confucius

compared.— Chinese Eepository. (Vol.11.

p. 265-270).
Eitel E. J.— Confucianism. (China Ke-view.

Vol. I. p. 260-266).
Eitel E. J. — Chinese Philosophy before

Confucius. (China Review. Vol. VII. p.

388-392).
Legge 3. — The Life and Teachings of

Confucius. London, 1872.
Iiegge J.— Christianity and Confucianism

compared. Shanghai.
liOgge J. — Iniperial Confucianism. 4

lectures. (China Review. Vol. VI. p. 147-

158 etc.).
Kranz P. — Legge's Criticism on Confu-
cianism. (Recorder. Vol. XXIX. p. 279-

282 etc.).
Kranz P. — Confucianism and Christ, not

enemies but friends. (East of Asia Maga-
zine. Vol. I. p. 31-42).
Faber E. — Notes on Taoism and Confu-
cianism. (Recorder. Vol. XXXIII. p. 271-

276).
Alexander G. — Confucius the Great

Teacher.
Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.

(Confucianism. Ch. XVII. p. 306-312).
Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,

1844. (Confucianism. Vol. II. Ch. XIII.

p. 126-158).
Forbes F. E. — Five Years in China.

London, 1848. (Confucius. Ch. VII. p.

115-129).
Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Confucius and Confucianism.

p. 178-180).
Monle A. E. — Confucius. (East of Asia

Magazine. Shanghai. Vol. III. p. 128-

136).
Odontius Ii. — Plato and Confucius. (East

of Asia Magazine. Vol. II. p. 119-131).
Ware J. — Confucius and Menoius. (East

of Asia Magazine. Vol. II p. 201-209).

The Worship of Confucius. — Chinese Re-
pository. Vol. I. p. 502).

Confucius. — Chinese Repository. Vol. X.
p. 614-616.

Watters T. — Guide to the Tablets in a
Temple of Confucius. Shanghai, 1879.

Mac Olatcbie T. — Confucian Cosmogony
from Choo Footsze. Shanghai, 1874.

Hart V. O. — The Temple and the Sage.
Toronto, 1891.

Chinese Cosmogony from Chuhsi. — Chinese
Repository. Vol. XVIII. p. 343-347.

Astronomy of the Shu-king. — Chinese
Repository. Vol. IX. p. 573-586.

Chalmers J. — Chinese Natural Theo-
logy. (China Review. Vol. V. p. 271-281).

Chalmers J.— Chinese early Mythology.
(China Review. Vol. XIII. p. 406-419;
XIV. p. 33-36).

Eitel E. J. — Ancient Chinese Philosophy.
(ChinaReview. Vol.XV.p. 338-344; XVII.
p. 26-35).

Essay on the Terms : " Nature, Heart,
Breath or Vapour, WiU or Intention." —
Recorder. (Vol. XII. p. 96-101).

Chaloner Alabaster. — Doctrine of the
Chi. (China Review. Vol. XVIII. p. 299-
307).

Shemeld D. — A Discussion of the Con-
fucian Doctrine concerning Man's Na-
ture. (Recorder. Vol. IX. p. 11-23).

Balfour F. H. —The Principle of Nature.
(China Review. Vol. IX. p. 281-297).

Mac Clatchie T. — Confucian Theology ;
God. Shanghai, 1877.

Blodget H. — The Use of T'ien-shu for
God. Shanghai, 1893.

Comaby W. A.— China under the Search-
light. London, 1901. (The Gospel and
Confucian Ethics. Ch. VII).

Decay of Confucianism. — North-China
Herald. 1903. part I. p. 726.

Parker E.H. — China and Religion. Lon-
don, 1905. (Confucianism. Ch. III. p. 51-
71).

Legge J. — The Life and Worts of Men-
cius. London, 1875.

Biographical Notice of Mencius. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. X. p. 320-328).

Faber E. — The Mind of Mencius. Shang-
hai, 1897.

Menoius on Human Nature. — Recorder.
(Vol. XXIX. p. 123-130 ; 169-174).

CHAPTER II. RELI&IONS.

381

TAOISM.

De Rosny h. — Le Taoism. Paris, 1892.

Julien S. — Le Livre de la Voie et de la
Vertu. Paris, 18-12.

Panthier. — Memoirs sur I'origine et la
propagation de la doctrine de Tao. Paris,
1831.

Von der Gabelentz G. — Life of Laotze.
China Review. (Vol. XVIII. p. 189-198).

Du Halde. — Description of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1738. (Taoism. Vol. I.
p. 648-650).

Winterbotham. — View of China. Lon-
don, 1795. (Taoism, p. 332-337).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1844. (Taoism. Vol. II. Ch. XV. p. 190-208).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (The Sect of Tao or Ratio-
nalists. Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 2-12-248).

Peisson Z. — Histoire des Religions de
I'ExtrSme Orient. Amieos, 1888. (Laotseu
et le Taoisme).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Taoism and its Founder,
p. 671-681).

Critical Notice of Laotze. — China Review.
(Vol. XVI. p. 195).

Eitel K. J. — Taoism. China Review. (Vol.
(L p. 209-220).

Historical Characteristics of Taoism.— Chi-
na Review. (Vol. XIII. p. 231-247).

Hwangti in Early Taoism. — China Review.
(Vol. XV. p. 233-239).

Faber E. — Notes on Taoism and Confu-
cianism. (Recorder. Vol. XXXIII. p. 271-
276).

James H. — Taoism. (Recorder. Vol.
XXVIII. p. 584-587)

Edliins J. — Steps in the Growth of early
Taoism. (Recorder. Vol. XV. p. 176-191.

— Taoism in the Ts'in and Han Dynas-
ties, ibid. p. 335-360).

Mears W, p. _ Philosophy, Ethics and
Religion of Taoism. (China Review. Vol
XIX. p. 225-242).

Balfour F. H. — Taoist Texts. Shanghai
1884. '

Leg'Se J. — The Taoteh King and its
Characteristics. (Sacred Boots of the
East. Oxford, 1891. Vol. XXXIX p 4.5-
163).

Legge J.— The Texts of Taoism. Oxford
1891.

Parker E. H. - China and Religion.
London, 1905. (Taoism. Ch. II. p. 32-50).

Parker E. H. — The Taoteh King or
Classic of the Correct Way. (China and
Religion. Appendix).

Douglas Sir B. — Confucianism and
Taoism. London, 1879.

Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New-
York, 1896. (Taoism. Ch. VL p. 102-106).

Similarity between Buddhism and early
Taoism. — China^Review. (Vol. XV p
96-99).

Giles H. A. — The Remains of Laotze.
China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 231-280-
323-333).

Balfour F. H. — The Works of Chuang-
tze, Taoist Philosopher. Shanghai, 1881.

Douglas Sir R. — Society in China. Lon-
don, 1895. (Taoism, p. 402-408).

Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
(Taoism. Ch. XVII. p. 311-318).

I«gge J. —The Religions of China. Lon-
don, 1880. (Taoism. Ch. III. p. 157-230).

Comaby W. — Laotze Redivivus. Re-
corder, 1906. (Vol. XXXVIX. p. 67-74
124-131).

BUDDHISM.

Lamairesse. — Le Bonddhisme en Chine
et au Japon. Paris, 1893.

Oldenberg. — Le Bouddha. Paris, 1894.

de la Valine Poussin. — Bonddhisme :
Etudes et Mat^riaux. Eondres, 1898.

History of Buddhism. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XIV. p. 423-435).

Du Halde. — Description of the Chinese
Empire. Loudon, 1738. (Buddhism, Vol.

I. p. 650-657).

Winterbotham. — View of China. Lon-
don, 1795. Buddhism, p. 337-357.

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1844. Buddhism. (Vol. II. Ch. XIV. p.
159-189).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (The Sect of Fuh or the Bud-
dhists. Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 249-258).

382

SECTION Y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOftRAPHT.

Nevins J. — China and the Chinese. New-
York, 1869. (Buddhism and Taoism. Ch.
VII. and X.).

Dablmann. — Buddha. Berlin, 1898.

EJdkins J. — Chinese Buddhism. Loudon,
1880.

Beal S. — Buddhism in China. London,
1884.

Beal S. — Buddhist Literature in China.
London, 1882.

Beal S. — A Life of Buddha (translated
from Sanskrit into Chinese, and from
Chinese into English). Oxford, 1883.

Beal S. — A Catena of Buddhist Scrip-
tures from the Chinese. London, 1871.

Eitel E. J. — The Nirvana of Chinese
Buddhists. Eeoorder.JfVol. III. p. 1-6).

Eitel E. J. — Chinese Buddhism. London.
1870.

Eitel E.J. —Three Lectures on Buddhism.
Hongkong, 1871.

Eitel E.J. — Handbook of Chinese Budd-
hism. Hongkong, 1888.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. Buddhism, p. 120-125.

Edkins 3. — Keligion in China. London,
1878. (Buddhism. Oh. VI. VII. VIII.).

Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
(Buddhism. Ch. XVII. p. 318-329).

Douglas Sir R. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (Buddhism. Ch. XXVI.
p. 408-415).

D'Ollone. — La Chine Novatrice et Guer-
riire. Paris, 1906. (Introduction du Boud-
dhisme. — Progrjs. Ch. II. p. 102-112).

Parker E. H. — Early Buddhism in Chi-
na. (Recorder. Vol. XXV. p. 224-234).

Parker E. H. — China and BeUgion.
London, 1905. (Buddhism. Ch. IV. p.
72-100).

The Systems of Buddha and Confucius
compared. — Chinese Repository. (Vol.

II. p. 214-225).

Allen H. J. — Similarity between Bud-
dhism and early Taoism. (China Review.
Vol. XV. p. 96-99).

Richard T.— The Influence of Buddhism
in China. (Recorder. Vol. XXI. p. 49-64).

Chinese Pagodas. — Chinese Repository.
(Vol. VI. p. 189-192).

Haekmann H. — Buddhist Monastery
Life in China. (East of Asia Magazine.
Vol. I. p. 239-261).

Kupfer O. F. — Buddhism in Hupeh.
(East of Asia Magaiine. Vol. II. p. 185-
194).

Wilson H. H. — Travels of Fa-Hsien in
India. (Chinese Repository. Vol. IX. p.
834-368).

de Groot J. M. J. — Le Code de Mah4y4na
en Chine. Amsterdam, 1893.

Remarks on Buddhism with a brief Notice
of Pootoo Island. — Chinese Repository.
(Vol. II. p. 214-225).

Bntler J. — ^Pootoo, ancient and modem.
(Recorder. Vol. X. p. 108-124).

Knpfer O. F. — Pootoo, China's sacred
Island. (East of Asia Magazine. Vol. III.
p. 264-281 ; 357-362).

Rhys Davids T. W. — Buddhism : A
Sketch of the Life and Teachings of Bud-
dha. London, 1886.

Monier-Williams Sir. — Btiddhism in
its connection with Brahmanism and
Hinduism, and its contrast with Chris-
tianity. London, 1890.

Spence Hardy R. — A Manual of Bud-
dhism. London, 1854.

Waddel L. A. — Buddhism in Tibet. Lon-
don, 1895.

Giles H. A. — Record of the Buddhistic
Kingdoms. London and Shanghai, 1877.

Legge 3. — Fa-Hien's Record of Bud-
dhistic Kingdoms. Oxford, 1886.

MAHOMEDANISM.

Devfiria G. — Origine de I'lslamisme en

Chine. Paris, 1895.
Dev6ria G. — Musulmans et Manichiens

Chinois. Paris, 1898.
Dabry de Thiersant. — Le Mahom^-

tanisme en Chine. Paris, 1878.

GHAPTBR II. RELI&IONS.

383

D'OUone. — La Chine Novatrioe et Gner-
rifire. Paris, 1906. (Islamisme. Ch. III.
p. 114-116).

'Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Hohaminedans in Ohina.
Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 285-286).

Edkins J. — Notes on Mohammedanism
in Peking. (Eeoorder. Vol. I. p. 176-177).

Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
(Mahommedanism in China, p. 329).

Bullock T. li. — The Great Mahomedan
ReheUion in Yiinnan.(Ohina Review. Vol.
Vol. XVI. p. 83-95).

Boulger D.O. — A Short History of China.

London, 1893. (The Mahomedan EebeUiou

in Kansu and Kashgaria. Ch. XXV. p.

322-326).
Noyes H. V. — Mahomedauism in China.

(Eeoorder. Vol. XX. p. 10-18; 68-72).
Parker E. H. — Services of Turks in

joining Civilizations. (Asiatic Quarterly

Review. April, 1904).
Parker E. H. — China and Religion.

London, 1905. (Islamism in China. Ch.

VII. p. 189-163).

JUDAISM.

Finn J. — The Jews in China. London,
1843.

Finn 3. — The Orphan Colony of Jews in
Ohina. London, 1872.

^Vylie A. — Israelites in China. (China
and Japan Repository. Vol. I. p. 13-22 ;
43-52).

Visit to the Jews in Honan. — Chinese
Repository. (Vol. XX. p. 436-466).

Jews in China.— Chinese Repository. (Vol.
III. p. 172-175. Vol. XIV. p. 305-334;
388-395).

Smith G. — The Jews at K'aifung Foo.
Shanghai, 1851.

■Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Jews found at K'aifung Poo.
(Vol. II. Ch. XVIII. p. 287-289).

Winterbotbam. — View of China. Lon-
don, 1795. (Jews and Mahomedans in
China, p. 358-363).

Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New-
York, 1896. (Visit to a Colony of Jews.
Part II. Ch. IV. p. 265-280).

Tobar J. — Inscriptions Juives de K'ai-
fung Pou. (VariStSs Sinologiciues."Oatho-
lio Press". Shanghai, 1900).

Ezra E. I. — Chinese Jews. (East of Asia
Magazine. 1902. Vol. I. p. 278-296).

Parker E.H. — China and Religion. Lon-
don, 1905. (The Jews in China. Ch. VIII.
p. 104-177).

On Jews in China.l— North-China Herald.
Jan. 18. 1851).

Notes on the Jews in China. — The Jewish
Chronicle. July 11, 1879.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Jews in China, p. 358-359).

Martin W. — The Jewish Monument at
K'aifung Fu. (N. C. B. R. A. Soo. 1906.
Vol. XXXVn. p. 1-20).

EABLY OHBISTIANITY.

Nfeve F. — fitablissement et Destruction

de la lere Chr6tient6 en Chine. Louvain,

1846.
Panthier. — De 1' Authenticity de I'lns-

oription Nestorienne de Si-ngan fou.

Paris, 1857.
Dabry de Tliiersant. — Le Catholicisme

en Chine au VIII* siiole. Paris, 1877.

Havret. — VariM^s Sinologiques, N"" 7,
12 et 20. (La StJle de Si-ngan fou). Chang-
hai, 1895, 1897 et 1902.

D'Olltme. — La Chine Novatrice et Guer-
rifere. Paris, 1906. (Destruction du Nes-
torianisme. lire P. Ch. III. p. 112-114. —
Ch. VI. p. 132-158).

384

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC QEOaRAPHY.

Rohrbacber. — Histoire UuiTerselle de
I'figlise Catholique. 29 Vol. Paris, 1857-
1861. (La Pierre de Si-ngan fou. Vol. X.
1857. p. 179-184. — La Chine au VII» et
au VHP sifeoles. Vol. XI. 1857. p. 61-73).

Bridgman ■. 0. — Early Introduction
of Christianity into China. (Chinese Ee-
pository. Vol. I. p. 447-452).

Lo-wrie W. M. — The Land of Sinim.
Philadelphia, 1850. (Karly Christians in
China, p. 33-36. — Nestorians in China,
p. 36-4.5).

Legge J. — Christianity in China (Nes-
torianism, R. Catholicism, Protestan-
tism). London, 1888.

Bridgman E. 0. — The Syrian Monu-
ment. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV.
p. 201-229. Some corrections. Vol. XIX.
p. 552-551).

Edkins J.— The Syrian Mission in China.
(Recorder. Vol. XIII, p. 355-361).

On the Nestorian Tablet. — China Review.
(Vol. XXIII. p. ISO).

Nestorianism at Canton. — China Review.
(Vol. VIII. p. 31-34).

Parker B. H.— The Earliest Christianitj
in China. (Dublin Review, 1902. p. 380-
404).

Parker E. H. — China and Religion.
London, 1905. (Nestorianism in China.
Ch. VI. p. 120-138).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Ancient and Nestorian Mis-
sions, p. 435-437).

Williams —The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Nestorians in China. —
Tablet recording their labours. Vol. II.
Ch. XIX. p. 290-298).

Parker E. H. — The Early Christian
Boad to China. (Asiatic Quarterly Rn-
view. October, 1903).

MEDIEVAL CEBISTIANITT.

Henrion. — Histoire G6n6rale des Mis-
sions Catholiques depuis le XIII« SiSole
jusqu'a nos jours. Paris, 1847.

Rohrbacber. — Histoire Universello de
rfiglise Catholique. Paris, 1857-1861.
(Jean de Plan-Carpin. Vol. XVIII. 1858.
p. 213 sq. — Rubruquis. p. 560-571. —
Jean de Montcorvin. Vol. XIX. IS-^iS. p.
410-415. — Odoric de Prioul. Vol. XX.
1858. p. 1.50-152).

Parker E. H. — China and Religion.
Loudon, 1905. (Carpini, Rubruquis, Mon-
teoorvino. Friar Odoric. Ch. IX. 178-190).

Palladius. — Traces of Christianity in
Mongolia and China in the XIII"> Cen-

tury, from Chinese Sources. (Recorder.
Vol. VI. p. 104-113).

Yule H. — Cathay and the Way Thither.
London, 1866. (Letters and Reports of
Missionary Friars from Cathay).

Tale H. — The Book of Marco Polo the
Venetian, concerning the Kingdoms and
Marvels of the Bast. 2 Vol. London, 1875.

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Prester John. Vol. II. Ch.
XIX. p. 298-299. — John de Monte Cor-
vino. p. 299-300).

Oordier H. — Les Voyages en Asie au
XlVe Si6cle du B» Prire Odoric de Por-
denone. Paris, 1891.

SOMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS.

Hue. — Le Christianisme en Chine, en
Tartaric et au Tibet. 4. Vol. Paris, 1857-
1858.

Hoc. — Christianity in China, Tartary ,
and Tibet (translated by Hazlitt). 2 Vol.

London, 1857. — New- York, 1887.
Marshall T. W. — Christian Missions
Their Agents, Methods and Results. 3
Vol. London, 1862. (Missions in China.
Vol. I. Ch. II. p. 94-319).

CHAPTER II. RELiaiONS.

385

Kircber A. — Keoent Introduction of
Christianity into Chinii. (China Illustra-
ta. Amsterdam, 1667).

Semedo A. — Histoire Universelle de la
Chine. Lyon, 1667. (De I'Ktat Spirituel
du Boyaume de la Chine. Partie II. p.
213-458).

Scball von Bell A. — De Ortu et Pro-
gressuFidei orthodoxaein Regno Sineusi
ab Anno 1581-1669. Batisbon, 1672.

Bretscbnelder. — Mediaeval Besearches
from Eastern Asiatic Sources. London,
1888. (The Jesuit Missionaries, Bicci and
others at Peking. Vol. II. p. 324-332).

Du Halde Description of the Empire

of China. London, 1738. (Establishment
and Progress of Christianity in China.
Vol. II. p. 1-37).

De Sainto Fbl O. — Vie de Bicci. 2 Vol.
Toumai, 1859.

Oarton C. — Notice biographique sur Ver-
biest. Bruges, 1839.

Prandi. — Memoirs of Fr. Bipa during 13
Years Residence at Peking. London, 1846.

Bridgman E. O. — Paul Sii's Apology of
the Jesuits. Chinese Bepository. (Vol.
XIV. p. 118-135).

Imperial Decree authorizing Christianity,
and granting the Bestoration of Ileal Est-
ate to Christians throughout the Chinese
Empire. — Chinese Repository. (Vol. XV.
p. 154-155).

Happer A. P. — Boman Catholic Missions
in China with particulars respecting the
number of Missionaries and Converts,
and the Ecclesiastical Divisions of the
Empire. Chinese Bepository. Jane, 1846.
(Vol. XV. p. 298-300).

lie Compte I<. — Memoirs and Observa-
tions made in a Journey through the
Empire of China. London, 1097. (On the
Establishment and Progress of the Chris-
tian Religion in China. — Fervour of the
new Christians. — Edict approving the
Catholic Religion, p. 345-480).

Deshainea. — Vie du P. Trigault. Paris,
1864.

Martin A. — Lettres idifiantes et ourieu-
ses. 14 Vol. Lyon, 1819. Paris, 1877.
(On missions in China. Vol. IX., X., XII.,
XIII. and XIV).

Nouvelles Lettres ^difiantes des Missions
de la Chine. 8 Vol. Paris, 1878.

Lockntan J. — Travels of the Jesuits
into various parts of the World, particu-
larly China and the East Indies. London,
1762.

de Pr6niare. — Vestiges des Priucipaux
Dogmes Chretiens tir^s des Anciens
Livres Chinois. Paris, 187S.

Sirr H. O. — China and the Chinese, Lon-
don, 1849. (B. Catholic Missions in China.
Ch. X. p. 186-236).

Conlier H. — Belations de la Chine avec
les Puissances Btrangeres. 3 Vol. Paris,
1901).

Brid^man E. O. — Boman Catholic Mis-
sions in Shanghai, 1849. (From personal
observation and reports). Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XVIII. p. 574-588).

Proclamation from the Shanghai Magis-
trate securing protection to the new
Jesuit Residence at Sicawei, 1848. —
ChineseBepository.{Vol.XVII.p.477-479).

Parker E. H. — The Preaching of the
Gospel in China. China Review, 1889.
(Vol. XVIII. p. 152-177).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History, Di-
plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Arrival of European Missionaries. Ch.
V. p. 32-115.)

Balfour F. II. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. London, 1876. (Educational
Work at the Jesuit Sicawei CoUege. p.
122-129).

Fink O. — The Sicawei Observatory. East
of Asia Magazine, 1902. (Vol. I. 350-377).

Schmidt O. — Sikawei and Siikwangki.
The Far East. (Vol. I. p. 12-11).

Montalto de Jesus. — Su Kwangki's
Centenary at Sicawei, 1904. (East of Asia
Magazine. Vol. IV. p. 148-157).

Montalto de Jesos. — Historic Macao.
Hongkong, 1902.

25

386

SECTION T. POLITICAL AND BCONOIfIC aEOftRAFHT.

LJungstedt Sir A.— An Historical Sketch
of tlie Portugneae Settlements and of the
R. Cath. Church and Mission in China.
Boston, 1836.

Kaimeageiser A.— Missions Catholiques.
Paris, 190O.

Tableau G^nSral des Missions Catholic[ues
en Chine en 1868. — Missions Catholi-
qnes. Lyon, 1869. N" 74r-75.

Murray's Obina. — Edinburgh, 1843. K.
CathoUo Missions to China. (Vol. I. Ch.
VII. VIII).

Medhortst W. H. — China, Its State and
Prospect. London, 1838. (Catholic Mis-
sions in China. Ch. IX. p. 220-250).

Edkins 3. — Keligion in China. London,
1905. (K. Cath. Missions. Ch. XIV. p. 166-
177).

■Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Ricci, Sohall and Verbiest
in China, Present Condition of R. C.
Missions. Vol. II. Ch. XIX. p. 800-325).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shanghai,
1903. (Roman Catholic Missions, p. 437-
440).

Robrbacber. — Eistoire Universelle de
I'Eglise Catholique. Paris, 1857-1861.
(Le Christianisme en Chine a la fin du
XVI» siAole. Vol. XXIV. p. 727-28. — La
Mission de Chine depuis Ricci jusqu'a
Schall (1580-1670). Vol. XXV. p. 69-75.—
Histoire des Missions de Chine depuis
Schall jusqu'a I'ann^e 1730. (Schall, Ver-
biest, Intorcetta, Martini, Bouvet, Oer-
billon, Visdelou, Prtoare, Parennin).
Vol. XXVI. 1859. — Question des Bites.
Vol. XXVI. p. 609-642).

Roy J.J. — Histoire abrig&e des Missions
Catholiques depuis le XV° siicle jusqn'^
nos jours. Tours, 1855.

Durand. — Les Missions Catholiques
Fran^aises. Paris; 1874. (Missions en
Chine. 2°partie. p. 260-324).

Pisanl. — Missions Catholiques de I'Asie.
(Dictiohnaire de ThSologie Catholique
par Vacant et Mangenot. Paris, 1903.
Vol. I. p. 207-209).

Piolet J. B. — Les Missions Catholiques

Fran^aises. Paris, 1904. (Missions in

China and Japan. Vol. III).
Louvet. — Les Missions Catholiques au

XIX» sitole. Lille et Paris, 1895. (The

Church in China 1800-1890. Ch. XH. p.

215-234).
B. P. Andr€-IUarie. — Missions Domini-

caines dans' I'Bxtrfime-Orient. Lyon,

1865. (Vol. I. Ch. IV).
R. P. Victor Bemardin de Ronen. —

Histoire Universelle des Missions Fran-

ciscaines. Paris, 1898. (Vol. I. et II).
Launay A. — Histoire de la Sociite des

Mis3ions-£trangires. (Paris Foreign

Missions). 3 Vol. Paris, 1896.
Iiannay A. — La Mission du Koang-si.

(Paris Foreign Missions). Paris, 1903.
Iiamiay A. — Atlas des Missions de

la Soci^ti des Missions- Etrangires.

Lille.
Annales de la Soci6t£ des Missious-Etran-

gires.
Favier Sis'. — Pe-Mn, Histoire et Des-
cription. P6-kin, 1897.
Reynand Hi:'. — Another China. Dublin,

1897.
Ponrias Me. — Huit Ans au Yun-nan.

Lille, 1888.
Vigneron. — Deux Ans au Sse-tchuan.

Paris, 1881.
Gniot L. — La Mission du Su-tchuen au

XVIII" si6ole. Paris, 1892.
Iieroy H. J. — En Chine, au Tchfi-U S.E.

Lille, 1900.
Chine, Ceylan et Madagascar. (Journal de

la Mission du Tchg-U S.E.).
Missions en Chine et au Congo. (Journal

des Missionnaires Beiges de Schent-les-

Bruxelles).
Bronillon. — MSmoire sur I'Etat actuel

du Kiang-nan, 1842-1855. Paris, 1855.
Pfister. — Le Kiang-nan en 1869. Paris.
PalStre G. — Le Pilerinage de Z8-s6.

"Catholic Press." Shanghai, 1873.
La Mission du Kiang-nan : son Histoire et

ses CEuvres. Paris, 1900.

CHAPTER II. RELiaiONS.

387

La Mission duKiang-nan lS99-1900."Catho-
lio Press." Shanghai, 1902.

Kelations de Chine : Kiang-nan. (Reports
of the Shanghai Catholic Mission).

Les Missions Catholiques. Lyon, 1809-1906.
(Weekly Publication in French).

Illustrated Catholic Missions. (Office of the
Tablet. 19 Henrietta St. London W. C).

Billiard Atteridge A.— Notes on Catho-
lic Missions. London, 1S87.

Casartelli L. — Catholic Missions. Lon-
don, 1891.

Missiones Catholicae. Rome, 1901. (China
and Japan, p. 265-331).

Fauvel A. — Nos Missionnaires, Patriotes
et Savants. Paris, 1900.

Bizenl S. — Chinois et Missionnaires. Li-
moges, 1896.

Memorandnm on Christian Missions ad-

dressed by China to the Treaty Powers.
Tientsin, 1892.

Michie A. — Political Obstacles to Mis-
sionary Succes in China. Hongkong, 1901.

Gundry R. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Antagonism to Missiona-
ries. Ch. X. p. 202-231. — Causes of Anta-
gonism. Ch. XI. p. 232-262).

Jemigan T. R. — China's Business Me-
thods and Policy. Shanghai, 1904. (Mis-
sionaries and their Work. p. 254-272 ) .

Parker E. H. — China : Her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Religion and Rebellion. Ch. XV. p. 178-
291).

Parker E. H. — China and Religion. Lon-
don, 1905. (The Roman Church and its
Work. Ch. IX. p. 178-208).

Werner. — Atlas des Missions Catholiques.

PROTESTANT MISSIONS.

■Wameek G. — Outline of a History of
Protestant Missions. Berlin, 1901.

Christlieb. — The Foreign Missions of
Protestants (from the German). London,
1881.

Deimis J.S. — Centenial Survey of Foreign
Missions. Edinburgh, 1902.

Dennis JT. S. — Christian Missions and
Progress.

Smith G. — A short History of Christian
Missions. Edinburgh, 1897.

Dean W.— The China Mission, embracing
a History of the various Denominations
among the Chinese, and a Biographical
Sketch of deceased Missionaries. New-
York, 1859.

Brown. — ^History of Missions. Edinburgh,
1854.

Tbang. — Modern Missions. London, 1883.

Smith A. — Bex Christus : An outline
Study of China. New- York, 1903. (Ch. IV.
and V).

Piton O. — La Chine, sa Religion, ees
Moeurs. Toulouse, 1880.

Kesson. — The Cross and the Dragon.
London, 1854.

Moule A. E. — New China and Old.
London, 1892.

Handbook of Christian Missions.

Conference of Foreign Missions. London,
1879 and 1886.

Pisani. — Les Missions Protestantes 3. la
fin du XIX« siftcle. Paris, 1901.

Mnirhead. — China and the Gospel.
London, 1870.

Mosely W. .— Origin of the first Pro-
testant Mission to China. London, 1842.

Memoirs of the Life and Labours of
Morrison, by his Widow. London, 1889.

Bridgman E. O. — Letters on China.
Boston, 1840.

Morrison R. — Memoirs of Milne. Mal-
acca, 1824.

Philip R. — Life and Times of Milne.
London, 1838.

Milne W. — Life in China. London, 1859,
(Early Life in Ningpo. Part II. Ch. I-V.
p. 62-215. — Protestant Missions at
Shanghai. Part IV. Ch. V. p. 411-427).

Abeel D. — Journal of a Residence in
China. London, 1835.

388

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOORAPHY.

Medhurst W. H. — China, its State and
Prospects. London, 1838. (Protestant
Missions to Canton, Malacca and Bata-
via. — Arrival of Milne. — Baptism of
Tsai Ako, the first convert. Ch. X-XI.
p. 2.51-83. Ch. XII. p. 306-328.- Voyage
to Shantung, Kiangsu, ChSkiang and
Pokien, 1835. Ch. XIV-XIX. - Class of
Labourers for China ; other Desiderata.
Ch. XXI-XXII).
Gutalaff C. — China opened. London,
1838. (Protestant Missions. — Morrison
and MUne. Ch. XV. p. 233-237).
Doolittle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
New- York, 1867. (Missionary Topics. —
Native Ministry. — Obstacles to the
spread of the Gospel. Vol. II. Ch. XVII-
XVIII).
Nevius J. Ij. — China and the Chinese.
New-York, 1869. (Missionary Life in
China.— Methods and Results. Ch. XXI-
XXIV).
Williams. —The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Protestant Missions to the
Chinese. — Morrison's labours. — Work
in Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Shanghai. —
Missionary Hospitals. — Distribution of
Bibles and Tracts. Vol. II. Ch. XIX. p.
325-380).
Byer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Protestant Missions in China,
p. 440-^43).
Parker E. U. — China and Beligion.
London, 1905. (Protestantism in China.
Ch. X. p. 209 2-9).
MUne W. — Retrospect of the first ten
Years of the Protestant Mission to China.
Malacca, 1820.
Williams — Position and Operations at
the 5 Ports. — Preaching, distribution
of books, medical practice, schools. (Chi-
nese Repository. Vol. XVIII. p. 48-51).
Dridgman E. O. — Protestant Missions
in Shanghai, 1819. (Chinese Repository.
Vol. XVIII. p. 381-391, and 515-525. Vol.
XIX. p. 330-343).
Thomson and Johnson.- British Foreign
Missions, 1837-1897. London, 1999.

Lovett. — History of the London Mission-
ary Society. London, 1899.
Reid J. M. —Missions and the Missionary
Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church. New- York, 1896.
Stock E. —History of the Church Missio-
nary Society. Loudon, 1899.
Centenary Volume of the Baptist Missio-
nary Society. London, 1892.
Hudson Taylor. — China, its spiritual
need and claims, with brief notices of
Missionary effort, past and present.
London, 1865.
Guinness M. — Story of the China Inland

Mission. London, 1893.
Morrison in Canton.— Recorder. (Vol. VII.

p. I71-J78|.
Box E. — Morrison, Milne and Medhurst.
—Recorder. (Vol. XXXV. 1904. p. 79 87;
117-126).
Early Days of the Swatow and Foochow
Missions. — Recorder. (Vol. XXVIII.
p. 419-425).
Home C. S. — One Hundred Years of
Missions, 1795-1899, or the Story of the
London Missionary rSociety. London,
1896.
Ninety Years of Protestant Work in China.
— Recorder. (Vol. XXVIII. p. 403-409).
Rise and Pi'ogress of Protestant Missions
in Hangchow. — Recorder. (Vol. VII.
p. 31i-354).
Missionary Work in Shanghai, 1901. —

Recorder. (Vol. XXXII. p. 633).
Edkins J. — Fifty Years in China. Re-
corder. (Vol. XXIX. p. 519-527!.
Eitel E. J. — The Protestant Missions of
Hongkong, 1878. Recorder. (Vol. VII. p.
2129,.
Statistics of the Hongkong Protestant Mis-
sions. — Recorder. (Vol. VIII. p. 30-46).
China Mission Handbook, Shanghai, 1896.
(Contains statistics of the various Deno-
minations. — Notices of the Religions of
China).
Wylie A. — Memorials of Protestant Mis-
sionaries to the Chinese. — Shanghai,
1867.

CHAPTER II.

RELIGIONS.

389

Records of the Missionary Conference held
at Shanghai May 10-24, 1877. Shanghai,
1878.

Records of the Missionary Conference held
at Shanghai in 1890. Shanghai, 1890.

Annual Reports of the Diffusion Society
1887-1906. Shanghai.

Directory of Protestant Missionaries in
China, Japan and Corea. Hongkong, 1907.
(According to this Fuhlication, there are
at present SO Societies and 3,832 Foreign
Missionaries in the Field).

Comaby W. A. — China under the
Search-light. London, 1901. The "Native
Foreigner." (Ch. VII. p. SP-IIO).

Tamer J. A. — Five Years in S. China.
London, 180 1. (Mission work in Fatshan.
Ch. X. — The Church in China, results
of missions, causes of disorder. Ch. XIV-
XVI).

Montgomery-Martin R. — China, Poli-
tical, Commercial and Social. London,
1847. (Protestant Missionary Societies in
China. Ch. X. p. 488-502).

Gandry B. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Antagonism to Missiona-
ries. Ch. X. p. 201-231. — Causes of
Antagonism. Ch. XI. p. 232-2G2 .

Corzon G.N. — Problems of the Far East.
London, 1896. (The Missionary Question,
Protestant Missions, Objections and
Drawbacks, Irresponsible Itinerancy,
Hostility to Chinese Ethics, Disputes as
to the name of the Deity, Church Polity
and Translations of the Scriptures, Ap-
peal tor gunboats. Employment of wo-
men. Ch. IX. p. 283-3101.

Mieiiie A. — Missionaries in China. Tien-
tsin, 1893.

Donglas firR. — Society in China. Lon-
don, 1895. (Outrages on Missionaries. Ch.
XVI. p. 282-289).

Parker E.II. — China : Her History, Di-
plomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Religion and Rebellion. Ch. XV. p. 285-
291).

Medhurst W. U. — The Foreigner in Far
Cathay. London, 1872. (Missionaries in

China. Ch. IV. p. 31-49).

Martin W. — A Cycle of Cathay. New-
York, 1896. (The Missionary Question.
Ch. XI. p. J39.457. — Retrospect and
Outlook. Ch. XV. p. 439-158).

Stiinley Pniith. — China from Within.
London, 1901. (Lady Missionaries in the
interior of China. Ch. XVI. p. 211-224).

Wen Ching. — The Chinese Crisis from
Within. London, 1901. (The Growth of
Reform. Ch. I. p. 3-16).

Burden .T.«. — Causes of Hostility to Mis-
sionaries. Recorder. (Vol. IV. p. 263-:67).

Richnrd T. — Christian Persecutions in
China ; their Nature, Causes, Remedies.
Recordtr. (Vol. XV. p. 237-248; 433-
451).

Lieutcniint Wood. — On Missionaries in
China. Rrcorder. (Vol. XX. p. 507-513).

Ballour F.H. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. I,ondon, 1876. The Rival
Evangelizers of China. (Ch. XIII. p. 113-
129).

Fi>gg .7. J. — Recent Criticisms of Missio-
naries and their Methods. Recorder. (Vol.
XXI. p. 553.057).

Gennehr J. — The True and Deepest Cause
of anti-foreign Riots in China. Recorder.
(Vol. XXV. p. 112-119).

Gardner 0. T. — The Missionary Question
in China. Seoul, 1894. Recorder. (Vol.

XXV. p. 503-508).

Denby.— On Missions in China. Recorder.

(Vol XXVI. p. 424-420).
Proclamation of the Nanking Viceroy in

favour of Missionaries. — Jiecorder. (Vol.

XXVI. p. 561-56;;).

Nature, Work, and Aims of Protestant
Missions laid before the Tsungli Yamftu.
November 14""^ 1895. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXVII. p. 62-72; llC-224).

The Religious Liberty Article of the Trea-
ties. Recorder. (Vol XXVII. p. 20n-2!6).

The Origin of Missionary Troubles. — Re-
corder. tVol. XXVII. 323-331).

Denby. — Shall we still send Missionaries
to China. Recorder. (Vol. XXXIV. p. 484-
492).

390

SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOaRAPHY.

Bnrton J. Ij. — The Missionary and his

Critics. New-York, 1906.
Broomtaall M. — Martyred Missionaries

of the China Inland Mission. London,

1901.
Miner L. — China's Book of Martyrs. New-
York, 1093.
Ed'cvards E. H. — Fire and Sword in

Shansi. London, 1901.
Smith A.H. — China in Convulsion. New-
York, 1902.
Iiegge J.— Christianity in China. (Nesto-

rianism, E. Catholicism, Protestantism).

London, 1888.
Boone W, J. — Essay on the Term for

Deity. Shanghai, 1876.
MedhurBt W. H, — The Proper Rendering

of God into Chinese. Shanghai, 1818.
Medhurst W. H. — On the Theology of

the Chinese and the Appropriate Terra

for the Deity. Shanghai, 1847.
Blodget H. — The Use of T'ien-Chn for

God. Shanghai, 1893.
Shangti in the Classics. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXVIII. p. 593 S94).
Jtedical Work as an Evangelistic Agency.

— Recorder, 1884. (Vol. XV. p. 1-13).
Work by Native Medical Assistants. —

Recorder. (Vol. XXVII. p. 294-296).
Kilbom. — Medical Mission Work in

China. Recorder. (Vol. XXXII. p. 17S-190).
Lockhart W. — The Medical Missionary

in China. London, 1861.
Webster J. — Medical Missions. Recor-
der, 1907. (Vol. XXXVIII. p. 46-49).
Protestant Missionary Characteristics, by

Observer. Shanghai Mercury Office, 1902.
The Mission Press in China. — Recorder.

(Vol. X. p. 206-219 ; 270-27S).
Bible Societies and Colportage. — Recorder.

(Vol. XXXI. p. 310-344).
The Bible in China. — Recorder, 1905.

(Vol. XXXVI. p. 279-282).
Statistics and Number of Missionaries in

China 1875.— Recorder. (Vol. VI. p. 310).
Strength of Protestant Missions in China

1878. — Recorder. (Vol. IX. p. 5-11. —

Statistics, ibid. p. 108-118).
Table of Missions and Missionaries in China

1884. — Recorder. (Vol. XV. p. 73).
Missionary Statistics for 1890. — Recorder.

(Vol. XXIII. p. 469-475 ; 506-512).
Statistics of Protestant Missionary Societies

in China for 1898. — Recorder. (Vol.

XXX. p. 144-145 ; 153-541.
Total of Missionary Societies and Adherents

for 1901. — Recorder. (Vol. XXXIII. p.

101).
Richard T. — China-Mission Statistics.

Shanghai, 1904.

EDUCATION.

ai E. — Pratique des Examens Litteraires.

"Catholic Press." Shanghai, 1891,
Zi E. — Pratique des Examens Militaires.

"Catholic Press." Shanghai, 1896.
Tobar J. — La Rfiforme des Etudes en

Chine. (Etudes. 5 D6o. 1903).
Tobar J. — R&glements sur I'Ednoation.

(fioho de Chine, 1905. passiml.
Bibliographic, RSglement sur I'lnstruction

approuvS par I'Empereur. — (Echo de

Chine. 28 Mars, 1905).
Tchang Tche-tong (Viceroy of Hunan

and Hupeh). — Exhortation k I'fitude.

(traduction Pran^aise par le P. Tobar.

Chang-hai, 1898).

Wang Chung-Yn. — Future Education

of China.
Biot.— Essai sur I'Histoire de I'lnstruction

Publique en Chine. Paris, 1874.
Daryl P. — Le Monde Chinois. Paris,

IfSo. (L'Education et les Sciences. Ch.

V. p. 64-S3).
Conrant M. — En Chine. Paris, 1901.

(L' F.ducation de la Chine, p. 260-275).
Coarant M. — Etudes sur I'Bduoation et

la Colonisation. Paris, 1904.
Gainet. — Etude sur la Chine. Besanpon,

1881. (Education des Enfants. Ch. XIV.

p. 317-325).

CHAPTBR II. BOnCATION.

391

De Ooarcy. — E'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
1867. (De I'Eduoation et des Examens
Uttfiraires. Livre IV. Ch. II. p. 348-360).

D'OUone. — La Ohlne Novatrioe et Guer-
rifere. Paris, 1906. (Examens. II« Partie.
Ch. II. p. 162-168. — E6forme de I'Ensei-
gnement. p. 280-284).

1711113018.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Education and Literary
Examinations. Vol. I. Ch. IX. p. 421-457).

Grosier. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Education of Children.
Vol. II. Book VII. Ch. II. p. 281-291).

DooUttle J. — Social Life of the Chinese.
New-York, ISffJ. (Competitive Literary
Examinations. Vol. I. Ch. XV-XVII).

Douglas Sir R. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (The Competitive Exami-
nations. Ch. IX. p. 160-179).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Education in China, p. 234-
243. — Examinations, p. 264-270).

Gondry R. S. — China Present and Fast.
London, 1895. (Educational System of
China. Ch. III. p. 52-68. — Educational
Eeform and Appendices A and B. p. 283-
393).

Oolqataoim A. — China in Transforma-
tion. London, 1898. (The Native Press.
Ch. IX. p. 228-247).

ParkerE.H. — John Chinaman. London,
1901. (Work of Education in E. Catholic
Schools 1885. Ch. IX. p. 197-200).

Balfour F. H. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. London, 1876. Chinese
Views ofForeignCulture.(Oh.XIV.p. 130-
133).

Martin W.— A Cycle of Cathay. New- York,
1896. (The Tungwen College. Part II.
Ch. V-VII. p. 293-328).

Martin TV. — Chinese Education, Philo-
sophy and Letters. New- York, 1898.

Forbes F. E. — Five Years in China.
London, 1848. Education. (Ch. VI. p. 103-
114).

Onmmings O. — Wanderings in China.
London,1900.(Competitive Examinations,
Literary Degrees. Ch. XXXIV. p. 403-

413).
Jemigan T. R. — China's Business Me-
thods. Shanghai, 1904. (Educational Sys-
tem of China, p. 201-218).
Encyolopoedia Britannioa. — Education in

China, p. 23.
Macklin W.K.— The Triennial Examin-
ations in China. East of Asia Magazine.

(Vol. n. p. 372-375).
Smith A. — The School System of China.

East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. III. p. 1-10).
Education among the Chinese. — Chinese

fiepository. (Vol. IV. p. 1-10).
Literary Examinations in China. — Chinese

Eepository. (Vol. IV. p. 118-135).
History of Instruction in China. — Chinese

Eepository.. (Vol. XVIII. p. 57-86).
Parker E. H. — Educational Curriculum

of the Chinese. China Eeview. (Vol. IX.

p. 1-13).
Addis O. S. — Education in China. China

Eeview. (Vol. XVHI. p. 205-212).
Chinese School-books. — China Eeview.

(Vol. XX. p. 35-41 ; 101-108).
Mateer O. W. — Chinese Education. Ee-

oorder. (Vol. XIV. p. 463-469).
Etel E. J. — Address on Education 1895.

Eeoorder. (Vol. XXVI. p. 324-330).
Ferguson J. O. — Chinese Education,

Past, Present and Future. Eeoorder.

(Vol. XXVIII. p. 329-335).
Sites M. Ii. — A Study in Pedagogy. Ee-

corder. (Vol. XXXV. p. 245-256).
Ohang Ohitnng (Viceroy of Hunan and

Hupeh). — "Learn" (translated by Wood-
bridge). Eeoorder. (Vol. XXIX andXXX).
Pilcher 1. W. — The New Education in

China. Eeoorder. 1850. (Vol. XX. p. 305-

310; 345-348; 403-410).
Tenney O. D. — English in Chinese Edu-
cation. Eeoorder. (Vol. XX. p. 469-471).
Ferguson J. O. — Higher Education in

China. Eecorder. (Vol. XXIII. p. 149-

157 ; 556-563. Vol. XXIV. 7-12).
Present Educational Needs of China. —

Eeoorder. (Vol. XXVII. p. 242-248).
Educational Eeoonstruotion in Peking. —

Eecorder. (Vol. XXXII. p. 619-622).

392

SECTION T. POLITICAL' AND ECONOMIC OBOGRAPHT.

Japanese Educational Influence in China.

— Becorder, 1905. (Vol. XXXVI. p. 357-

361. — idem. p. 628).
Ten W. W. —Chinese Students in Japan.

East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 194-

196).
Ten W. W. — The Returned Student.

East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. III. p. 3:^

45).
Iiyon W.— A Phase of the New Education.

(Development of the military spirit).

East of Asia Magazine. (Vol. IV. p. 318-

320). ,
Levp^is. — The Educational Conquest of

the Far East. New- York, 1903.
Gee N. G. — The Educational Directory

for China. Shanghai, 1905. .
The Becent Imperial Metropolitan Examin-

ations held on the 14*1' and IS"* October
1906. — Recorder 1907. (Vol. XXXVUI.
p. 34-39. Themes proposed, Examiners,
Successful Candidates).

The Recent Imperial Metropolitan Examin-
ations for Returned Students. —(World's
Chinese Students' Journal. December,
1906. p. 2-4).

Education in Chihli (Schools and Curricu-
lum). — The World's Chinese Students'
Journal. Shanghai. September 1906. —
Prominent Foreign Educated Chinese,
(ibid. p. 15-23, and December, p. 18-21).

Lee S. K. — The Educational Problem
and the Adoption of Ejian-hua as the
National Language of China. (The World's
Chinese Students' Journal. September
1906. p. 7-12).

CHAPTER HI.

AGEICULTURE.

China is essentially an agricultural country. More than two
thirds of the inhabitants are cultivators of the soil.

Chinese agricnitnre. — A striking feature of Chinese
agriculture is that cattle-breeding and the planting of trees are
almost entirely neglected. There are no large herds of cattle or
flocks of sheep, as are found in other countries, no natural or arti-
flcal meadows, and the woods or forests are not thinned. The only
pasture-lands are the slopes of mountains, which cannot be used
for any other purpose; the only forests, those which have grown
spontaneously in high and uncultivated places. Even these latter,
which are seldom met with, except in Hunan ^ ^, Fohien jjg ^
and Kweichow -^ )^, are disappearing rapidly. The consequence of
this lack of foresight is that China is almost destitute of firewood,
and has to import timber at heavy cost from distant countries.

The only cultivated places are the bottoms of valleys, and
the plains. In the richer and more thickly populated districts,
mountains are however utilized, and the slopes are sometimes
terraced even to the top of lofty hills.

Cultivation varies with the nature of the soil, the altitude,
irrigation, and climate. Sice for instance, thrives in the N, of
Kansu -y* Jf^, but does not grow in Kiangpeh ^^ or Northern
Kiangsu f£ jjj^. Some plants cannot be raised beyond a certain
latitude. Tea does not grow in the valley of the Hwang-ho % f^,
and the sugar-cane is rarely found beyond the Southern bank of
the Yangtze ^ ^. The banana, palm and lichi % i^ trees bear
fruit only in the South.

The number of crops also varies with different regions. In
the JV., there is generally but one crop; in the Centre, two or three.

394 SECTION y. political and economic GEOailAPHY.

■while in the S., especially in the low plain of the Si-hiang |f fZ.
or West River, three are generally raised.

The methods applied have not yet got beyond the most rudi-
m,entary stage, and improvements arrived at in other countries
are but little known. Implements are rough and imperfect, the
manuring is insufficient, and the rotation of crops scarcely ever
carried out. There are no machines for thrashing the corn, and the
rice-cleaning and cotton-ginning instruments are most primitive.
There are no roads on which horses or buffaloes can bring home
the crops. The small, weafe plough does its work but superficially.
If the soil produces an abundant harvest, this is entirely owing
to its fertility and the patient labour of the husbandman.

In the great Northern plai/n, the changeable character of
the weather renders the harvest very wncertaitu Drought, rain
or floods, often destroy the fruit of long and toilsome labour. In
the Central and Southern regions, the harvest is less eaeposed.

Distrlbntlon of crops. — In the great Northern plain,

wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize are the staple crops.

In the Provinces of the Upper Hwang-ho ^ \j\, rice (but
only in some districts), rhubarb, the poppy, tobacco and fruit-
trees are chiefly cultivated.

In the Central Provinces are found rice, tea, cotton, the
Chinagrass plant or ramie fibre, the poppy, mulberry, varnish,
lacquer and tallow trees. The silkworm is also reared in this
region.

In the South-Eastern Provinces are found the sugar-cane,
rice, the groundnut and cinnamon. The silkworm also abounds.

In the South-Western Provinces, the poppy is cultivated,
arid also tea, tobacco, rice, wheat, maize and barley.

Tarlons agrlcnltnral prodncts or Olilna.

Plants cultivated for food, — By these are meant all those
products which man uses for his food. In China, the following
are principally found : rice, wheat, barley, millet, potatoes, peas,
beans, and a great variety of leguminous and aquatic plants.

Bice, called in Chinese taonU ^ :?|^ , is the staple product
and food of the country. Two kinds of it are chiefly cultivated :

CHAPTER III. A&HICULTURE. 395

one which grows only in water, and the other, or red, rice,
cultivated on the uplands. It generally requires 4 months before
a crop of rice can be harvested.

Vlants ■utXUxed, vn, industry. — By these are meant all those
that must first undergo some process of transformation before
they are fit for use by man. Some of these, he uses to supply
him with drink. Among them, we may mention wine. In China,
this is made from the juice of tJie grape, but in small quantity.
A special kind of spirit is obtained from rice and miUet. Teaetile
plants are transformed into cloths. These plants abound in
China, the principal being the cotton-ptant, hemp, the China-
grass^plant or ramie fibre (Bcehmeria nivea). Silk is also used
for clothing, but mostly by the richer classes. Paper is made
from the pulp of the bamboo, and cords from its fibres, as well
as from those of the palm-tree. The oil of the country is obtained
from rape, cotton-seed and groundnuta. The most extensively
cultivated of all these plants are the tea and cotton shrubs, the
sugar-cane, the baniboo and the poppy plant. The leaves of the
munerry are much esteemed, and are used throughout the
country for feeding the silkworm.

Tea is the general beverage of the Chinese people. The
tea-plant or ch'a '^ [see above : p. 226), is chiefly cultivated in
the following Provinces : FoMen jjg ^, Nganhwei ^ 1^,
Kiangsi i£ |f , Hupeh ^ 4fc, Hunan jjg ^, Szeehtv'an gg j||
and Twnnan ^ ^- A highly esteemed kind, called P'tteul ^
J3 tea, is cultivated in this latter Province [see p. 180). The
tea crop is gathered 3 times a year. The first, which consists
of the tender sprouts of the shrub, furnishes the best and most
delicate teas. The greater part of the crops is consumed in the
country, while part is exported to foreign countries. The chief
export towns are Hank'ow ^ P in Hupeh }^ :|t , Shanghai il
% in Kiangsu fL M^ Ban^chmv 1^ % in Chfikiang ^ ^, Foo-
Ouno 1^ •m in Fokien || ^, and Oanion or Kwangchow Fu ^
^ jjlf in the Province of Kwangtung ^ ;^. Of late years, Chinese
tea has not been so well prepared as Ceylan and Inaian teas,
hence its export has much decreased. The leaves when gathered

396 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

are prepared in four different ways, thus producing the following
kinds : Mack, green, brtck and dust teas. Brick tea is mostly
forwarded to Siberia, Mongolia and Russia, via Kiakhta and
T'ientsin^^^, and to Tibet, via Hank'ow^p. The other kinds of
leaf-tea are exported principally to Cfreat Britain and Ihe United-
States, the Continental countries being largely coffee-drinkers.

The pom>VPf^*t* or yingsuh s^ |J| (jar-seed, so called
from the jar-like shape of the capsules) was grown in China
at an early date for ornamental purposes. Its medicinal pro-
perties became known by Mahomedan merchants [see p. 36?),
who entered the country through Central Asia, and through
Canton. Opium-smoking was introduced from Java and For-
mosa in the early part of the XVIII"^ century. The first edict
against the habit was issued in 1729. The cultivation of the
poppy, for the sake of its extract, began in China about 1830,
and developed rapidly. It is chiefly grown in the following
Provinces : Tunnttn ^ ^, KweieJunv ^ j^, Sxechufan 0J Jl|,
Kan»u -y- Jg, Shensl ^ If, Shansi \li |f , Shaiitutig \\\ yg_,
Honan jpf ^, Nort/i Kiangsu ^ j|^, and Cli^Mang ^ f^- It is
less extensively cultivated in the other Provinces. It has been
estimated that there are 25 or 30,000,000 opium smokers in
China. Its abuse by rich and poor has injured and beggared
the country. To remedy the evil, His Majesty Kwanghsii has
issued September 20''i, 1906, an edict, directing that the growth,
sale • and consumption of opium cease within 10 years, and
ordering that the Government prepare measures for carrying
out the Imperial Will. These measures have been subsequently
drawn up and sanctioned by the Throne. They may be summed
up as follows : 1° the cultivation of the poppy to be restricted
annually by one-tenth of ils present area; 2" all persons using
it to be registered ; 3° all shops selling opium to be closed
gradually, and all places where opium is smoked will have to dis-
continue this practice within six months ; 4" anti-opium societies
will be officially encouraged. Moreover, all officials are requested
to set an example to the people. Those over sixty will be
treated leniently, but all under this age must abandon the habit

CHAPTER III. AGRICULTUAE. 397

within six months, and if they cannot do so, they must withdraw
from the service of the State. Some Viceroys have already
enforced these regulations within their respeclive juridictions.
Great Britain has been approached by China, in regard to the
gradual importation of Indian opium, while the other Powers
have been requested to co-operate in the solution of this whole-
some reform.

The sugar-cane, called in Chinese kanchi •]^ ^, is prin-
cipally cultivated in the Provinces of Kwangtung ^ ^, Fohien
^ ^ and Sgechu/an IQ )\\. The methods employed for the
manufacture of sugar are still very primitive. Several foreign
sugar refineries have also been established, and are doing good
business. The greater part of the sugar is despatched to
Honffkonff^i:^ {see p. 286), whence it is re-exported into China.

The eotton-platU, or mienhtva-shu ^ fA ©, is chiefly
grown in Kiangsu Jt ^, Ifffanhwei ^ ^, and Hupeh ^ 4t
Provinces. The seed is sown in May, and the crop gathered in
September. The down or floss is of two colours, toft«e and yellow.
The white kind is the more widely cultivated, and also the more
lasting, while the yellow is shorter, and much less esteemed.

Usefnl trees. — China abounds in useful trees sought
after for their timber, or prized for their industrial properties.
The principal of these are the ffum-lae tree or ts'ihtze-shu ^
^;gj, the varnish-tree or t'ungtze-shu ;fl^-^i^, the UtUmo-tree
or kiientze-shu \^ ^ ^, the wax-tree or pehlah-shu jQ ^ ;^,
the camphor~tree or chang-shu 1^ i^, the soap-tree or tsao-
kioh-chu .% ^ ;ffl^, and the palm-tree or tsung-shu ;^ ^.

The mulberry-tree, or sang-shu ^ ^^, is cultivated for its
leaves, which serve for rearing the silkworm. It is found prin-
cipally in the Provinces of Kiangsu ft ||, ChiMang ^ ^, and
8zeclvu/an IS ]\\.

A special kind of silkworm feeds on the leaves of the wild
oak in the Provinces of Kweichow ^- 'Jt|, Honan fp[ ^, and
Shantung ilj %.

(China is one of the principal silk-producing countries. Its
produce alone attains 27"/, of the total amount consumed by

398 SBCTIOM V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOftRAPHT.

foreign countries. Of this, IS"/, comes from the N., a.ndTj„ from
the S. of China. As to the remainder of the world's silk, Italy
furnishes 25 "/oi Japan 28''/„, and the other countries 20"/„).

Here, we may also add the bamboo or chuhtze fj" ■^, which
embellishes the Chinese landscape and homestead, and may be
called the noMotuU plant. Native botanists reckon sixty varieties
of it, all applied to numerous domestic and industrial purposes.
Its tender shoots are used for food, its roots are transformed
into canes, its tapering culms supply poles and masts, or are
made into tables, stools, chopsticks, pipes, umbrellas, fans,
and even musical instruments.

Fmlt-trees. — The principal fruit-bearing trees are : the
peach (t'ao-shu i^;^) and pear-trees (li-shu ^ i^), the apricot
(hsing-shu ^ ®), the apple (p'inkwo-shu ;}jg |g ;j^) and pltmv-
frees (litze-shu 2^ ^ ©), the arbutus-tree (wumei-shu ,|^ >t^
j^), the orange (kiihtze-shu :^ ^ i|^), Jufube (tsao-shu ^ 1^)
and banana (patsiao-shu ^ ^ ^), the licM (^ ;^), the
pine-a^Mfle (polo-shu J^ iP #), the mango-tree (mangku-shu
# ■& ^^)) the vine (p'ut'ao-shu % ^ i^), cheatnut (lihtze-shu
m -? ^) *"•* walnut-trees (hoht'ao-shu ;^ >^ i^), the peir-
simmon (shitze |j^ ^. Diospyrus kaki), the medlar or loquat
(lukijh \^i^, pronounced in Cantonese lukwat, i.e. rush-orange).
This fruit is also called p'ip'a (j;tb ^g pronounced bibo in the
Shanghai dialect), or biwa {see p. 18).

Domestic animals. — The principal domestic animals
are : the horse, ass, mule, water-buffalo, dog, cat, rabbit, pig,
goat, sheep, hen, duck, goose and pigeon. In the N., the camel
is also employed as a beast of burden [see p. 17).

Szechw'an O )\\ and Kweichow -f^ jW produce the best
breed of ponies. They are also imported in great numbers from
Mongolia.

Piscicalture. — In some parts of China, principally in the low valley of the
Yangtze g -f, the spawn and fry of fish are gathered, and cast into the rivers and
lakes. A little yolk of egg, bean-gruel, or chopped grass, aSord at iirst sufficient food.
The fish grow rapidly, and form a considerable extra to the diet of the people.

Fishing is extensively carried on in the rivers, and along the coast, and fur-
nisheB millions with a means of subsistence (see p. 17).

CHAPTBR III. AORIGULTURE.

399

References

Mission Lyonnaise d'Exploration Commer-

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Pishes. Vol. I. Ch. VI. p. 257-295. —
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Tea and silk. — Modes of catching fish.
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Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
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Forbes F. E. — Five Years in China.
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MontgomeryMartin R.— China. London,
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Slrr H. O. — China and the Chinese. Lon-
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GutzlaffO.— China opened. London, 1888.
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Douglas Sir R. — China. London, 1882.
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Douglas Sir B. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (Fariners and Farming_ in
China. — Cultivation of Eice. — The
Silk industry. — Tea. Ch. VI. 120-137. —
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Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Thomson J. — The Land and People of
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Williams. — Agriculture of China.Chinese
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Williams. — Agricultural Implements
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Green G.R.— Agriculture of China. Wash-
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Jamieson 6. •— Tenure of Land in China
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Smith A. — Village Life in China. New-
York, 1903.
Williams. — Bice, its Varieties, Mode of
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III. p, 231-234).

400

SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC 6E0aRAPHY.

Fortune R. — Tea Countries of China.

London, 1853.
Fortune R. — Besideuce among the Chi-
nese. London, 1897.
Von Roethom. — On the Tea Cultivation

in W. Ssuch'uan. London, 1882.
Bemarks on the Tea Plant. — Chinese

Bepository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 13-18).
Collins V. D. — Sorgo or Northern Sugar-
cane. (N.C. B. B. A. Soc. New Series,

1865. p. 85 sq.).
Julien S. — B^sume des principaus traitis

Chinois sur la culture des Mdriers et

r^duoation des vers il soie. Paris, 1837.
Force P. — Summary of the Principal

Chinese Treatises on the culture of the

Mulberry and rearing of Silkworms.

Washington, 1838.
Allom. — Details of the Manufacture of

Silk and the Culture of Silkworms. Chi-
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Fauvel A. — The Wild Silkworms of the

Province of Shantung. China Beview,

1877. (Vol. VI. p. 89-107).
Ratbouis 0. — Des Vers k soie sauvages

de la Province du Chan-toung. (Etudes,

1878. p. .'569-572).
FauTel A. — Les S^ricigenes sauvages

de la Chine. Paris, 1895
M" Oartee D. B. — The Wild Silkworm

of China. (N. C. B. B. A. Soc. 18()6. art.

5. p. 75 sq.).
Stt Kwangki Paul. — Dissertation on

the silk manufacture and the cultivation

of the Mulberry. Shanghai, 1849. (See also

Chinese Miscellany n° 3).
La Fabrication de la soie illustrAe. — La

Culture dn riz illustree. — L' Agriculture

et la soie illustree. Shanghai.
Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. —

Special Series. (Silk and Silk Statistics.

n" 3 and 12).
The Manufacture of Silk. — Chinese Eepo-

^itory. (Vol. XVI. p. 223-236).
Cultivation of the Mulberry. — Chinese

Bepository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 303-314).
Les Vers i soie sauvages. — Memoires

concernant les Chinois. Paris, 1786. (Vol.

II. p. 174-19i).
Robertson D. B. — Cotton in China. (N.

C. B. B. A. Soc. 1859. p. 302-308).
Cultivation of Cotton in the District of

Shanghai, — Chinese Bepository. (Vol.

XVIII. p. 449-469).

Bridgman E. O. — Chinese Grassclotfa.

Chinese Bepository. (Vol. XVI. p. 209-

223).
Williams. — Manufacture of Grasscloth.

Chinese Bepository. (Vol. XVIII. p. 209-

216; 554-560).
Jarvie R. — Bespecting Chinagrass. (N.

C.B.E.A. Soc. 1865. p. 171 seq.).
Hoerman T. — La Bamie ou Ortie blanche

(Boehmeria nivea), sa description, son

origine, mani^re de la preparer indus-

triellement. Gand, 1871.
Maegowan D. J. — The Tallow-tree.

Chinese Bepository. (Vol. XX. p. 422-

426).
Mimoires concernant les Chinois. Paris,

1786. — (Ceremonie du Labourage. Vol.

III. p. 449-504. — Sur les Cotonniers.

Vol. II. p. 196-212. — Sur le Bambou.

Vol. 11. p. 212-228.— Notices surquelques

plantes et arbrisseaux de la Chine. Vol.

III. p. 437-498. — Observations sur les

plantes, fleurs et arbres de la Chine. Vol.

XI. p. 183-268).

Parker E. H. — Chinese Account of the
Opium War. Shanghai, 1888.

MontgomeryMartinB.— China.London,
1847. (Opium : Progress and extent of
consumption.— Individual and National
effects. — Denounced by the Chinese
Government. — Unchristian conduct of
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Slrr H. O. — China and the Chinese.
London, 1849. (Opium : consumption
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XII. p. 251-280).

Hcdhurst W. if. — The Foreigner in Far

Cathay. London, 1872. (Opium-smoking.

Ch. IX. p. 84-88).
Thomson J. — The Land and the People

of China. London, 1876. (Evil effects of

Opium. Ch. VI. p. 145-150).
Turner F. S. — British Opium Policy and

its Results to India and China. London,

1876.
Dudgeon J. — The Evils of the use of

Opium. (Annual Reports of the Peking

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Edklns J. — Historical Note on the Poppy

in China. Shanghai, 1898.
Balfour F. H. — Waifs and Strays from

the Far East. London, 1876. (Opium.

Ch. XII. p. 102-112).

CHAPTER III. AORlCULTaRE.

401

Thelwall A. S.— Iuir[uities of the Opium
trade with China. London, 1S39.

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Opium trade, — Mode of
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Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Park W. H. — Opinion of over 100 Phy-
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Day H. — The Opium Habit. New-York,
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Hart E. — On the Use of Opium in India.
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OurzoQ G. N. — Problems of the Far East.
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Ch. IX. p. 283).

Martin D' E. — L'Opium : ses Abus ;
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1893. (L'Opium en Chine. Ch. III-IV).

Libermann D^ H. — Les Fumeurs d'Opium

en Chine. Paris, 1862.

The Customs Opium-smoking Returns. —
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The Spread of Morphia in China. —Eecor-
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Opium imported into Shanghai. — Eecor-
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Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs, —
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Dabry de Thiersant. — La Pisciculture
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■Williams.— The Middle Kingdom. New-
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Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Carp Culture in Ch6kiang Province.. —
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Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. —
Pisciculture in China. (Miscellaneous
Series. N"' 9 and 11).

26

CHAPTER IV.

MINING AND INDUSTEY.

Mliiliig. — Mines are numerous and rich throughout the
18 Provinces. In the past, they were almost unknown, but in
recent times, their exploitation has become more and more
important. When worked they will certainly prove a great
source of wealth for the country.

The chief minerals are eoaZ, 1/ron and copper.

The largest deposits of eotil are found in Shansi [ij '^,
Hunan ^ ^, Kweichow ^ jffl and Szechw'an Q j||. There
are also important coal-fields in Ghihli ||[ ^, Shantung ^I 3^,
Shensi ^ |f , Honan fpf ]^, Yiinnan g '^, Hupeh }j^ 4b and
Kwangtung ^ ^ Provinces. The amount of coal in Yunnan,
Kweichow, and Kwangsi seems to reach 30,000,000,000 tons,
and it is estimated that the vast coal measures of South-
Shansi would amply supply the world with coal, at the present
rate of consumption, for thousands of years to come.

Coal mines are principally worked in the Province of
Chihli if: ^, at K'aip'ing ^ 2j5, and also to the W. of Peking
4fc;^; in Shansi [Ij U Province, near T'aiyiien Fu :^^^; in
Hupeh j^ 4b Province, to the S. of Wuch'ang Fu ^ g ^; and
also in the Provinces of Hunan ^ ^, Kwangtung ^ ^ and
Shantung [Ij % {see each of these Provinces : Mineral Wealth).

Xron ore is found throughout all China. The best known,
and also the richest and most actively exploited beds, are those
of Tsehchow Fu % ^ j^ and P'ingting Chow ^ g ^•j in
Southern Shansi []j ^; those likewise of Szechw'an Q j||,
Hunan ^ |g, Honan ^ ^ and Shantung \jj y^.

Copper is extracted in Yiinnan g ^ and Kweichow ;^
;H'j. The mines are the property of the Chinese Government,

CHAPTER IV. MINING AND INDUSTRY. 403

which has monopolized the output for its own benefit. The
copper extracted in those places is inadequate for the needs of
the country, and about 30,000 tons are imported annually.

Zinc and tin are extracted in Yiinnan ^ '^, and quicfe-
sUver in Kweichow -^ >}}i\.

Gold, sUver, and argentiferous lead mines are little
worked. They are mostly found in the Western and South-
Western Provinces. Gold is found in grains in the beds of
several rivers of the West, especially those of the Han-shui ^
;^ and of the Upper Yangtze ^ ^. This latter river owes to
this particularity its name of Kinsha-kiang ^ ^ fiQ, or golden-
sand river. The amount of the precious metal thus obtained is
very small.

Kerosene is found in small quantities in Szechw'an |!9 )]\
and Kansu -^ J|f.

Salt is obtained from brine-wells in Shansi [Jj |f and Sze-
chw'an gg )\\, and from evaporated sea-water along the coast.

Mining regulations. — According to mining regulations
established in March 1904, the Chinese Government reserves for
itself 25% of the profit of all mines. A further charge of 20%
is to be levied on the output of diamonds and precious stones ;
10% upon gold, silver and mercury; and 5% upon coal and
iron. All minerals are moreover to pay an export duty of 5%
and likin to the amount of 2^%.

Industry. — Industry on a large scale is represented only
by a few hundred manufacturing firms in the large cities. The
crafts and small trades on the contrary are extensively developed,
and comprise various branches but make little progress. Their
methods being rudimentary, and their instruments so inadequate,
they turn out only inferior articles despite long and tedious labour.

We shall mention among these articles Indian ink, manu-
factured in Nganhwei ^ % and Szechw'an ffl j|| Provinces ;
eottonrcloth in Hupeh fjjfl 4fc ; fans, household furniture, lacquer
ware and matting in Kwangtung J| J[ ; varnished tiles in Hu-
nan Jig^; dyes in Chihli jt ^^ and Ohekiang§f^; and almost
everywhere paper, earthenware, bricks and coffins.

404

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

Two manufactures deserve to be especially mentioned :
porcelain and sUk, both of which were formerly in a flourishing
condition. The porcelain of Kiangsi ^ g obtained world-wide
celebrity, and was in great demand on account of its brilliant
colours, its exquisite finish and its quaint designs. In 1850,
the T'aip'ing -j^ ip rebels destroyed the kilns, which have
since been rebuilt, but the articles turned out are far from
equalling in colour and finish those of former times. (See Kiang-
si. p. 144). The gilks and aauzes of Soochow j^ ;H'l and Nan-
king 1§ S in Kiangsu XL ^, and of Hangchow ^ ^ in Oh6-
kiang ^ fL, are highly valued throughout China, but are in
little demand by foreigners, as they have neither the lustre,
variety or finish of the French, Italian or Japanese silks.

Industry on a large scale is carried on principally at the
open ports. Cotton-spinning and weaving mills (17 in all) are
established in Shanghai J; f^, Hank'ow ^ P, Wuch'ang ^ g,
Ningpo ^ '^ and Foochow ^ ^ ; sUk-fllatures in Shanghai,
Soochow 1^ t)^ and Canton ^ y^; dockyards in Shanghai, Foo-
chow and T'ientsin 5c W' ^'^Oar refineries in Canton; steel-
works in Hanyang ^ ^ (Hupeh Jj^ 4fc Province); arsenals in
Shanghai, Wuch'ang and T'ientsin; mints in Peking ^fc ^i
Nanking'^ ]§r, Canton and other Provincial capitals; large
printing establishments in Shanghai, T'ientsin, Foochow and
Canton.

References

La Mission Lyonnaise, 1808. — (Voir sur-
tout dans la 2^ partie : DhcIos. Rapport
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nan, au Koci-tcheou. — Antoine et
ndtral. Bapport sur la sole. — Riault.
Rapport sur le Coton et les Cotonnades.
— Grosjean. Rapport sur les corps gras
et leurs d^rivfe).

Vecl&re. — Etude gSologicine et miniere
des ProTinoes Chinoises voisines du Ton-
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Monod. — Contribution k I'etude gfeologi-
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Ijeprince-Ringuet. — Etude geologique

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velle. Paris, 1902. (surtout 2« partie.

Ch. I).
Grandidier. — La C^ramique Chinoise.

Paris, 1894.
Chavannes. — La Sculpture sur pierre

en Chine au temps des 2 dynasties Han.

Paris, 1893.
Pal^ologue M. — L'Art Chinois. Paris,

1887.
de Marguerye R. — L'Art chez les Chi-
nois. Paris, 1904.

CHAPTER IV. MININfl AND INDUSTRY.

405

Iieboucq. — Vie de Ms'' Dubar. 1879. (In-
dustrie. Ch. v.).
Julien S. — Fabrication de la Porcelnine

Chiuoise. Paris, 1856.
Julien S. — Industries Anciennes et Mo-
dernes de I'Empire Chinois. Paris, 18Gfl.
Pol Korisan. — Metiers Chinois. (Dans
I'Echo de Chine, 1904-1905. passim).

Daryl P. — Le Monde Chinois. Paris, 1S85.
(L'Indastrie. Ch.IV. p. 50-63. Sole, ooton,
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— Associations on Guildes dans la vie
industrielle).

Bard E. — Les Chinois chez eux. Paris,
1900. (Les principaux jiroduits de la
Chine. Ch. XIX. p. 212-225. - Le Mar-
chand Chinois. Ch. XX. p. 210-249. —
Ee Peril Jaune, ou la concurrence du
travail Asiatique. Ch. XX. p. 2l6-239).

Strauss L. — La Chine : son Histoire, ses
Ressources. Paris, 1871. (Mines : houille,
petrole, fer, cuivre, metaux preoieux.
p. 336-422. — Industrie, p. 423-428\

Antonini. — Au Pays de Chine. Paris.
(L'Industrie. (Ch. IV. p. 196-204).

Bonacosi. — La Chine et les Chinois.
Paris, 1847. (Manufactures et Industries.
Ch. XII. p. 186-190).

frisson M. — Etudes sur la Chine. Paris,
18C6. (I'Industrie. p. 127-1S6).

De Courcy.— L'Empire du Milieu. Paris,
1867. (Industrie : metallurgie, cerami-
que, poterie, laque. Livre V. Ch. II. p.
444-468).

Tillot M. — Notes Commeroiales sur la
Chine. Chang-hai, 1901.

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
(Geology and Mineralogy of China. Vol.
III. Ch. V. p. 266-282).

Grosier. — General Description of China.
London, 1795. (Mines of China, metals,
stones, clays. Vol. I. Book IV. Ch. IV.
p. 398-422.— Silks and porcelain of China.
Vol. II. Book VIII. Ch. XL p. 1.51-479).

Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (Industrial Arts of the Chi-
nese ; metallurgy and porcelain. Vol. II.
Ch. XV. p. 113144).

GutzlaffC. — On the Mines of the Chi-
nese Empire. (N.C.B.E.A. Soo. 1847. N"
1. art. 5).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1.''42. (Industrial Arts, metallurgy.— Silk
and porcelain manufacture. Vol. II. Ch.

XVII. p. 216-250).
Mining in China. — N. China fiirald.

April 2, 1864.
Riehthofen. — Letters. Shanghai, 1873.
Ricllthofen. — The Distribution of Coal
in China. (Ocean Highways. Nov. 1?73).

Gundry R. S. — China Past and Present.
London, 1^95. (Edict in favour of Mining;
Mineral resources. Ch. V. p. 109-119. —
Industries, cotton manufacturing in the
East. Appendix G. — The Hanyang iron
and steel mills. Appendix E.).

liCroy-Beaulieu P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 1900. (Industries
limited to the open parts. — Salaries in
Shanghai. — Working hours in silk fac-
tories. Ch. VII. p. 237-241).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1898.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. X'li Edition.
London, 1902. — China: iProduction and
Industry. — Precious Metals.— Manufac-
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Lamprey. — Notes on the Geology of the
Great Plain. (N.C.B.R A. Soc. Decemb.
1865).

Edkins J. — The Bituminous Coal Mines,
West of Peking. (N.C.B.E.A. Soc. l'"67.
p. 243-2.50).

King'smill T. — Notes on some out-lying
coal-fields in the S. E. Provinces of
China. (N.C.B.E.A. Soc. 1866).

Bickmore A. S. — Notes on the Distri-
bution of Gold in China. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol.1, p. 22).

Williamson A. — Travels in North-
China. London, 1870.

Pumpelly R. — Geological Researches
inChina.(SmithsonianInstitute.January,
1866. Coal-fleldu).

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 19(i5.

Jernigan T. R. — China in Law and
Commerce. New-York, 1905. (Physical
Features. Ch. I. p. 1-32).

Jamieson 3. W. — Cotton Mills of China
(Diplomatic and Consular Report. China.
N° 629. Foreign Office, 1905).

nirth. — Ancient Porcelain : a Study in
Chinese Mediseval Industry and Trade.
Hongkong, 18S8.

Dushell S. W. — Chinese Porcelain before
the Present Dynasty.

Hippisley. — A Sketch of the History of
Ceramic Art in China, 1902.

406

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftEOGRAPHT.

On the Porcelain Rock of China. — (Ame-
rican Journal of Science. March, 1871).

Hodgson. — How to identify old China.
London, 1905.

Giles H. A. — Introduction to the Study
of Chinese Pictorial Art. London, 1906.

Bushell S. W. — Chinese Art. London,

1904.
Anderson W. — The Pictorial Arts of

Japan. Loudon, 1887.
Audsley G. A. — Keramic Art of Japan.

London, 1881.

CHAPTER V.

COMMERCE.

China's trade has undergone greater modifications than her manufactures. Up
to 1842, the whole foreign trade of the country was carried on only through two ports :
Macao and Canton, all the others being closed. Since then, 50 ports have been thrown
open, and every year sees new additions made to the list. China has reaped therefrom
a certain amount of prosperity and well-being, which, although still far inferior to those
of Europe, are however of no mean importance. She would undoubtedly benefit largely
were she to open her doors much wider. While being bettered by foreign products, the
export of her wealth would bring in gold and silver, and enable her to reach a higher
standard of perfection in her implements, methods and ways of transit.

For greater clearness, we will study her trade under three different headings :
the home trade, that carried on with the outlying dependencies of the Empire, and
finally her foreign or exterior trade.

Some Trade. — The home or inter-provincial trade
consists in the interchange of goods within the 18 Provinces.
It is by far the most important of the country, but impossible
to estimate through lack of efficient control and reliable statistics.
Its special feature is that of being largely a retail trmU. This
characteristic is carried to extremes owing to the currency in use,
the cash. This facilitates the retail sale of articles, which every-
where else would be effected wholesale.

We can however consider separately the retail and wholesale
trade of the country. The retail trade is carried on in the shops
of small towns, or at fairs which are held on fixed dates, now
in one place, now in another. A great variety prevails as to
the holding of these fairs in different Provinces, and even in
several parts of the same Province. The wholesale trade is

408 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHY.

monopolized by rich merchants or guilds. These sell wholesale
to shopkeepers, who retail the commodities to their customers.
Shopkeepers deal generally in only one kind of merchandise. Thus
there are rice, tea, opium, fur and other petty traders. Provin-
ces, rich families and guilds engage in special branches. There
are thus in China the tea-merchants of Nganhwet ^^, the rice-
merchants of JKwangtung ^ ^ and of Xiangsu ^ ^, and the
bankers of Shansi |Jj 'g. In regard to families, suffice it to
mention the rice spirit of the Xm Fikin family in Peking ^ ^,
and the tea of the jFanj/ family in Nganhwei ^%. Inter-provincial
trade is also extensively carried on. Thus Hunan ^ '^ sends
its coal to Hupeh fj^ 4k i Bupeh exports its cotton-cloths to Sze-
chw'an \S )\\, Hwdchow ;^ ^ and Hunan j^ ^; Ktvanglung
^ ^ sends its fans, Nganhwei ^ f|J its Indian ink, and Kiangsi
jX. W its porcelain, to every Provinpe of the Empire.

Trade wltli tbe ontlyliig Dependencies of the Empire.

(Tibet, Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia, Manchuria). — The 18

Provinces export to the outlying dependencies of the Empire
the following articles : tea, silk, Opium, Chinaware and foreign-
made piece-goods. They import furs, musk, jade, ponies (from
Mongolia), and beancake (from Manchuria).

Foreign Trade. — Foreign trade is carried on through
the open ports with Japan, Hongkong, India, the United States,
Hurope etc.

Importance of China's Foreign Trade. — The impor%
tance of China's foreign trade is annually increasing. It has
almost trebled since 1891. The following are the statistics
published by the Imperial Maritime Customs since the above
mentioned year. By Net Imports, the Customs understand the
value of the foreign goods imported direct from foreign coun-
tries, less the value of the foreign goods re-exported' to foreign
countries during the given year. All values are in Haikwan
taels (seei,gpld equivalent of the Haikwan tael from 1870-1906.

p. ai,9)i.,v ....,,

CHAPTBR V. COMMBRCK.

Animal Value of the Foreign Trade of China, 1891-1905-

409

Year.

Net
Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1S91

131,003,863

100,947,849

234,951,712

1892

135,101,198

102,583,525

237,684,723

1S93

151,362,819

116,632,311

267,995,130

1891

162,102,911

128,104,522

290,207,433

1895

171,696,715

143,293,211

314,989,926

1896

202,589,994

131,081,421

333,671,415

1S97

202,828,625

103,501,358

366,329,983

1898

209,579,334

159,037,149

368,616,483

1899

264,748,456

195,784,832

460,533,288

1900

211,070,422

158,996,752

370,067,174

1901

268,302,918

169,656,757

437,959,675

1902

315,363,905

214,181,584

529,515,489

1903

326,739,133

214,352,407

511,091,600

1904

314,060,608

239,486,683

583,541,291

1905

447,100,791

227,888,197

674,988,988

Principal Foreign Countries -witii wlilcli Cbtna
trades. — The distribution of the trade among the principal
countries of the world is shown in the following table. The
figures given cover the years 1903-1905, and include the sum
total of imports and exports.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-1905.

1 Country.

1903

1904

1905

Total, Hk.Taels.

Total,Hk.Taels.

Total,Hk.Taels.

Great Britain.

60,627,867

72,490,918

104,536,613

Hongkong.

225,716,058

227,913,027

229,523,841

British India.

35,800,246

34,606,493

37,518,977

Singapore and Straits.

7,301,757

7,729,070

7,864,569

Australia and New Zealand.

472,802

713,146

1,610,675

South Africa (including Mauritius).

52,497

100,522

68,775

Canada.

1,081,828

2,693,735

2,794,0-19

United States of America.

45,399,394

66,268,921

103,917,010

Philippine Islands.

875,745

1,080,757

966,977

Mexico and Central America.

47,16fe

410 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOMIC aBO&HAPHY.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1903-1905. (continued).

Country.

1903

1901

1906

Total, Hk.TaelB.

Total, ffli.'ftielB.

Total, Hk.Tael8.

South America.

4,948

26,033

13,084

German;.

20,223,724

Prance.

22,683,867

Belgium.

ll,821,02fl

Italy.

8,595,098

Austria and Hungary.

1,828,622

Netherlands.

1,961,331

Norway, Sweden, Denmark.

147,261

Spain and Portugal.

70,688

Macao.

7,146,247

7,953,834

7,745,616

Russia, European Ports.

6,097,757

7,226,473

5,501,044

Bussia and Siberia by land Frontier.

6,386,509

2,203,129

2,923,478

Bussia, Pacific Forts.

2,648,701

94,236

3,024,607

Korea.

2,684,949

2,270,015

3,939,628

Japan and Formosa.

80,731,778

88,150,914

96,780,211

French Indo-China.

3,186,888

4,708,468

3,978,264

Siam.

1,225,329

1,556,272

1,506,637

Dutch Indies.

4,167,565

5,557,362

5,036,850

Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden.

2,072,308

5,533,044

2,145,29-1

Principal Imports from Foreign Countries. — The principal imports from
Foreign Countries are set out in the following table. The figures range from 1903-1905,
and the values are given in Haikwan taels.

Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905.

Description of Goods.

1903

190i

1905

Value : Hk. Tls.

Value : Hk. Tls.

Value : Hk. Tls.

Opium.

43,830,892

37,094,172

34,070,021

Cotton Goods (Shirtings, Drills,
T-Oloths).

128,620,004

124,083,305

181,452,953

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.

511,053

1,032,882

1,193,434

Woollen Goods.

3,965,898

4,161,319

4,240,751

Miscellaneous Piece Goods.

1,6.52,650

1,958,859

2,036,000

Metals.

15,316,323

21,234,775

45,428,998

Coal and Coke.

■ 8,488,788

7,160,675

7,121,953

Cigars and Cigarettes.

2,510,768

3,279,713

4,734,579

Tobacco.

507,739

851,825

1,614,323

Dyes, (3olours and Paints.

4,809,681

5,173,525

6,452,727

CHAPTER V. COMUEHCE. 411

Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1903-1905. (continued).

Description of Goods.

1908

1904

1905

Value ;Hk.Tls.

Value :Hk.Tls.

Value ; Hk.Tls.

Fish and Fishery Products.

4,742,677

5,510,956

8,828,542

Bags of all kinds.

1,699,418

961,661

2,032,423

Candles.

644,567

562,705

1,384,054

Flour.

2,869,708

3,591,071

3,706,159

Ginseng.

1,779,413

1,412,384

2,000,283

Glass and Glassware.

1,357,597

1,170,710

1,481,830

Kerosene Oil, American.

6,679,769

13,214,908

11,378,271

,, Homeo.

89,192

49,897

1,097,371

„ Burma.

143,745

175,516

„ Eussian.

2,382,040

5,535,946

1,700,439

„ Sninatra.

6,925,928

8,963,547

5,935,492

Leather.

1,047,011

1,213,437

I,799,.576

Machinery and Fittings.

2,169,.')00

2,660,039

5,336,927

Matches, Japanese.

3,808,949

4,743,209

5,558,130

Medicines.

1,336,696

1,506,297

1,908,573

Paper.

2,372,463

2,549,032

2,453,039

Kioe.

7,650,711

8,379,530

8,554,971

Railway Plant and Materials.

7,996,325

6,046,459

7,346,739

Soap.

1,1.57,391

911,051

1,564,461

Stores, Household.

1,372,445

1,491,817

2,384,534

Timber, Hard-wood.

781,643

998,990

809,277

„ Soft-wood.

1,328,463

1,496,991

2,309,130

Sugar, Brown.

4,787,995

5,498,510

7,363,053

„ Candy.

1,292,266

1,387,918

1,578,189

„ Refined.

6,285,546

6,838,723

8,248,312

„ White.

3,596,244

4,556,307

5,432,548

Wines.

943,312

903,532

1,016,351

Spirits.

395,225

504,094

1,272,204

Beer and Porter.

600,939

669,883

739,862

All these imports come from different countries. Thus, cotton yarn from
India ; cotton goods from Great Britain and the United States of America ; opium
from India; kerosene oil from the United States of America, Sumatra and Russia ; wine
from France ; matches from Japan; rice from Indo-China; aniline dyes and colours
from Germany; flour from the United States of America and window-glass from Bel-
gium. In thus speaking, we do not mean to state that all the matches are imported
solely from Japan, or all the window-glass from Belgium, but we wish to point out the
supply-source whence such articles are chiefly derived. Likewise, it must not be inferred
from the above table relating to the trade of the various countries, that all the products
come from these countries themselves. Thus Hongkong, and to a large extent Great-
Britain too, are furnishers of imports manufactured in other countries, but shipped in
English bottoms.

412

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BEOGHAPHY.

Principal Exports to Foreign Countries. — The toUowing table shows the
principal exports from China to Foreign Countries for the years 1903, 1904 and 1905.
The values are given in JSaikwan taels.

Principal Net Exports to Foreign Countries, 1903-1905.

Description of Goods.

1903

1904

1905

Value : Hk.Tls.

Value; Hk.Tls.

Value: Hk.Tls.

Silk."

74.,2S9,703

78,255,412

70,393,833

Tea.' ' ' ' ' ' '

'20,233,573

30,031,964

25,445,652

Raw Cotton.

13,294,611

24,811,595

12,029,326

SMks (Furs), Skin Clothing, Rugs.

5,.5o3,113

7,327,542

9,684,286

Beans.

5^550,3-14

4,926,805

6,931,876

Beancake.

5,293,496

2,355,918

6,188,347

Straw Braid.

4,127,206

4,502,820

2,210,688

Sheep's Wool.

2,475,455

4,602,344

6,070,157

Hides, Cow and Buffalo.

4,718,100

7,142,420

4,995,749

Oils (Bean, Groundnut, Tea, Wood,

3,587,381

4,832,105

4,095,985

Paper. LAniseed, Cassia).

3,496,360

3,766,700

3,551,631

Tin, in Slabs.

2,034,717

3,200,788

3,441,547

Mats and Matting.

4,1J0,456

3,389,642

3,129,330

Cattle (Sheep, Pigs, Goats).

2,679,755

3,120,190

3,210,100

Bristles.

1,988,209

2,497,949

2,555,610

Firecrackers and Fireworks.

2,433,951

2,717,906

2,972,256

Hemp.

1,716,043

1,854,131

2,3.52,007

Medicines.

1,891,910

1,946,788

2,111,616

Sugar.

987,977

1,356,179

2,194,490

Eggs.

1,677,080

2,651,860

2,021,589

Provisions and Vegetables.

2,923,735

2,100,802

2,474,703

Sesamum Seed.

2,029,996

535,930

2,349,746

Tobaco, Leaf and Prepared.

2,025,023

2,565,400

2,312,713

Chinaware.

2,203,713

1,663,921

1,721,474

Fruits of all kinds.

1,653,177

1,785,407

1,671,992

Grassolofch.

660,249

768,983

1,259,586

Fish and Fishery Products.

992,011

967,553

1,164,337

Timber-and Wood of all kinds.

1,400,680

1,390,336

1,135,246

Vermicelli and Macaroni.

1,180,955

1,434,305

1,377,962

Principal Re-exports. — The value of China's re-exports
is inconsiderable. The total was in 1904, Hk. Tls. 13,384,055;
and in 1905, Hk. Tls. 14,093,741. The following table will
exhibit the most important articles for the years 1904 and 1905,
with their equivalent values in Haikwan taels.

CHAPTER , y, CpM^IEHqE.

Principal Re-exports, 1904-,1905.

413

Di-sci'iptioii of Goods.

1904

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Cotton Goods.

5,017,815

5,020,064

Formosa Tea,

3,9-1.5,915

2,.554,609

Metals.

410,785

889,233

Coal.

491,875

611,625

Household Stores.

71,33 1

516,867

Kerosene Oil.

471,445

512,309

Ginseng.

297,820

435,684

Opium.

174,721

219,626

Flour.

5,633

232,118

Condensed Milk.

8,305

181,539

Woollen Goods.

171,394

173,962

Bags of all kinds.

333,328

168,-;83

Sugar.

33,249

122,410

Ceylon Tea.

44,055

82,795

Spirits.

26,623

225,277

Beer and Porter.

11,762

142,7-13

Wines.

36,589

106,587

Value and Importance of tlie principal articles of
trade. — The principal imports to China are 6 : Cotton piece
goods, opium, metuls, kerosene oil, machinery, railway plant
and materials. The following table shows the details of cotton
goods supplied from 1903-1905.

Importation of Cotton Piece Goods and Yarn.

Description.

1903

1904

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.

31,818,938

30,602,826

fl5,.387,593

Drills, Jeans, T-Cloths,

10,113,635

9,616,902

21,-525,938

Fancy Cottons (Italians, Hastings,
Spanish Stripes).

19,311,126

24,348,009

27,330,425

Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls
and Spools.

67,376,305

59,515,568

67,208,997

Cotton fabrics are imported especially from the United
States of America and from England, and in lesser quantity from
Japan, Germany and India.

414

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

Cotton yarn is imported principally from India and Japan.
The following table shows the quantity supplied from 1903-
1905.

Importation of Cotton Tarn.

1908

190t

190S

Hk. TlB.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Indian.

45,279,099

42,406,135

47,656,392

Japanese.

20,759,664

15,97-'),390

17,791,368

English.

640,568

363,666

815,430

Hongkong.

208,426

118,226

77,727

The sorts of Opium imported from 1903-1905 were as follows.

Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1905.

1903

190i

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Benares.

8,139,056

6,161,982

6,537,092

Malwa.

17,024,215

16,097,055

12,899,986

Patna.

16,384,857

13,160,719

13,745,796

Other kinds (Persian).

2,282,764

1,674,416

889,147

Net Importation of Opium into the Open Ports. — The following table
shows the exact quantity of opium which passed into consumption at the principal
ports from 1900-1905.

Opium ; Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1900-1905.

Port.

1900

Piculs.

1901

1902

1903

1901

1905

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Shanghai.

13,173

13,859

14,950

17,492

15,203

14,811

Canton.

6,915

8,013

8,499

9,461

9,453

10,209

Swatow.

5,248

4,838

4,921

5,891

4,865

4,129

Foochow.

2,921

2,702

3,418

4,419

3,851

3,301

Amoy.

2,457

2,556

3,4?6

3,919

3,422

3,299

ChSnkiang.

3,960

3,S56

2,996

3,508

3,462

2,351

Hangchow.

1,797

1,852

1,870

2,227

2,487

2,099

Ningpo.

2,559

2,357

2,025

2,207

2,209 ■

1,814

Lappa.

1,591

1,110

1,406

1,089

1,276

1,783

Kiukiang.

2,223

2,116

1,785

2,240

2,418

1,715

Wuhu.

2,453

1,980

1,325

2,255

2,360

1,625

K'iungohow.

532

382

422

190

450

1,075

CHAPTER V. COMMBRCK.

415

The Picul is equivalent to 133 ^ lbs avoirdupois, or 60,453
kilogrammes.

The principal easports from China are gOJe and tea.
These two articles constituted up to 1880 more than 80% of the
whole export. The following tables show the various kinds,
value and quantity of each of these exports.

Sorts of Silk exported, 1903-1905.

Description.

1903

1904

1095

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Silk, Raw, White.

11,603,374

19,581,790

13,524,010

„ Yellow.

3,649,601

3,357,323

3,866,402

„ wua.

4,673,^34

9,861,668

8,639,062

„ Steam Filature.

31,284,941

28,526,115

27,395,999

Cocoons.

2,704,268

945,685

1,344,286

Waste Silk.

5,016,037

3,014,202

4,288,525

Cocoons, Refuse.

402,503

400,519

555,818

Piece Goods.

12,096,173

10,600,800

8,897,627

Shantung Pongees.

1,688,737

1,162,568

1,041,123

Products, TJuclassed.

1,170,035

804,742

840,981

Total Export of Silk to Foreign Countries for the past 10 years.

Raw,

Re-

Steam

Raw,

Waste

Refuse

Waste

Year.

White,

Yellow.

Keeled.

Filature.

Total.

Wild.

Cocoons.

Silk.

Cocoons.

Yarn.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

1896

28,547

6,775

9,673

27,041

72,036

16,370

11,020

44,937

6,823

1897

34,091

7,610

13,778

41,485

97,564

19,064

10,959

51,308

8,501

1898

32,738

7,746

10,799

41,050

92,333

16,489

9,058

68,737

9,526

1899

42,393

14,145

10,452

49,434

123,424

24,629

. 12,656

87,993

9,221

1900

22,204

11,267

9,519

35,277

78,267

18,867

9,148

58,312

9,643

86

1901

29,187

13,669

15,903

49,937

108,696

20,499

8,585

66,044

11,710

12

1902

22,280

12,536

1.5,146

50,557

100,519

19,179

13,436

72,436

11,962

23

1903

12,703

9,375

6,638

43,979

72,695

22,127

19,430

79,822

16,879

207

1904

21,260

10,374

12,964

47,'2o7

91,885

33,527

11,015

66,781

14,719

101

1905

15,413

10,718

8,857

45,347

80,335

25,584

14,207

87,114

20,806

53

Silk is priticipally purchased by France (74,100 piculs in
1904, and 70,820 in 1905), which takes alone annually about

416

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHY.

250,000,000 francs worth {£ 10,000,000), or 12 % of the total
export. Italy comes next, having taken 22,116 plculs in. 1904,
and 21,620 in 1905. The United States of America hold the
thii:d, place,; having taken 17,800 piculs in 1904, and 16,246 in
1905. The great silk exporting centres are Shanghai and Ganton.
China's silk trade is at present in an unsatisfactory condition.
The eggs of the worms are diseased and nothing is done to
remedy the evil. In the Shanghai district, from 1000 eggs,
400 are failures, 300 arrive at the spinning stage, while the
remainder produce only inferior cocoons. To make a picul of
silk, it took formerly 3 to 4 piculs of cocoons, now it takes 4 to
6, and the article produced is of inferior quality. The total
value of the silk export of 1904 was Hk. Tls. 78,255,412, and
in 1905, Hk. Tls. 70,393,833, a falling off of 7,861,579 taels.

Sorts of Tea exported, 1903- isos.

Description.

1903

190$

1905

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Tea, Black. '

13,144,875

16,.547,796

12,721,213

„ Green.

8,362,574

9,469,737

8,292,474

„ Brioli, Black.^

2,983,880

3,576,846

3,366,263

„ „ Green.

1,690,240

406,910

586,750

„ Tablet.

159,569

115,388

123,930

„ Dust.

2,436

65,287

54,967

Total Export of Tea to Foreign Coimtries for the past 10 years.

Year.

Black.

Green.

Brick.

Tablet.

Dust.

Total.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

1896

912,417

216,999

566,899

16,234

292

1,712,841

1897

764,915

201,168

588,298

6,149

1,628

1,532,1.58

1898

847,133

185,306

498,425

7,117

619

1,538,600

1899

935,578

213,798

474,026

6,105

1,288

1,630,795

1900

863,374

200,425

316,923

3,027

575

1,384,324

1901

665,499

189,430

293,522

8,570

972

1,157,993

1902

687,288

253,757

570,037

7,156

973

1,519,211

1903

749,116

301,620

618,158

7,679

657

1,677,530

1904

749,002 ,

241,146

447,695

4,550

8,856

1,451,249

1905

597,045

242,128

518,498

4,859

6,768

1,369,298

CHAPTER V. COMMERCE.

417

Tea: Exportation

Direct to Foreign Countries,

1905.

Destination.

Black.

Green.

Brick.

Tablet.

Dust.

Grand
Total.

Piouls.

Piqnls.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Great Britain.

252,841

31,524

68,303

1,185

353,853

Hongkong.

81,976

1,645

7

31

83,659

Other British Colonies.

14,970

13,416

44

28,430

United States of America.

62,673

116,884

2,566

182,123

Russia (European Ports).

1,637

59,477

88,781

2,347

152,242

Russia and Siberia (by land
frontier).

67,410

320,225

1,327

9,336

395,298

Russia (Pacific Ports).

15,927

103

36,958

71

53,059

Continental Europe (Russia
excepted).

51,681

6,829

1,540

15

39,317

Turkey, Persia, Egypt.

25,293

3,944

29,237

The princtpal marts for the export of tea are BanJ^ow ^

P in Hupeh ^ :|fc, Slianghai J; ^ in Kiangsu fx, 0, Foochow
^ jt| in Fokien jjg ^, and Canton or Kwangchow Fu ^ ^Itl
^ in the Province ol Kwangtung ^ ^. Hank'ow exports its
article principally to Siberia and Russia in the shape of brick
tea. Two-thirds of this tea come from Hunan ^ ^ and Hupeh
jj^ :(t, and the remaining one-third from Kiangsi f£ |f. Black
tea is exported chiefly to Great Britain, and green tea to the
United States of America, this latter country taking in 1905
about 15 \ million lbs, or nearly half the total output. Of
late years, China's tea business has degenerated, and now occupies
but a secondary place in the list of exports. The growth and
preparation of the leaf are carelessly attended to, and the packing
is at times fraudulent. Thus in 1904, the London Customs
rejected 6000 chests of scented capers, as adulterated with iron
filings and sand, and totally unfit for use. In 1905, a Chinese
Commission visited the tea districts of India and Ceylon, but so
far no steps have been taken to improve the produce, and place
on the market a leaf of better quality and purity.

Importance of the Commerce of the various Ports [see
Imperial Maritime Customs, p. 328).

SJiare taken hy each Fweign Country in tits Foreign TraOe
of China, 1903-1905.

27

418

SECTION T. POLITICAL AND RCONOHiC OEOaRAPHT.

SMppu^

: Vessels entered and cleared, 1903-190f

).

Flag. ■

1903

190$

190S

1903

1904

1906

No

No

No

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

British.

25,927

31,298

30,442

28,122,987

32,933,873

35,095,658

Japanese. -

7,554

5,755

5,850

7,965,a58

4,290,350

6,238,918

German.

6,424

6,841

7,337

■7,310,427

7,602,304

8,187,871

French. '

2,596

2,647

6,184

1,178,200

1,264,320

1,699,121

■ Norwegian.

1,184

1,528

3,246

1,136,056

1,349,868

2,922,826

i

American.

736

716

689

559,686

924,809

1,293,416

■Russian.

765

81

36

569,903

56,279

82,155

Portuguese.

326

726

926

28,064

83,466

146,290

Danish.

125

70

68

158,692

82,623

72,337

Swedish.

119

68

178

103,798

54,780

156,466

Dutch. ,

78

101

119

.112,811

183,197

227,500

Austrian.

49

50

52

99,616

155,202

195,705

Korean.

60

40

6

33,382

10,176

1,296

Italian.

1

44

65

200

12,286

19,906

•^

'Spanish.

- 2.

6

84

8,7.W

Chinese SMppii^.

1908

190«

1905

1903

1904

1905 ;

Vessels of the
Foreign Type.

Junks.

No
22,697
. 8,011

No
25,482

121,383

No
35,076

113,679

Tons.
9,510,631

400,578

Tons.
9,779,152

4,988,819

Tons.
11,349,911

5,057,441

All these vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the
entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.

Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports,

Share taken by each ^Nationality.

Chinese Flag, and hav<

1904-1905.

" Flag.

Clearances and Entries

Total Tonnage

at Treaty Ports.

Outwards and Inwards.

1904

1905

1904

1905

British.

33,998

21,768

22,897,301

25,369,349

Chinese.

20,601

88,584

9,759,749

12,754,408

Japanese.

3,858

25,222

3,920,988

5,747,39.3

German.

4,981

5,299

5,169,346

.5,543,198

Norwegian.

486

1,476

416,441 .

'1,277,978

French.

1,366

2,807

300,875

393,868

American.

110?

172

172,524

166,097

Swedish.

37

106

28,199

94,201

Dutch.

IS

33

24,998

50,142-

Portuguese.

. 200

274

23,510

46,222

Danish.

,28

43

23,250

,, 30,264

Bnssian.

67

.7

39,583

11,747

Italian.

33

36

10,405

11,034

Austrian.

'■ '" 1

■2

2,929

6,642

Korean.

29

2

4,089

240,

CHAPTER V. COMMERCE. 419

Shanghai : Gross and Net Values of the Trade of the Fort, 1903-1905.

Foreign Goods.

Imported from Foreign
Countries and Hong-
kong — «.«.

Imported from Chinese
Ports „ _

Total Foreign Im-
ports -.

Re-exported to Foreign
Countries and Hong-
kong

Ee-exported to Chinese
Ports (chiefly to
Northern and Yang-
tze Ports) _.._

Total Foreign Ee-ex-
ports.

Net Total Foreign
Imports. _ _.

Native Produce.

Imported (chiefly from
Northern and Yang-
tze Ports) _

Re-exported to Foreign
Countries.

Re-exported to Chinese
Ports

Total Native Re-ex-
Net Total Native Im-
ports _

Native Produce of
local origin export-
ed to Foreign Count-
ries

Native Produce of
local origin export-
ed to Chinese Ports.

Total Exports of
local origin

Gross Value of the
Trade of the Port.

Net Value of the
Trade of tlie Port,

i.e., Foreign and Nati-
ve Imports, less Re-
exports, and Native
Exports of local origin.

1903

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

184,192,059
1,028,397

185,221,3£6

5,791,949

140,'j2S,693

14(!,0l.5,642

100,9S7,li9
63,365,074
23,006,994

86,372,068

37,885,668
27,156,536

351,200,609

Net.

Hk. Tls.

39,205,714

H,!.65,081

65,042,101

118,812,899

igoi

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

195,025,937
1,880,061

196,905,998
9,008,612

142,609,286

151,617,898

127,S7C,828
78,822,999
29,093,193

107,966,192

61,191,1
28,99S,(

Net.

Hk. Tls.

i§,288,100

20,004,636

80,187,434

145,480,170

1905

Gross.

Hk. Tls.

258,381,?. /S
1,191,337

26S,&7S,765
10,199,186

157,169,406

167,368,592

112,247,251
69,120,.537
30,485,940

99,606,477

38,841,094

33,263,152

443,954,262

N'it.
Hk. Tls.

12,667,774

72,104,246

176,979,198

(See above : Gross and Net Values of the Trade of Shanghai, 1900-1906, p.

420

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOailAPHY.

Percentages of Trade and share of each Nationality, together with the total
foreign population of Chinai and the number of foreign commercial houses for the years
1904-1905.

Nationality.

Percentages of Traile.

Commercial Houses.

Persons. |

19(3

1906

1904

1905

" 1904"

1905

British.

52,89

50,78

436

434

5,981

8,493

Chinese.

27,05

24,98

German.

10,02

9,92

173

197

1,*'71

1,850

Norwegian.

2,07

5,24

8

10

186

166

Japanese.

3,92

4,12

650

729

9,139

16,910

French.

2,25

2,06

67

77

1,374

2,143

American.

0,78

1,82

106

105

3,220

3,380

Austrian.

0,,S9

0,25

15

17

205

250

Dutch.

0,16

0,18

15

9

209

181

Swedish.

0,12

0,37

1

1

122

137

Italian.

0,01

22

22

366

412

Russian.

0,28

0,19

21

19

308

682

Danish.

0,06

0,07

11

13

198

201

Belgian.

6

8

286

273

Portuguese.

0,01

0,01

36

44

3,387

2,462

Spanish.

0,01

0,01

32

7

278

249

Population and Commerce or the Open Ports. —

We have given in this work the estimated population of the
large cities of the Chinese Empire. Approximate as it is, it
affords at least valuable information on the relative importance
of the principal centres of population. We now append here
the population and annual value of the trade of each of the open
ports. The list of the Ports is arranged alphabetically, and the
statistics are taken from the returns of the Imperial Maritime
Customs.

Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Fort, 1903-1905-

Port.

1903

19M

1905

Population.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Amoy (Hsiamfen).

S PI

16,985,898

17,204,571

18,654,610

114,000

Canton (KwangohowPu).

m.9Km

110,559,826

96,247,076

92,243,650

900,000

Ch'angsha.

^ *

2,^17,514

5,895,830

500,000

Chefoo.

S S

38,1^3,912

34,255,175

39,131,384

82,000

ChSnkiang.

H \x.

34,439,707

32,323,204

3.S,344,208

168,000

Ch'ungk'ing.

m m

29,222,120

29,403,966

27,731,027

620,000

Fooohow.

m M

16,738,718

17,265,968

17,724,198

624,000

CHAPTER y. COHMBRCB.

421

Annual Net Value of the Whole Trade of each Port, 1903-1905. (continued).

Port.

1903

1904

1906

Population.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls,

Hk. Tls.

Hangohow.

«t

m

15,607,13.3

17,747,662

17,496,980

.350,000

Hank'ow.

m

n

99,129,500

107,449,374

111,043,046

870,000

Ich'ang.

a:

s

3,189,566

2,961,227

3,263,670

45,000

Kiaochow.

m

m

14,59S,411

18,863,80^

22,322,680

120,000

Kinkiang.

n

u

22,935,791

24,317,560

23,228,644

36,000

K'iungchow.

m.

m

4,530,372

5,018,603

6,?76,804

35,000

Kongmoon (Kiangm^n).

it

n

2,571,126

3,461,444

55,000

Kowloon (Kiulnng).

A

m

42,501,795

43,771,566

42,946,800

f see

Lappa (Kungpeh).

m

*

16,756,562

17,733,132

16,8.18,584,

(Hongkong

Lungchow.

ft

m

132,414

395,526

230,452

12,000

Mengtze.

m

g

6,435,578

10,717,299

9,592,945

12,000

NanMng.

m

^

7,352,.525

8,826,048

10,573,545

300,000

Newchwang.

^

(£

47,632,0.59

41,517,878

61,752,905

74,000

Ningpo.

^

^

22,210,093

21,297,412

19,163,630

260,000

Pakhoi (Peh-hai).

«

m

3,341,418

3,013,2.56

2,^30,938

20,000

SamBhai (Sanshni).

H

*

7,308,820

5,236,495

3,883,259

5,000

Santuao (Santungao).

^mm.

1,959,069

1,995,276

2,220,032

8,000

Shanghai.

±

m

118,812,899

145,480,170

176,979,193

840,000

Shashi.

a>

Kf

2,417,079

1,956,371

1,317,544

80,000

Soochow.

m

m

3,084,628

3,131,579

4,240,013

500,000

Swatow (Shant'eu).

m

m

43,792,227

49,280,786

48,005,.306

60,000

Szemao.

&

^

204,767

266,983

246,848

9,000

Tengyneh.

m

m

1,715,653

2,085,504

1,679,999

12,000

T'ientsin.

^

m

68,729,061

68,954,691

96,.565,672

750,000

Ts'inwang-tao.

msE^

8,111,730

10,172,658

21,851,079

5,000

WSnchow.

&

m

2,589,333

2,388,699

2,257,021

80,000

Wuchow.

m

m

8,267,124

11,080,037

11,185,513

65,000

Wiihu.

m

m

24,542,783

23,223,383

30,623,809

137,000

Tohchow.

s

«

3,473,241

2,162,553

490,058

20,000

Grand Total.

686,800,092

720,125,962

821,029,259

7,768,000

Value of Exports abroad.

214,352,467

239,486,683

227,888,197

Value of Home Trade.

12'',647,510

132,036,189

131,800,777

The estimated population of each port is that of the Chinese inhabitants of these
cities. In Ta'ingtao ^ i^i a port situated at the entrance to Kiaochow ^ j^ bay, in
Shantung |lj ^, and leased to Germany by China in 1898, the Chinese population is
about 40,000, but if we include the sphere of interest, 120,000. The foreign civilian

422

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OKOftHAPHT.

population is 1,110. The German garrison of Kiaochow consists of 102 officers, 3,400
non-commissioned officers and men, and one battalion of the East Asiatic Garrison
brigade.

The share of Hongkong in the trade ef China amounted in 1903 to 31 % of the
imports and 14 % of the exports; in 1904, it reached 40 % of the imports and 30 % of the
exports, while in 1905, the imports attained 43 % but the exports dropped to 34 i %.

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Little A. — The Far Bast. Oxford, 1905.

Temple Sir R. — ^Progress of India, Japan
and China, in the Century. London,
1902. ' ""'

Jemigan T. R. — China's Business Met-
hods and Commerce. Shanghai, 1904.
fCommefoial Trend and Statistics of
Trade, p. 151-183. — The Tea and Silk

■ business.' — Tables of Chinese weights
and measures).

jemigan T. R. — China in Law 'and
Commerce. New- York, 1905. (Guilds'. -^
Business Customs. — Banks. — Weigiits,
measures and currency. Ch. IX-XII.
p. 205-308).

Pbilips G. — Early Portuguese Trade in
Fokien. (China Review. Vol. XIX. p. 42-
57).

Philips G. — Early Spanish Trade with
Changchow. (China Review. Vol. XIX.
p. 243-255. Vol. XX. p. 25-28).

Eitel E. J. — British Trade with China
A.D. 1625-1824. (China Review. Vol.
XX, XXI aud XXII).

Eitel E. J. — Hongkong from 1882-1890.
(China Review. Vol. XXII. p. 532-543).

Russian Trade at Kiakhta. — Chinese Re-
pository. (Vol. XIV. p. 280-288).

Chinese Guilds. — China Review. (Vol.
XII. p. 5-9).

Olavery E. — Hongkong : le PassS et le
Present. Paris, 1905.

R€au. — Le Role teonomique de Hong-
kong. (Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie
Fraufaise, 1903. p. 451-455).

Le Commerce Anglo-Chinois et le Com-
merce Pranoo-Chinois. — (Bulletin du
ComitS de I'Asie Framaise, 1905. p. 29-
33).

Bans d'Anty. — La Situation ^oonomique
au Seutchouan a la fin de 1901. (Bulletin
du Comite de I'Asie Franyaise, 1903. p. 22-
26).

424

SBCTION T. POLITICAL AMD BCONOUIC OEOaRAPHT.

Muret M. — Les AUemamls a Kiaotcheon.
(Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Framaise,
1906. p. 111-114.— Le rayonnement com-
mercial de Kiaotcheon. ibid, 1903. p. 393
and 506. Aotivite AUemande au Ohan-
toung. ibid. p. 156. — Les interets Alle-
mands en Chine, ibid. p. 121-122. — Pro-
gres de la navigation AUemande en Chine,
ibid. p. 43. — Anglais et Allemands en
Chine, ibid, 2136. — La nouvelle Politique
AUemande en Chine.ibid.l905.p.412-418).

Commerce BussoChinois par route de Kia-
khta. — DnUetin du Comity de I'Asie
Fran^aise, 1903. p. 489-470. — Commerce
aux frontieres Kusso-Chiuoises.ibid. 1905.
p. 123).

Commerce du Yunnan aveo la Birmanie.—
(BuUetin du Comite de I'Asie Fran^aise,
1906. p. 301).

Jamieson G. — Eocyclopoedia Britannica.
X" Edition. Tiondon, 1902. (China : Com-
merce, table of imports and exports. —
Shipping. — Treaty Ports).

Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce.
— (Minutes of Annual Meetings, Reports
and Memoranda).

Bou me. — Trade of Central and Southern
China. (MisceUaneous Series. Foreign
Office. London. 1899.

Byron Brenan. — British Commercial
Prospect in the Far East. (Journal of
the Society of Arts. March, 1905).

Blackburn China Mission. — Blackburn,
1896-97. (Taxation and Duties on Goods
at Treaty Ports. — Likin. Part I. p. 107-
177. — Currency in China, ibid. p. 178-
185. — Competition, ibid. p. 18.5-210. —
Cotton MiUs in China, ibid. p. 221-253. —
GnUds and their relations to Trade, ibid,
p. 307-3)9. — Consuls and Commerce,
ibid. p. 319-330. — Compradores and the
Compradore System, ibid. p. 323-330).

Uosie A. — Foreign Trade of China for the
years 1904-1905. (China. Diplomatic and
Consular Eeports. N° 3725. Foreign Office.
London. October, 1900).

Chronicle and Directory for China and
Japan. — Hongkong, 1907. (Published
annually ; contains description and trade
statistics of the principal Treaty Ports).

Philip. — Mercantile Marine Atlas. London,
1905.

China ; Imperial Maritime Customs. — De-
cennial Eeports. 1882-1891 and 1892-1901.
— Annual Returns of Trade and Trade
Eeports. — Abstract of Statistics and
Eeports on the Foreign Trade of China.
(Annually).

CHAPTER VI.

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

In no civilised country of the world are communications so
difficult as in China. Of late, a certain amount of progress has
been made in the Postal and Telegraph services, in railways
and steam-navigation along the coast and on the rivers, but
every thing is still to be done in regard to good roads and the
up-keep of canals.

Roads and Bridges. — Except the Government courier
roads, China has only footpaths of variable dimension, some of
which are paved or laid with flag stones, while others are
merely beaten tracks through the fields.

Ih the y., the roads widen out enough in the plains to
allow rough carts to travel on them. In the Centre and the 8.^
where the country is largely mountainous, they seldom exceed
5 feet in breadth. In Yunnan §^ however they attain 6 feet.
Jn the X. W., they are generally sunk deep between high walls
of loess or yellow earth.

Bridges are generally of stone and sometimes of wood. In the "W.f&s in Snechw'an
E9 }\\, there are some iron-chain suspension bridges, but they cannot bear heavy
burdens. In several places, where the river is too wide, bridges of boats are established.
The most famous is that of Lanchow Fu SB ^ ^ in Kansu "ff j^ Province. Fine stone
bridges with arches are found in several Provinces, especially in Seechw'an |Z9 )\\
and Fokien jj^ |£.

In the Central and Maritime Provinces, no governmental provision is made for
the repairing of roads and bridges, and all such public work is carried out at the
expense of the inhabitants of the locality. When traffic becomes actually impossible,
the officials levy a tax in the district to make the necessary repairs. It sometimes
happens, though seldom, that a well-to-do member of the local gentry, or some guilds
take the work in hand, in which case the latter collect themselves subscriptions
and supervise what is done. In the Western Provinces, where the population is scanty,
the officials have to make provisions for occasional repairs. They employ soldiers to do
the work, or impose it upon the population of the adjoining villages.

We have mentioned, when describing the 18 Provinces, the principal roads, and
here refer the reader to each of these Provinces (see each Province : Highways of
Communication).

426 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEO&RAPHT.

OoTernment Conrler Roads or Postal Htgliways, called
in Chinese Kwanma-Udu 1^ J^ :^ |^ (Public horse great roads), —
Such is the name applied to the principal roads which connect
Peking jjl^ JJC with the remote regions of the Empire. The
number of these roads is generally stated to be 21. Like the
customary tracks of the country, they adopt approximately a
straight line. They are often cut into the steep sides of mountains,
or run through them by means of tunnels. When the plain
expands, they attain a width of from 20 to 25 yards, and are
paved, and sometimes bordered with rows of trees. At intervals
of every 3 miles, a signal tower is erected. All along the way
are found inns, relay- posts and stations of soldiers. Taking
Peking as the centre or starting point, the following are the
principal of these roads :

. 1 — Peking i^ ]fC to Mukden, in Manchuria.

2 — Peking :j[^ ^ to Oh*engtu Pu ^ ^ ^ in Szechw'an Q

)\\. This road passes through PaiyUen Pu -^ J^^ ^ in
Shansi ||J |f , and thence proceeds to Singan lu |g ^
^ in Shensi |^ Q. Here it branches into two, one
leading to Lanelww JPm M jHj ji^ in Kansu -^ Jlf, the
other \o Chfengtii JU J^ ff ^ in Szechw'att H ]\\.

3 — Peking ft ^ to Tunnan Pu ^^ ^. Thisroad passes

via Weihwui Pu ^ )^ flj, Ji.*aifung Fu ^ j^ ^
and Ifanyang Pu ^ ^ ^ in Honan fpf ^ Province,
It thence proceeds to Sian^yang Pu ^ ^ ^ in Hupeh
M ^t. Ch'angteh -Ft* ^ ^ jjj and Tuenchmu Pu ix iW
}^ in Hunan Jjg ^, Kiveiyang Pu -^ \l^ ^ in Kweichow
;^ ^, and leads finally to Yunnan -F« S ^ jj^.

4 — Peking ft ]5C to Kweilin Pu :^ ^ J^ in Kwangsi ^ |f .

This road, like the preceding one, passes via Weifutmi
^« ^ H iff »n Honan fpf |g, Hai^ow ^ P in Hupeh ^
:|t, Ch'angaha Pu ^ ^ }ff in Hunan ^ ^, and thence
leads to KweiUn Pu^^iJ^, the Capital of Kwangsi J| |f .

5 — Peking ;|t j^ to Canton or Ktvangchmv Pu ^ ^ jff

This road passes through Nanch'ang -iP« $ g jff in
Kiangsi jX ^, and thence continues to CanUm,

CHAPTER VI. MEANS OP COMMUNICATION. 427

6 — Peking :|t ^ to JPoochow -FY* iji| ;H1 fl^ in Fokien f@ @.
This road passes via Chhihiang Fu ^ t[X.M ^^ Kiangsu
{n J^, Hamchow Fu |it >)i\ jjSf in Ch6kiang j|f tl, and
thence leads to Foochow Fu fg 'J^] fl^, the Capital of
Fokien |g ^ Province.
The up-keep of these roads is entirely neglected, and they
are almost impassable, especially in the rainy season.

Modes of Conveyance. — In the Northern Provinces the usual mode of convey-
ance for passengers is by cart drawn by ponies, mules or oxen. Some also travel in
sedan-chairs borne by carriers, or in mule-litters (both are however rare and reserved
for distinguished persons), and in barrows propelled by hand and sail. Others ride on
horseback or on mules and donkeys. For goods, conveyance takes place by ox-cart,
by mules, by camels and by donkeys. Goods are also transported to a large extent on
the shoulders of carriers. The three-mule cart is the most comfortable way of travelling
when one starts on a long journey. Besides the passengers, these carts will carry from 6
to 8 cwt weight of luggage. Beyond the main roads, carts cannot be used in Shensi ^ J9
and Kansii If ^, while in Sharisi (Ij If the highways are even in such a bad state
that it is difficult to travel on them.

In the Central aad Southern liegions, carts are seldom found. Passengers
travel on the barrow or sedan-chair. Others ride on ponies, mules or donkeys,
Jinrioshas are found only in the large towns and in the surroundings. Carriers are
even more numerous than in the North.

Waterways. — China possesses an excellent network of
waterways, especially in the Central Region. The principal are:
the Yangtze ^ ^ and tributaries ; the Si-kiang |f JQ and
tributaries ; the lower Peh-ho g }pf , the Min ^ or Foochow
river, the Iltvai-ho f(| pf in Nganhwei $ ;^ ; the Ts'ien-
t'ang-Jciang $^ ^ iL i" Chekiang, portions of the Hwang-ho
^ JpJ and tributaries, chiefly the Wei-ho ^ fpj (see these
rivers).

The Tangtze holds the foremost place with its tributaries :
the Han ^, the Szechw'an gg )\\ rivers, the Siang-kiang j^ X£
and Kan-kiang ^ ^. Its great lakes, its ever abundant water-
supply, all afford the greatest facilities for navigation.

Many of these water-courses are navigable only in the

flood-season. Others, near the seaboard, are available only when

>
the tide comes up.

Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas of the Tang-
tze and the Si-kiung. T-hey are carelessly looked after, and

428 SECTION y. political and economic geoorapht.

sometimes even quite neglected, the consequence being that they
become more and more filled up with silt.

The most important of these is the Orand Canai.

The Grand Canal or Imperial Canal, called in Chinese
Yii-ho ^ fpif (Imperial river), Yiin-ho ^ fjif (Transport river), or
Yiinliang-ho ^^^fpf (Tribute-bearing river). — The Grand Canal
extends from Hangchow ^K iW ^ •" Chfikiang, to T'ientsin ^
]$ ^ in Chihli ji[ ^, a distance of about 1000 miles.

According to the most reliable accounts, it was commenced
in the VI'^ century B.C., and finished in only A.D. 1283. The
most ancient part is that which lies between the Yangtze ^ ^
and the Hwai-ho fH fp[. The Southern part, extending from
Hangchow to Chenkiang, was constructed from A.D. 605 to 617.
The upper part, extending from the old bed of the Hwang-ho
^ j^ to T'ientsin, was constructed by the Emperor Shitsu ift j^
of the Yuen ^ dynasty, and completed within a space of 3 years
(A. D. 1280-1283). Shitsu then transferred his capital from
Hangchow iSiiflflJ to Peking ^t tf-- A.S the Northern Provinces
were not very fertile, and the trade along the seaboard unsafe,
he was forced to get provisions from the Southern Provinces.
He therefore resolved to complete the work left unfinished by
his predecessors.

The Sovthem portion, extending from Hangchow i^ )^ io
Chenkiang H jH, offers no difficulty as to its water-supply.
The slope is gentle and water is plentiful. Navigation on it is
easy. Boats are sometimes retarded by bridges, but there are
neither rapids nor locks to pass. The floods and tides of the
Hangchow river are the only obstacles to overcome. A strong
embankment has been constructed to maintain apart the water
of the river from that of the canal.

The Cattral portion, extending from the Yangtze ^ ^ to
Ts'ingkiangp'oo jg tE ^, is the most ancient. This part skirts
several large lakes. It was formerly fed by the Yangtze ^ •^,
and its stream flowed in a S.-W. direction. It is fed at the present
day by the waters of the Hwai-ho }|| fpf , as they issue from the
Hungtseh 0t ^ lake, and the stream runs in a N.-S. direction.

CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 429

The current is strong and difficult to ascend when one proceeds on
the upward journey. The level of the country lying to the W.
of the Grand Canal and called the Slutng-ho _[; fpf, (above the
river), is higher than the bed of the Canal, while the country to
the E., or Hsia-ho f ^ (below the river), is lower. Waste-
weirs constructed on the Eastern embankment, and opening on
the Hsia-ho, discharge the surplus waters in the flood-season,
and thus relieve the banks and hinder injury of the works.
There are few bridges in this portion of the Canal, but
numerous ferry-boats facilitate passing at almost every place.
This part of the Canal is far from offering the same advantages
for navigation, at least when one proceeds from S.-N., as the
Southern portion. Boats however can easily travel on it.

The yortfiern porWon, extending from Ts'ingkiangp'oo J^ f£
fjto T'ientsin^^}^, is the most recent and also the most difficult
for navigation, and hence the least utilized. Between Ts'ing-
kiangp'oo and the Hwang-ho ^ Jpf, the canal is fed from the
Hwai-ho f^ fpif and the W6n-ho 'SC fPf- The current flows in a
S.-N. direction from the junction of the Tawen-ho ^^ •j'jt }pf
with the Grand Canal at Nanwang f^ J£. The passage of the
Hwang-ho i^ fpf is difficult. If the water fails to rise 7 J feet
beyond the ordinary level, junks are unable to cross it. If it
rises higher, the current becomes too strong, and so travellers
must at times wait a whole month before an opportunity offers
to cross it. At Lints'ing ^ J^, the Canal joins the Wei-ho ^j
^, borrows its channel, and is again easily navigated. From
Ts'ingkiangp'oo to Lints'ing, the Canal is navigable with diffi-
culty. Water is often lacking, and the locks or chah ^ (such
is the term applied to the narrows that stem the velocity of the
current, and establish a strong difference of level above and
below) constructed to remedy this drawback, are passed with
difficulty. On the up-voyage, the boat must be hoisted by means
of hawsers, while in the downward trip, it must be kept in
check. There are numerous capstans, and hands are not wanting
(about 80 or 100 men are at work at times), nevertheless the
operation is not performed without trouble and risk of danger.

'^30 SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEO&BAPHT.

The tribute-fleet, which carried the rice to Peking, formerly
followed this way, and comprised 4,000 to 5,000 boats divided
into 65 sections. The voyage was performed but once annually.
Of late years, the grain despatched to Peking is largely forwarded
by the sea route, through the agency of the "China Merchants'
Steamship Company".

As a means of communication between N. and S., this part
of the Canal is at present of little value, as it is defectively
constructed, silted up by the mud-laden waters of the Hwang-
ho, and rendered ineffective through official neglect.

In its Southern and Central portions, the Grand Canal,
although badly kept up, is much more utilized, and several
thousands of boats traffic on it. Prom Ts'ingkiangp'oo to Tien-
tsin, travellers frequently hire carts which jolt them on to Peking.

Numerous officials were formerly entrusted with the up-keep
of the Grand Canal, under the control of a JHreetor-General of
the Grain Transport, or TS'aoyun Taungtuh }f M Hi '^^ "^^^^
official was of equal rank with the Viceroys. He resided at
Ts'ingkiangp'oo, as well as his first Assistant, who bore the title
of Tribute Taot'ai, or Ts'ao-Hot'ai ^| Jjg^ §. The office of Director-
General of the Grain Transport was abolished in January, 1905.

Railways. — The pioneer railway of China was constructed
by the firm of Jardine, Matheson and C in 1876, and connected
Shanghai _t % and Woosung ^ \^, a short distance of 12
miles. The Chinese Government gave no regular permission,
and official opposition being manifested, the working of the line
was stopped by the British Minister. In 1877, it was sold to the
Chinese Government, the rails and sleepers were torn up and the
entire rolling stock shipped off to Formosa. About 20 years elapsed
before the subject was taken up again. The Shanghai-Woosung
line was rebuilt in 1897, by German engineers, in the service of
a Chinese Company, and opened to traffic, Septemb. l^t, 1898.

In 1886, the Imperial Northern Railway Company was
started under Government approbation, and obtained the cons-
truction of a line from T'ientsin 35 ^ to the K'aip'ing ^ ^ coal
mines in North Chihli jj| ^. This line was further extended to

CHAPTER Ylk MBAN8 OF COMMUNICATION.

431

T'angku ;^ ^ at the mouth of the Peh-ho |^ fpf, and opened to
traffic in July 1888. In 1897, nine years later, it was completed
as far as Peking.

Several important lines have since been built, others are
in process of construction, or are being contemplated. Railway
enterprise is of great importance to the success of the Imperial
Post Office in China. It will also much facilitate other inland
communications, and develop trade throughout this vast Empire,
which could so far be crossed only with difficulty, and with great
loss of time. Chinese finance being inadequate to such a vast
scheme, foreign capital was borrowed, and certain lines mort-
gaged to Foreign powers and companies, but the Government
can redeem all concessions under certain specified conditions.

At the close of 1906, there were about 3,500 miles of railway
lines open in China, inclusive of Manchuria.

The following list will record briefly the principal lines now
completed and working, as well as those under construction, or pro-
jected in the near future. It is made out proceeding from N. to S.

I. Eailway Lines

completed and working, 1907.

.. a5

Length

Name,

g a

^6

in

Designation of Line.

Romanised.

Description.

English
Miles.

Kinghan.

^m

Grand Trunk Line of China. —
Open to trafac Novemb. 14, 1905.
French and Belgian capital.

754

Imperial Bail^v^ays

of North China.

Peking to T'ungchow.

Kingt'img.

^m

Short Branch Line.

12

Pe]dngtoYinb'ow(Kew-

Tsinyii.

*«)

Called generally the Shanhaikwan

470

oh wang) via T 'ientsin,

Line. The character "Yu" is the

T'angku and Shan-

name of a river near the E. end

haikwan.

of the Great Wall.

Kenpangtze jjl ^ ?■ to

Sinmin Fu.

mRtff

Kenpangtze is the junction on the

70

Sinmint'un ff IS ife-

Shanhaikwan-NewchwangLine.

Sinmint'un to Mukden.

Fungsin.

mm

This section was restored to China
by Japan, April 15, 1907. A De-
cauvlUe line joins Mukden with
Antung (175 miles) on the Yalu.
It will be converted to the stan-
dard gauge in 2 years.

36

432 SECTION T. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOORAPHY.

I- Railway Lines completed and working, 1907. (continned).

Designation of Line.

Name,
Bomanised.

Description.

Length

in
English
Miles.

Kinchow Fu to the Nan-

30

p'iao Coal mines.

Kaopotien to the West-

Kaopotien is on the Kinghan Line.

30

ern Tombs.

Chinese Eastern

Tungts'inj.

mjs

The Northern Section of this Rail-

Railway.

way is now controlled by Bussia,
as far South as Ch'angch'un
(Kw'anch'6ngtze).From Ch'ang-
ch'un to Dalny, the line has been
transferred to Japan.and iscalled
the S. Manohurian Bailway.

Manchuria Station, via

A short branch (15 miles) runs from

1200

Harbin to Port Arthur

Tashihk'iao to Yink'ow (New-

and Dalny.

chwang).

Harbin to East Man-

A line connecting Kirin with

300

churia Frontier.

Ch'angch'un will be jointly con-
structed by China and Japan.

Ts'ingtao to Tsinan Fu

Kiaotsi.

mm

German Direction.

280

(Shantung).

Taok'ow to Ts'inghwa

TaotsHng.

mm

This line crosses the Kinghan Kail-

90

(Honan).

way, and connects Wcihwui Fn,
Hwaik'ing Fu and Honan Fu.
Constructed by the Peking
Syndicate (British), and taken
over by China under Loan
Agreement of July 3^, 1905.

Shanghai to Woosung

Stinghu.

mm

Forming part of the Shanghai-

12

(Kiangsu).

Nanking Bailway in course of
construction. " Hu " is the
literary name of Shanghai.

P'inghsiang to Liling

P'ingli.

wm

Conveys coal from the P'ing-

60

(borders of Kiangsi- ,

hsiang mines to Liling in Hu-

Hunan).

nan.

Canton to Samshui

Sanahui.

H;rrc

Branch of the Yuehhan Line.

20

(Kwangtung). <

Swatow to Ch'aoohow , Ch'aoshan.

iHIM

Constructed by Chinese and

32

Fu (Kwangtung).

Japanese Engineers at a cost of
S 3,000,000. Sand used as bal-
last. No foreign capital invested.
The Swatow terminus is a mile
and a half from the town.

CHAPTER VI. MEANS OP COMMUNICATION.

II. Railway Lines under Construction, 1907.

433

Designation of Line.

Peking to Kalgan.

Peking to Jehol.
Chfingting to T'aiyiien

(Shan si).
P'ingyang to Tsehohow

Fu (Shansi).

K'aifung to Lohyang

(Honan).
Shanghai to Nanking.

Name,
Romanised.

Shanghai to Kiahsing.

Canton to Hank'ow.

Canton to Kowloon.
Laokai to Yunnan Fu.

Kingchang

Jeh-ho.
Chengt^ai.

PHngtseh.

K'ailoh.

Huning.

IE *

^ ^

Description.

Sukia

mm

Yuehhan.

mm

Kiukwang.

A m

Tienyueh.

SI s

Chinese capital and construction.
Open as far as Nank'ow (33 miles).

Shansi line from ChSnt'ow to T'ai-
ySen Fu. Russian capital.

Constructed by the Peking Syndi-
cate. Tsehohow Fu is the centre
of a vast coal-field.

Belgian capital.

Concession granted to the British
andChineseGorporation,L** .,by
Loan Agreement of July 9, 1903.
Completed as far as Wusih, 30
miles beyond Soochow, and
opened July 18, 1906. Whole will
be finished in 1907. The Shanghai
line will be extended to Hang-
chow and Ningpo; also from
Sinyang (S.E. Honan) to P'uk'ow
(N. bank of Yangtze, opposite
Nanking).

Opening ceremony took place
January 21, 1907.

Concession originally granted to
an American Syndicate, but now
redeemed by China for a sum of
Tls. 3,000,000. Opening ceremony
took place June 28, 1906. So far,
construction little advanced.
The line from Canton to Sam-
shui, already constructed, forms
part of this railway. The char-
acter "Yueh" is the name of
the region South of the Meiling,
and early subdued by the Han
dynasty.

British capital and construction.

This is the Tonkin-Yilnnan rail-
way, conceded to France. Will
be open to M6ngtze in 1907.
The character "Tien" means the
country occupied by the Lolos
and other tribes.

Length

in
English
miles.

125

150
3S

130
160

745

120

280

28

434

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND KCONOMIC GEOaRAPHT.

III. Projected Railway lines, 1907.

» <D

iiengthl

Name,

ii
^6

in

Desigation of Line.

Bomanised.

Description.

English
Miles.

Kalgan to K'ulun.

K'uchang.

mm

K'ulun or K'urun is the Chinese

(Mongolia).

name for Urga. It is built on
the Tola river, a branch of the
Selenga.

Lanchow to Ili.

Lani.

B!lfi»

Ili Province is a part of Chinese Tur-

(Kansu).

kestan, or the New Dominion.
It lies to the N. of the T'ien-shan,
and is watered by the Ili river,
which flows into Lake Balkash.

T'ientain to GhSnkiang.

Tsinehen.

mm

This line is to pass through Tsi-

660

(Kiangsu).

nan Fu in Shantung, and Sii-
chow Fu in Kiangsu. British
and German capital. China is
now working to have the conces-
sion cancelled.

T'ungkwan to P'uohow

Fu.
Wuhu to Kwangteh

T'ungp'u.

mm

Borders of Shansi-Shensi.

Wukwang.

msi

Construction commenced. TheUne

Chow. (Nganhwei).

will be extended to WSnohow in
Ch4kiang Province.

Hani'ow to Ch'ftngtu.

Chw'anhan.

mm

The Capitals of Hupeh and Sze-
chw'an, vi4 Ch'ungk'ing.

Kiukiangto Nanch'ang

Fu.
Ch'Snchow to Ch'ang-

Eiunan.

Am

Kiangsi Province.

Ch'Snch'ang

Mtt

North Hunan.

teh Fu.

Soochow to Ningpo, via

Suhangning

mmis

Kiangsu and ChSkiang Provin-

170

Hangohow.

ces. British capital.

Amoy to Pooohow Pu.

FoHen Province. Japanese capital.

150

Pooohow to Wuch'ang

■Wuch'ang on the right bank

450

Fu. (Hupeh).

of the Yangtze, opposite the
mouth of the Han-ho, is the Ca-
pital of Hupeh . Japanese capital.

Canton to Kanohow EHi.

Kuiangkan.

mm

Kanchow Fu is in South Kiangsi,
on the Kan-kiang, which flows
into the P'oyang lake.

Canton to Amoy.

Kwanghsia.

MR

Kwangtung Province.

Macao to SamBhui and

Canton.

Sinning to Yungkiang.

Sinning.

ff ^

S. E. Kwangtung.

Langson to Nanning,Tia

Southern Kwangsi. The line will

150

Lungohow.

be further extended to Pakhoi
in Kwangtung. French capital.

Bhamo to TAngyueh.

Tienmien

mm

Yunnan. British capital.

146

CHAPTER VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 435

Many years will elapse before all these lines are bnilt. The Upper and Lower
Yangtze, the Canton-Hank'ow, the coast lines will no doubt be made, and passing
through the richest and most populous regions of the country, they will decidedly
prove a success.

Postal Service. — Till within a few years ago, there was no Post Office Depart-
ment in China similar to what exists in Western countries. The Government had its
mounted couriers who carried the Imperial commands enclosed in a sealed casket.
They could be recognized from afar by a small yellow flag attached to the collar of their
dress. There were relays of horses every 30 miles, and the postal couriers passed from
one horse to another without alighting. Whenever waterways were available, long
barges replaced the mounted service. This courier service was however only for go-
vernmental purposes, and the common people shared nowise its advantages. Private
correspondence was entrusted to postal agencies or "letter hongs", who undertook, on
payment of a small sum, to convey it to its destination.

In 1874, Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector- General of the Imperial Maritime Cus-
toms, established a postal system between Peking and Shanghai, and subsequently
extended it to the foreign mercantile community. Thus originated the postal system
of China, called the Imperial Post Office, opened on Feb'. 2"^ , 1897- It is conducted
by a special branch of the Imperial Maritime Customs (see above : p. 325). Peking,
Shanghai and Canton, have Postal Commissioners, with jurisdiction over inner Pro-
vinces; Wanhsien (in Szechw'an; the most important port on the upper Yangtze
after Ch'ungking. see p. 115) has a Foreign Inspector, who controls all mails forwarded
to China's Far West. The Imperial Post Office (I. P. 0.) deals with all mail matters
ordinarily enumerated in postal tariffs : letters, postcards, newspapers, printed matter,
samples, and also with parcels (domestic and international), and a special kind of native
mails known as ^^clubbed'' letter mails, made up and transmitted on account of Native
Postal Agencies under certain regulations. Stamps are sold and registration conducted
under much the same rules as in Union countries. Money Orders are issued and
cashed within the domestic area only. Conventions passed with Great Britain, Hong-
kong, Prance, Germany and Japan recognise its postage stamps (-1 dollar-cents being
equivalent to 1'' for postal purposes), and thus enable it to forward mails to Foreign
countries. During the year 1905, the tariff has been recast and better adopted to the
requirements of the people, a letter being now forwarded within a district for 1 cent
(J* ), and for 2 cents {i^^ ) per ^ oz. to any part of the Empire, a wonderfully cheap rate
indeed when we consider the difficulty of communications, the distance covered, and
the necessary staff required for such an arduous undertaking. Means of transport,
regularity and speed have also been improved. Official support has been gained and
prejudices broken down, but the new system has still to compete with native "letter
hongs", and struggle against lildn charges on parcels, and smuggling of "clubbed"
mails. Fixed rates and prepayment are much resented, the Chinaman ever wanting
to bargain.

At the close of 1905, Postal Establishments, including Head Post Offices and
Agencies, numbered 1,626, and reached in 1906 to 2,096. The bulk of articles dealt
with rose from 66 i millions in 1904, to 76 millions in 1905. Parcels also have
advanced from 772,000 to over 1 million.

The following tables will exhibit the work and its progress from 1901-1905.

436

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOORAPHT.

Present Tariff: Imperial Post Oflace (from Notification No. 41).

1°

2°

Domestic
Places.

Foreign Countries.

Mail Matter.

Unit of charge.

Lo-
cal.

II.

Do-
mes-
tic.

III.

Un-
ion.

IV.

Ja-
>an.

V.

Hongkong

Macao
Ts'ingtao
Weihaiwei.

Ots.

Cts.

Cts.

Cts.

Ots.

Letters.

Every J oz. or fraction thereof.
(Limit of weight, 4 lbs.).

1

2

10

3

4

Postcards.

j Single.
' Double.

1
2

1
2

4
8

3

1
2

Newspapers.

Every 2 oz. (singly or in bulk).
(Limit of weight, i lbs.).

J

1

2

4

2

Books and Prints ;

Up to 3 oz.

1

2

2

2

Commercial Papers.

(Limit of weight, 32 oz).

Samples.

Up to 3 oz.
(Limit of weight, 8 oz.).

1

2

2

2

2

Registration.

Simple.

5

5

10

7

10

With return Receipt.

10

10

20

10

10

Parcels.

Up to 1 lb.

1 lb. to 3 lbs.
(Limit of weight, 22 lbs. For
inland places reached by
overland courier, 6 lbs.).

10
15

15
20

Money Orders.

Per DoUar.

2

2

Not issued. |

(Limit of order, $50. For

inland places not reached

by steam, $10).

Local. — Tariff I. i.e. Mail matter within delivery radius.

Domestic. — Tariff II. i.e. Mail matter between Imperial Post OfBces in China.

Tariff V. franks foreign letters and postcards inland, where an I.P.O. exists, but
foreign heavy mail articles (N ewspapers, Books, Commercial Papers, Samples), if carried
to places not reached by steam, have to pay additional Tariff II. (domestic).

All foreign parcels, where and however carried, have also to pay additional tariff
II. (domestic), over and beyond Union postage on parcels.

CHAPTER VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 437

Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled 1901-190&

1901

1902

1903

1901

1905

Head and Sub-Offices.

30

30

31

40

41

Branch Offices.

131

2G3

3.0

352

396

Agencies.

1-2

153

609

927

1,189

Articles dealt with.

10,500,000

20,000,000

12,500,000

66,000,000

7P,000,000

Parcels ; Number.

120,800

260,000

487,000

772,000

1,032,000

Weight (Kilos).

250,000

515,000

1,213,000

2,702,000

3,262,000

Letters in native "club-
bed" mails.

7,300,000

8,000,000

7,267,000

8,300,000

8,896,000

Postal Sections and Wojfk, 1904-1905.

Esta
me

1901

341
324

224

427

1,319

blish-
ats^

1906

403
381

263

579

1,626

Arti
190«

cles.
1905

Parcels.
1904 1905

North China: Peking to Kiaochow.

Central China : Ch'nngk'ing to
Kiukiang. : ^^j^„^^.

Lower Yangtze : Wuhu to Hang-
South China and Yiinnan Stations.

Total.

19,000,000

12,000,000

25,000,000
10,000,000

20,000,000

14,000,000

30,000,000
12,000,000

197,000

161,000

299,000
115,000

255,000

211,000

361,000
302,000

66,000,000

76,000,000

772,000 j 1,132,000

Besides the Imperial Post Office, the principal Foreign Powers maintain their
o%vn Post Offices in the Treaty Ports. Thus there are in Shanghai : British, German
French, American, Russian and Japanese Post Offices. These generally distribute
letters and parcels by their own letter-carriers, though some (as the United States)
entrust this work to the Imperial Post Office. The tariff of Foreign Post Offices
varies, as the mail matter is internal or external to the country conducting the office.
Thus the British Post Office in Shanghai forwards letters to Great Britain, and some
English Colonies, at a tariff of 4 cents ( l"" ), and to Union countries at a tariff of 10
cents ( 2"' ^ ) per | oz. If the same letter is despatched through the French, German
and Chinese Post Offices, and franked with their stamps, it must pay Union rates, or 10
cents ( 2'' i ) per ^ oz. weight. From April 1907, all haters to Europe may be again
forwarded via. the Trans-Siberian route.

Telegraphs. — Up to 1884, China had no other system of rapid communication
than beacons lighted on towers, which thus quickly flashed important news or orders
to remote regions. These towers however were few in number, and the signals were
not always comprehensible.

In 1884, the Danish Great Northern Telegraph Compamj put up the first line,
which connected Peking and Shanghai, and was completed August 22'"', 1884.

Great difficulty was experienced at first to preserve it from wholesale destruc-
tion. The villagers in the neighbourhood frequently pulled up the posts lo make
firewood, and out the wires to make nails. To check this destructiveness, an Imperial

438

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOaRAPHT.

decree was fixed on each post, threatening with immediate decapitation any one who
would be caught cutting down the posts or wires.

New lines soon followed this first attempt, one Mnktng Tongking with Shanghai,
another connecting Shanghai and Hank'ow etc.

In 1887, China requested to connect her telegraph system with that of Siberia,
thus putting Peking in communication overland with Europe, but the permission
was not granted till 1S92.

The total length of line in operation throughout the whole Empire at the end
of 1905 was 34,000 miles. A main line connects N. and S., and runs down along the
coast. The S. has another main line. Prom the Northern and Southern main lines
spring three branch lines, one going Westwards, another through the inland Northern
Provinces, and a central one along the Yangtze valley. A line 3,000 miles long runs
across the Gobi desert. By means of all these, telegraphic communication is maintained
from Peking with every Province, while short branch lines connect the principal towns
within the Province itself. The rate" per word for inland messages is very high (Shang-
hai to Peking 0,42 cents [ 10'* ] ; Shanghai to Hongkong 0,45 cents [ 11* ] ), and this
debars the people from benefiting by its advantages. At the close of 1906, the Im-
perial Telegraph Company, almost wholly Chinese, bad 379 offices, and employed over
1,200 workmen together with 8 foreign engineers.

Chinese writing being not alphabetic but syllabic, there being as many char-
acters as there are words in use, and these words having gieat similarity in sound,
the telegraphic messages are sent in a number cypher. For transcription, a double-
ended type is used; on one end is the character or ideograph, but only 8,000 are used
and on the other the corresponding number. When a message is received, it is set up
by the numbers, and then printed from the reverse or character end.

Otber Telegraph Companies in China. — In 1871, the Eastern Extension
Telegraph Co. (English), connected at Madras its lines with those of the Eastern Tele-
graph Co., and thus linked Shanghai by cable with Hongkong, Singapore and Europe.

Since then, numerous other lines have been laid by Great Britain, France
Russia, Germany, the United States, Japan and by the Northern Telegraph Co panish).

The lines connecting the principal ports of China with each other, and with the
outside world, are the following :

Places connected.

Length of cable

in Nautical Miles.

1. Cape S' Jacques (Indo- China) and Hongkong.

952

2. Tourane (Indo-China) and Amoy (Pokien).

925

3. Hongkong and Amoy.

330

4. Amoy and Woosung (near Shanghai).

Amoy and Gutzlaff.

590

Gutzlaff and Woosung.

58

^. Hongkong and Poochow (Pokien).

475

6. Poochow and Woosung.

460

7. Woosung and Nagasaki.

Woosung and Gutzlaff.

58

Gutzlaff and Nagasaki (2 cables).

(428
1418

8. Nagasaki and Vladivostock. (2 cables).

770
754

CHAPTBR VI. MEANS OF COUUUNICATION.

439

Places oonneoted.

Length of cable
in Nautical Miles.

9. "VV'oosting and Chefoo (Shantung).

10. Chefoo and Taku (ChihH). 2 cables.

11. Wooaung and Ts'ingtao (Shantung).

12. Ts'ingtao and Chefoo.

13. Chefoo and Weihaiwei.

14. Chefoo and Port Arthur (Manchuria).

15. Sharp Peak (Pooohow) and Tamsui (Formosa).

16. Shanghai and Yap (Caroline Islands).

Shanghai and Guam, via Manila.
Yap and Guam.

Guam and Honolulu, via Midway I.
Honolulu and San Francisco.
Guam and Yokohama, via Benin I.

516
(212
1218

380

246
42
83

115
1,780
2,900

560
3,800
2,270
1,500

Steamship Oompanies sailing to or from China. — Several Steamship
Companies have established communication? between China, Europe, America,
Australia and Japan. The principal of these are the following ;

Nation-

Number

Name of Line.

ality.

Plying between.

of sailings.

1° Regular services.

Peninsular and Oriental Steam

British.

London, Shanghai.

Bi-monthly.

Navigation Co. (P. & O.).

Canadian PacifioEailway(C.P.E.},

„

Vancouver, Hongkong.

11

or Empress Boats.

Messageries Maritimes (MM.).

French.

Marseilles, Yokohama.

11

Norddeutsoher Lloyd.

German.

Bremen, Yokohama.

11

Nippon Yusen Kaisha (N.Y.K.),

Japanese.

Tokio, San Francisco,
Marseilles, Anvers.

11

Toyo Kisen Kabushiki Kaisha.

))

Yokohama, Hongkong,
San Francisco.

Monthly.

Austrian Lloyd Steam Naviga-

Austrian.

Trieste, Yokohama.

1)

tion Co.

Pacific Mail Steamship Co.

American.

San Francisco, Hono-
lulu, Hongkong.

"

Occidental and Oriental Steam-

„

San Francisco, Hono-

I)

ship C» (O. & O.).

lulu, Hongkong, Manila.

2° Other Lines connecting

China.

"With Europe.

Glen Line (Cargo and Passeng-
ers).
Ben Line.

British.

Glasgow, Shanghai.

M

Ocean Steamship Co. lA , and

))

Glasgow, Liverpool,

Weekly.

China Mutual Steam Naviga-

Shanghai.

tion Co.

British India Steam Navigation Co.

11

London, Yokohama.

440

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

Nation-

Number

Name of Line.

aUty.

of sailings.

Hamburg-America Line.

German.

Compagnie Aaiatiq[ue.

French.

Ohargeurs RSuais.

>j

With America.

United States and China-Japan S.S. Line.

American.

Standard Oil Co.

j»

Great Northern 3.S. Co. of U.S.

)»

With Australia.

Eastern and Australian S.S. Co.

British.

Nippon Yusen Kaisha.

Japanese."

Monthly.

With Japan.

Osaka Shosen Kaisha.

Japanese.

The Boats of nearly aU Companies plying between

Europe and America.

8° Coast and Riverine S.S. Companies.

China Merchants' Steam Navigation Co. (C.M.S.N.

Chinese.

Co).

Indo-China Steam Navigation Co.( Jardine,Matheson

British.

& Co.).

China Navigation Co. (Butterfield & Swire).

ji

China and Manila S.S. Co.

n

Hongkong, Canton and Macao S.B. Co.

»»

Apcar and Co.

)i

Geddes and Co.

)»

Spitzel and Co.

)i

Douglas S.S. Co.

)>

Shan Steamers Co.

j>

China Engineering and Mining Co.

II

Melohers and Co. Hank'ow-Swatow Line.

German.

Norddeutsoher Lloyd Orient Linie,

»)

Hamburg America Linie.

„

China Coast Navigation Co. (Siemssen and Co).

11

Taito Steam Navigation Co.

Japanese.

Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Osaka Shosen Kaisha, and

»»

Daito Hunan Kaisha (combined Aug' 16, 1906.

— Formerly "Yangtze Shipping Co".).

Nisshin Kisen Kaisha.

}]

Mitsui Bussan Kaisha. [Orient.

Compagnie Francaise des Indes et de I'ExtrSme

Franco-Chinese.

Compagnie Asiatique de Navigation (Eacine Acker-

French.

mann et Cie).

Chinese Eastern Railway Steamship Co.

Russian.

CHAPTER VI. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION.

441

References

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by the Jesuit Fathers of the Zika-

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Up-to-date information on the Postal,

Telegraph and Railway Systems of

China).
Fanvel. — Les Telegraphes, la Poste et

les Phares en Chine. (Questions diploma-

tiques et coloniales. Paris, 1899).
Fanvel. — Les Chemins des fer en Chine

(ibid. 1S98. — Les "^.^oies navigables de la

Chine, ibid. 1900).
de Marcillac. — Les Chemins de fer

en Chine. (Questions diplomatiques et

coloniales. 1899).
Cordier H. — Relations de la Chine aveo

les Puissances Oocidentales. Paris, 1903.

(Les Telegraphes. Vol. III. Ch. VI. — Les

Chemins de fer. ibid. Gh. XXI).
Cordier H. — Notes sur les Chemins de

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p. 5J6-S52'.
Les Chemins de fer en Chine. — (Bulletin

du Comite de I'Asie Fran^aise, 1904. p.

535-538. — Chemins de fer Chinois, ibid.,

1905. p. 376-77. — Regime des Chemins
de fer en Chine, ibid., 1905. p. 420-424 ;
468-472).

Projets de Chemin de fev dans la Chine
mfiridionale. — (Bulletin du Comity de
I'Asie Fran^aise. 1906. p. 391-394).

Le Chemin de fer du Yun-nan (with plan).

— (Bulletin du Comite de I'Asie Pran-
taise. 1903. p. 31S- 323 ; 482-83. — Le Che-
min de fer de Laokay au Yun-nan. ibid.

1906. p. 160).

Le Pekin-Hank'ow. — (Bulletin du Corait6
de I'Asie Pranfaise. 1905. p. 421-42.5).

Developpement du service postal en Chi-
ne. — Bulletin du Comity de I'Asie Pran-
^aise. 1905. p. 40).

Pinon B. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,
1900. (Chemins de fer. Ch. III. p. lDl-218.

— Appendix I. p. 219-353).

Gandar D. — Le Canal Imperial. Chang-
hai, 1903.

Cordes. — Handels^rassen and Wasser-
verbindungen von Hankau nach dem
inneren von China. Berlin, 1899.

Le Compte L. — Journey through China.

London, 1697. (The Canals and Rivers
fiof China. Letter IV. p. 104-112).

Da-vis Sir J. F. — Sketches of China.
London, 1841. (The Grand Canal. Vol. I.
Ch. IX. p.2«-2f9).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1814. (The Grand Canal. Vol. I. Ch. V.
p. 139-142. — Crossing the Yellow River,
ibid. p. 143-144).

Du Ualde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (The Grand
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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New-
York, 1861. (The Grand Canal, Vol. I. Ch.
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Thomson 3. — The Land and People of
China. London, 1876. (The Grand Canal.
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Smith W. li. — China and the Chinese.
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Ch. XIX. p. 100-102).

Williamson A. — Journeys in North
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Vol. I. Ch. VI. p. 55-83).

Williamson A. — Notes of a Journey
from Peking to Chefoo, via the Grand
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Ney Elins F. — Notes on the Water-
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Carles W. R. — The Grand Canal of
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Colquhoun A. R. — Across Chryse.
2 Vol. London, 1883.

Colquhoun A, B. — China in Transfor-
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Colquhoun A. B. — The Overland to
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Colquhoun A. R. — The Problem in
China and British Policy. London, 1900.
(The North-China Railways, p. 19-21. —
Political value of Railways, p. 22-25. —
Inland Navigation, p. 38-39).

Gundry B. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Memorial in favour of
Railways, 1887. Appendix C. p. 394-398.
— Prospectus of the first Chinese Railway.
Appendix D. p. 399-340).

442

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftEOftRAPHY.

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East. London, 1896. (Bailways in China :
Great Trunk Line, Peking-Hankow. —
Manchurian Railways. — Other Com-
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Mictaie A. — The Englishman in Chipa.
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T'ientsin and Peking. — Map of Canton
waters).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History,
Diplomacy and Trade. London, 1901.
(Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 57-81).

Leroy-Beaullea P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 1900. (Means of
Communication in Siberia. — The Trans-
Siberian Railway. — The Railway through
Manchuria. Part I. Ch. VIII-X. p. 56-75).

Hoste A. — Three Years in Western Chi-
na. London, 1890.

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Railways in China, p. 590-604).

Little A. — The Par East. Oxford, 1905.

Krausse A. — The Far Bast, its History
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Railway Agreement. Ch. VI. p. 114-118.
— Map of Russian Railways in N. China.
p. 175. — Convention between Great
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Appendix B. p. 355-358).

Kingsmill T. W. — Various Contributions
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Obisholm G. — The Resources and Means
of Communication of China. (Geogr.
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Jeraigan T. H. — China's Business
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Jernigau T. H. — China in Law and
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368. — EaUway Transit. Ch. XV. p. 369-
396).

Enoyolopsedia Britannica (X"" Edition.
London, 1902). — China : Internal Com-

munications, Railways, Roads and Ca-
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Blackburn China Mission, 1896-1897. —
Blackburn, 1898 (Communications, the
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Jamiesoa G. — Chinese Railways : A
Guide to Foreign Investors. (Financial
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Douglas Sir B. — China, 1882. (Tra-
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Doaglas Sir R. — Society in China.
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Poetical description of a Chinese inn.
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The Hotel Metropole's Guide to Shanghai
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1903.

CHAPTER VII.

Rise and Progress of the Chinese Empire. — Foreign Eelations.

Emigration.

1°. Rise and Progress

of the Chinese Empire.

The Chinese nation is the oldest in the world, and its history goes back to the
most remote antiquity, but there is an absence of authentic records, in the shape of
either monuments or written documents, whereby a trustworthy account of the early
ages may be sketched. We are therefore compelled, at least for the present, to rely
upon what tradition furnishes us. As time rolls on, more documents will be available,
and facts will be more substantiated. For the sake of clearness, we shall divide this
study into 3 parts : 1° the Mythical Period ; IV the Ancient or Legendary Period;
111° the Historical Period, or that of the 22 Dynasties. — The first period commences
with P'anku ^ "S, and is a medley of absurdities and inconsistencies which
deserve no credence. The second period begins with Fuhsi f/J j^, and contains
some facts which seem better established. The third period commences with the Hsia
g dynasty (B.C. 2205), In this period, facts become more and more evident, at
least if they be considered in their collectivity.

J°. — The Mythical Period.

This period opens with the "formation of heaven and earth", and covers from
45,000 to .500,000 years, according to the statements of the ancient Chinese.

The first man or P'anku IS "^, the Chinese Adam, is said to be the archi-
tect of the universe. He is represented with chisel in one hand and hammer in the
other, bringing the rude chaotic mass into shape and form. His labours lasted for
18,000 years. Just as his task is completed, and the earth roughly fitted to receive
its future inhabitants, he dies. His breath is then changed into wind and clouds, his
voice into thunder, his blood into rivers, his right eye into the sun, his left into the
moon, and his hair into plants and trees, His flesh is transformed into fields, his
bones into mountains and minerals, his dropping sweat into rain, while the crawling
insects which stuck to his body become the human race.

The Chinese believe that in the first ages of the world, there were giants upon
the earth, for P'anku was followed by three sovereigns : the heavenly or T'ieu ^,
the terrestrial or Hwang ^, a,nA the human or Ti Si, who were of gigantic form.
They reigned on the aggregate during 18,000 years, during which numerous inventions
were made, and men learned to eat, drink and sleep.

444 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC OEOORAPHY.

These ages comprise the first 8 periods of the 10 epochs or Ki ^, into which
Chinese writers divide the early history of the country.

II". — The Ancient or Legendci/ry Period.

(B.C. 2852-2205).

1°. Tlie Five Sovereigns. — The history of this period commences
with Fulisi f^ 3^, the first of the five sovereigns. The four others are Shennung
jp^ ^ (divine husbandman), or Yenti ^ ^ (fiery ruler); HYvangti ^ ^ (yellow
ruler); Shaohao ^ ^ (waning brightness); and Chwanhsii ij| ^ (conspicuous
rectitude).

Fulisi (B.C. 2852-2737) fixed his capital in Honan Province, near the present
K'aifung Pu. He is credited with having invented the art of writing, in the shape of
rough pictorial symbols, from which the present system of Chinese writing has been
developed. Shennung (B.C. 2737-2697) invented the plough, and taught the art of
agriculture, and the medical use of herbs. He is honoured at the present day as the
God of Agriculture and Medicine. Swangti (B.C. 2697-2597) is looked upon as the
founder of the Kmpire. He invented music and the fine arts, and fixed weights and
measures. He built vessels, constructed roads and made carts, while his wife Leitsu
iM ffl taught the people to rear silkworms, and to make garments of silk. He divided
his territory according to the decimal system, as follows : 10 towns formed a district;
10 districts a department; 10 departments a province, and 10 provinces the entire
Empire. The cyclic period of 60 years, or kiatze ^ J; owes its origin to him, and
was henceforth employed in constructing chronological tables.

These three first founders of the Empire are known by the the name of the
three Hwangs or San H-n^ang (three August Ones).

Shaohao (B.C. 2.597-2513), the son of Hwangti, established the 9 degrees of civil
magistrates, and the 9 grades of military ofiScials. The badges of the former were
various birds, while those of the latter were wild animals.

Chwanhsil (B.C. 2513-2135), grandson of Hwangti, was a pious and religious
prince, and is credited with having invented the calendar.

Under Swangti, the Empire extended from Shensi in the West to the seacoast,
and from modern Chihli in the North, to the Yargtze-kiaug in the South. Chwanhsii
is said to have still extended these limits as far as Tongking in the South, and
jVlanchuria in the North,

3°. The Three Great Emperors. — A distance of 73 years, or the
reign of an Emperor, intervened between the grandson of Hwangti, and the three
Great Sages : Yao ^ (lofty), Shun Pf. (benevolent) and Yil ^ (perfect), whom Con-
fucius and Mencius have extolled, as the most perfect models of the Golden Age of
China. "Heaven alone is great", says Confucius, "and only Yao imitated it. How
vast was his virtue ! The people could find no name for it."

Yao ^ (B. C. 2357-2255). — Yao was a wise and learned prince, humble,
fi-ugal, and of great filial piety. "The hanger of my subjects" said he, "is my hanger,
and their offences must rest on my person." His reign was peaceful throughout, and only
disturbed by a great flood (B.C. 2^97), which is considered to be an overflow of the Yellow
Biver possibly changing its channel.He fixed his court at P'ingyang ^ FS in Shansi (Ij JS

CHAPTER VII. HISK AND PROORESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 445

ProviDce. He corrected the calendar by the insertion of an intercalary month, thus
making the seasons recur at the proper time. He appointed Yil the &)'eat, subsequently
his successor on the throne, to regulate the overflow of the waters. Yao hearing of
the great filial piety of Slum, then a youth of twenty, summoned him from the fields,
and made him his associate in the management of the affairs of the Empire. Before
dying he appointed him his successor, and gave him his two daughters in marriage.

Shun^, also called Yiishun ^ ^ (Shun of the fabulous beast. B. C. 2255-
2205). — Shun succeded Yao, and was not less conspicuous for his brilliant virtues.
He had a board erected in front of his palace, upon which every one could freely
note down the drawbacks remarked in his conduct. He enacted that coffins should
be made of wood. Several aboriginal States submitted of their own accord to his sway.
He divided the country into 12 regions, and appointed Yii the Great as his successor.

Yii S, also called Tayu iz iS (Yii the Great.'. B.C. 2205-2197). — Tao had
formerly appointed Yii his Superintendent of Works, and entrusted him with draining
off the "waters of the disastrous flood, and canalising the rivers. The work was com-
pleted in 13 years. Shun had chosen him as his associate in the government of
the Empire, and had him appointed as his successor. Yii, on learning the honour that
awaited him, fled, but his hiding-place being discovered, he was compelled to rule the
State. Confucius said of him ; " I can find no fault in the character of Yii. He used
coarse food and drink, and displayed the utmost filial piety towards the Spirits. His
ordinary dress was poor, but he affected the greatest elegance in his sacrificial cap
and apron. He lived in a low mean house, but expended all his strength in opening
ditches and water-channels. I can find nothing like a flaw in Yii." Like his pre-
decessors, he displayed inteJligence and foresight. Seeing the disastrous effects of
drunkenness through excess of wine, he forbade its use throughout the Empire.
Several treatises on agriculture and drainage are attributed to him. He divided the
country into 9 Provinces.

With Yii commences the series of Chinese dynasties^ 22 in all, 9 great, and 3
lesser. The first three are the most celebrated of all, and lasted during the space of
1,957 years.

III". — The 22 nynasUea.

For the sake of clearness, we shall divide these dynasties into i periods : 1° The
three first or primitive dynasties. 2° the ancient dynasties, that is from the 4"' or
Ta'in f§ dynasty, to the IS"" orT'ang ^ dynasty. 3° the medimval dynasties, that
is from the T'ang to the Ming 1^, or 21"' dynasty. 4° the modem dynasties, or those
extending from the time of the Mings down to the present day.

V. The Primitive Dynasties.

(B.C. 2205-249).

Three dynasties occupy this long period. The Ssia M dynasty (B.C. 2205-
1766), the Shang ^ or Yin gj dynasty (B.C. 1766-1122), and the Ohotv ^ dynasty
(B.C. 1122-249). The first held sway during 439 years, the second during 644, and the
third during 873 years.

446 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

TBnB GiniirESE impebiai.

The Chinese Empire was ruled, from the foundation of the Monarchy (B.C. 2205)

Name of Dynasty.

Family Name.

Began.

SOTEBEIONS

1

J Hsia

m

Sze

B.C.2205

17

2

m Shang
1^ Yin

K

Tze

/ 1766
1. 1401

28

3

^ Chow

^

Ki

/ 1122
I 770

38

i

^ Ts'in

M

Ting

249

4

5

j^ Han (Western)

iM ^ Tung-Han (Eastern Han)

fij

Liu

5 206
(a.D. 25

25

6

^ ^ Shuh-Han (Minor Han)

? 1

„

221

2

7

§ Tsin (Western)

^ ^ Tung-Tsin (Eastern Tsin)

JBiB

Szema

( 265
I 317

15

8

ill 7^ Liu-Sung (House of Liu)

fiJ

Liu

420

8

9

^ ^ Nan-Ts'i (Southern Ts'i)

.mH

Siao

479

5

10

'^ ^ Nan-Liang (Southern Liang)

li

')

502

4

11

^ ^ Nan-Gh'Sn (Southern Ch'Sn)

Hi

Ch'gn

557

5

12

Pf Sui

5p

Yang

590

3

13

A T'ang

^

Li

620

20

U

^ ^ Heu-Liang (Posterior Liang)

*

Chu

907

2

1-5

^ H Heu-T'ang (Posterior T'ang)

^

Li

923

4

16

^ ^ Heu-Tsin (Posterior Tsin)

s

Shih

936

2

17

^ ^ Heu-Han (Posterior Han)

ill

Liu

947

2

18

^ ^ Heu-Chow (Posterior Chow)

115

Kwoh

951

3

19

j^ Sung

1 ^ ^ Nan-Sung (Southern Sung)

jSg

Chao

j 960
(, 1127

18

20

Tli Yuen

'0^

K'ioht'eh

1280

10

21

BJ Ming

*

Chu

( 1368
\ 1416

16

22

J^ Ts'ing

1^

Tung

1644

Hitherto 9

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 447

DXNASTIXS (LIH-CWAO ^ DJ).

to the present day, by twenty-two dynasties succeeding one another as follows :

Duration .

Capital (Ancient Name).

Capital (Modebn Name).

439

W X Tanghsia

>iC 1^ M T'aik'ang hsien

(Honan)

644

S Poh
H Hao

Bl W ^ Shangk'iu hsien (Honan)
:k >? /w Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)

S73

^ Ej Lohyih

" " " ,> 1) 11
^ ^ J^ Lohyang hsien

11 11
(Honan)

43

JBC X^ Hsienyang

^ fe i^ Hsienyang hsien

(Shensi)

426

"K >f Ch<angngan
m W Lohyang

S ^ ^ Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)
to W ^ Lohyang hsien (Honan)

44

JEK ^ Ch'fingtn

JW SP iw Ch'^ngtn hsien

(Szeohw'an)

155

m m Lohyang

^ ^ Kienk'ang(Nanking)

?iS ^ M Lohyang hsien
iLmm Kiangning Fu

(Honan)
(Kiangsu)

59

" " »

" " " 11 11 11

11 11

23

" " »

»' »' " 11 11 11

11 11

55

" " ,1 „

'» " " 11 11 11

11 11

33

" " ,, >,

" '» " 11 11 11

11 11

30

^ ^ Ch'angngan

•^ ^ M Ch'angngan hsien (Shensi)

287

" " .,

" " " 11 11 11

11 1)

16

T^ m Lohyang

^ ^ M Lohyang hsien

(Honan)

13

" " „ „

" " " 11 11 11

11 11

n

f^ ^ Pienliang

M M M K'aifung Pu

(Honan)

i

U " ,! »

11 11 i» 11 11 11

11 11

9

" »» » »

11 11 11 11 11 )i

11 11

320

^ ^ Linugan

11 i» 11 „ 1, 1,
^ yn fn Hangohow Pu

11 11
(Ch6kiang)

88

M Yen (PeUng)

M 5^ f^ Shjint'ien Fu

(Chihli)

276

1^ A Yingt'ien (Nanking)
'4fc 2p Pehp'ing (Peking)

£E W fl^ Kiangning Fn
JIM ^ ^ Shunt'ien Fu

(Kiangsu)
(Chihli)

M 5C Shunt'ien (id.)

M% ^ Shunt'ien Fu

(Chihli)

448 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

1. The Hsia H dynasty. (B.C. 220.5-1766). — Duriug the times of
Yao and Shun, the primitive patriarchal form of Government developed into the
monarchical. The succession to the throne was not however hereditary, but the
fittest and most capable ministers were chosen to govern the State. Thus Yao
appointed Shun, and Shun in turn appointed Yii to succeed him, preferably to his
own children. Generally the ruler, a short time before dying, indicated his successor.
ITnder the Hsia dynasty, the succession becomes hereditary. AU the princes who
succeed one another belong to the same family. Tbe whole population of the Empire
then ranged from 1 to 2 millions, forming, it >eems, stations of colonists dispersed
amongst the aboriginal tribes (see p. i). The greater part of the country was at that
time, except in Honan and along the Yellow River, overrun by luxuriant vegetation,
and wild animals abounded. The Empire had not the cohesion and unity which it
possesses at the present day, but was divided into several petty states, whose rulers
frequently engaged in mutual warfare. Those who bore the title of Emperors were
but the most powerful among compeers, and it was with no little dif&culty that they
asserted their authority.

Some of the first monarchs of this dynasty governed the Empire with con-
summate wisdom. Foremost among them is K'igiC (B. C. 2197-2188), the worthy son of
the Great Yii. 01 the succeeding 9 sovereigns, little record is found of their doings.
Others were conspicuous for their tyranny and debauchery, and this hastened the
downfall of the dynasty. Eieh ^ or Kiehkwei ^ H, the XVII"' and last reigning
monarch, was so voluptuous and cruel, that he became an object of hatred to his people,
and was compelled to flee (B. C. 1818) to Nanch'ao ^ M. (m the present Province of
Nganhwei), where he died three years later on.

The Hsia dynasty (so-called from a small territory in Honan) reckoned in all
17 sovereigns, and lasted 439 years, thus averaging 26 years to each monarch's reign.

3. Tlie Sliang M or Tin gj dynasty. (B.C. 1766-1122).- The Shang

dynasty was founded by Ch'Sngt'ang JR ^, a prince who lived in the principality of
Shang ^, situated in the East of the present Province of Honan. Compelled by the
people to avenge their wrongs, he took up arms aganist Kiehkwei, and being victorious,
supplanted him on the throne. He established his Court at Pah ^, in the Eastern part
of Honan. The principal occurrence of his reign was a great famine, occasioned by a
drought of seven years. So great was the suffering that it was thought a human
victim should be offered to appease the wrath of heaven. The prince came forward,
and attributing the disaster to his sins, publicly besought heaven to punish him.
Tradition states that in answer to his prayer, copious rain fell immediately, and thereby
relieved the misery of the people. His successors soon gave themselves up to vice
and debauchery. Several were however arrested in their downward career by the
prime Minister lyin ^ ^', and his son Ichih •fi* ^. During the reigns of 14 other
sovereigns, nothing noteworthy is recorded in histoi7. P'ank^ng ^ ^ (B. C.
1401-1373), the XVII"" Emperor of the dynasty, had a happy and peaceful reign. He
removed his capital to Tin gj, a town in Honan, N. of the Yellow River, hence the
dynasty was henceforward known as Tin Instead of Shang. At this period, public
morality deteriorated very much, ^'iaosin 'h $, son of P'ankfiug, was a weak and
dissolute monarch, while Cho'wsm ^ ^, the last ruler of the dynasty, was notorious
for his cruelty, extravagance and debauchery. Being defeated in battle by Wuwang
j^ 3E, Prince of the Chow State, he fled to a tower, set it on fire, and perished miser-
ably himself in the midst of the flames.

The Shang dynasty reckoned 28 sovereigns, and lasted 644 years.

CHAPTER Til. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE CHINESE BHPIRE. 449

3. Tbe Ctaow ^ dynasty. (B. c. 1122-249). — Wu wang ^ x,

after defeating Chowsin JJ $, founded a new dynasty, called Chow ^, from the
name of a Principality over which he ruled in Shensi Province. This dynasty numbered
38 sovereigns, and lasted for 873 years, the longest time known in history.

Like his father Wen Wang Ijt 5E, and his brother Chow Kung ^ ^iWu Wong
K 3E (B- C. 1122-1115) was conspicuous for his erudition, integrity, patriotism and
inventive genius. WSn Wang "Sj 3E united the principal chieftains against the misrule
of the Shang dynasty, and in dying, left to his son Wu Wang the completion of the
work. This prince, notwithstanding his great ability, committed the blunder of
dividing the Empire into several petty states, which he parcelled out to those who had
helped him in his struggle with Chowsin.

Wu Wang ^ 3E was succeeded by his son Ch'6ns Wang SE 5E (B. 0. lUo^
1078), who governed the Empire with much integrity, and successfully quelled a
rebellion of the former dynasty.

Yu 'Wang |i^ 3E (B. C. 781-770), Xn"> sovereign of this dynasty, was a most
depraved and voluptuous prince. Having put away the Empress and her son P'ing
Wang 2p J^ the father of the dethroned queen attacked him in his capital, defeated
him, and placed the rightful heir on the throne.

P'ing Wang ^ I (B.C.770-719),onascendingthethrone,entrustedtotheX)wie
of Td'in fj^ the defence of the Western frontier (the present Province of Kansu) against
the Tartars. The standing army maintained for this purpose, and the independent
spirit of the Duke, soon made him the chief rival of the Central Government. P'ing
Wang, fearing much for his own safety, transferred his capital from Sao ^ ,orCh'ang-
ngan hsien ^ ^ f^ in Shensi, to Lohyih ^ g, or Lohyang hsien ;% |@ i% in Honan.
This was a fatal mistake, and resulted in the weakening of the Central Authority, and
the growing influence of the Feudal States, ever engaged in mutual warfare for
supremacy, and all belittling the authority of the ruling sovereign. The number
of these States varied constantly, being at times 41 and 52, and at others 125. In the
year B. C. 314, the powerful Dalce of Ts'in advanced against Nan Wang |S I, the
then reigning emperor, and defeated him in battle. Henceforward all real power was
in the hands of TsHn, and soon after, the Chow dynasty came to an end.

This dynasty is memorable for having given birth to China's three great philo-
sophers : Laotze ^ ^, Confucius or K'ung Futze 5L ^ "f"i and Mencius or
Mengtze il ^, all of whom had the greatest influence on the religion, government,
morals, customs and civilization of the country.

liaotze (B. C. 604) wrote the famous Taoteh King jit #, IS, and was the foun-
der of Taoism.

Confucius (B. C. 551-479) edited the ancient Classics, and compiled the annals
of the Kingdom of Lu ®, from the year B.C. 922 to 484 (see p. 351).

Mencius ( B.C. 372-289) is regarded as being second only to Confucius, and his
works form one of the Four Classics.

The closing years of the dynasty were a period of great confusion, trouble,
intrigues and plots. The continual strife and competition in arms were not however
without benefiting the people. The Empire reached a higher level of military ability
and skill, and great material progress was made, principally in the towns, for in the
country places, the effects were but feebly felt.

The Chinese Empire comprised at this period ; Shansi, Shensi, Honan and
Shantung, and extended at the close of the dynasty in all directions, and South-
wards even beyond the Yangtze river.

29

450 'SBlWlOIf^JV^.- POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOflRAPHT.

2°. The Ancient Dynasties.

(B.C. 249— A. D. 260).

Nine dynaEties occupy this period : the Ts'in ^ (B.C. 249-206), the Han ^
(divided into' the Western and Eastern Han B.C. 206 — A.D. 221), the Minor Bten or
Shuh Han ^ 0f (A.D. 221-265), the Tsin # (divided into the Western and Eastern
T?in (A.D. 265-420), the Snng ^ (A.D. 420-479), the Ts'i ^ (A.D. 479-502), the JAang
Wi (A.D. 502-557), the Oh'6n W. (A.D. 557-590), and the Sai pf (A.D. 590-620) dynasties.
Of those nine dynasties, two only were of long duration, the Han ^, which lasted 426
years, and the Tsin ^, which lasted 155 years. The Han dynasty is the most widely
known, while the Ts'in dynasty, although it lasted but 43 years, will remain for ever
memorable on account of Shi H-<rangti J& S fi? (B.C. 246-209), connected with the
building of the Great "Wall (achieved B.C. 214), and the burning of the books (B.C. 213).

1. The Ts'in ^ dynasty. (B.C. 249-206). — Of the many Feudal States
struggling for supremacy, two were foremost, that of Ts'in ^, and that of Ts'i ^ •
The former, being the more powerful, finally prevailed over its rival. The Prince of
Ts'in having proclaimed himself Lord of the West, the Emperor Nan "Wang |ffi 3E ,
the last but one of the Chow dynasty, fought against him, but was defeated in battle
and compelled to surrender to his captor (B.C. 814). Tungchow Kiiln % ^ ^ (B.C.
255) succeeded Nan Wang, but reigned only nominally, and despairing of success,
abdicated the throne (B.C. 249). The Empire then recognized the Prince of Ts'in as
its Sovereign.

This new dynasty was of short duration, dnvang Siangrrang ^ S 3E'
its founder, reigned but three years (B.C. 249-246). The memory of his son, Prince
OhSng (ChSng Wang ^ D, better known under the name of Shi H'n'angti in M.^
(First Heavenly Emperor. B.C. 246-209) has come down to posterity as one of the
greatest Bmperors, but also as one of the most execrated rulers, especially in the eyes
of the literati. Shi Hwangti, or Ts'in Shihwang ^ ^ M (tlie first Emperor of
Ts'in) established his capital at Hsienyang ^ |@, in Central Shensi, and soon showed
he was a man of consummate skill and strength of character. Ambitious, cmel and
a. cunning despot, he consolidated the Empire by dividing it into 36 Miin 8U or pro-
vinces, over each of which he appointed 3 High Officials directly responsible to himself.
Owing to the constant incursions of the Tartar tribes on the N.W. frontier, he com-
pleted the building of the Great Wall of China, which extended from 120° to 100°
East Longitude, and measured 1,500 miles in length. Under the Ming |9 dynasty,
it was repaired (A.D. 1470), and 300 more miles added to the part already existing
(A.D. 1547). Shi Hwangti erected also numerous palaces and public buildings,
opened canals, and built roads leading to all parts of the Empire. His memory how-
ever is unfortunately connected with the destruction of the classical literature (all
works being ordered to be destroyed, except those on astrology, divination, medicine
and husbandry), and the burying alive of i60 of the literati. (B.C. 213). A literary
nation Hke the Chinese cannot forget nor forgive this cruel act, but it must be
remembered that Shi Hwangti was prompted thereto 1° by the safety of the Empire,
whose integrity was menaced by the Feudal system from within, and Tartar incursions
from without ; 2° by the venaUty and lack of enlightened patriotism of the literati ; 3°
by their rigid attachment to antiquity and its supposed superiority, and their opposition
to all his reforms (a case of conservatism against progress) ; 4° by their intemperate

CHAPTER Til. RISR AND PROQRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 451

language when the order to burn the books was issued, and which the Emperor held
to be treasonable.

After the death of Shi Hwangti, the dynasty lived but a few years. His two
successors were too weak to maintain the unity of the State recently established, and
withstand the factions of the rival Feudal Princes. A civil rebellion broke out, and
gave the throne.to Liupang §1) ^, Prince of Man.

S. The Han 9| dynasty, divided into the Western or Former Han
(Ts'ien Han |3 g| B.C. 206 —A.D. 25), and the Eastern or Later Han (Heu Han ^ g|.
A.D. 25-221).

The Former Han(Ts'ieuHan |^ g{ B.C. 206-A.D. 25).— This dynasty was founded
by Liupang §1] ^, Prince of Han ^, a Feudal State on the Southern border of Shensi
and Western Honan, near the river Han, hence the name of the dynasty. When Liu-
pang ascended the throne, he took the dynastic title of Kaoti ^ % (lofty or august
Emperor).

Kaoti iS 4^ or Kaotsu '^ jfi (B.C. 206-194) began his reign by repealing the
decree of Shi Hwangti in regard to the destruction of literature. All the books that
escaped were sought out, and the literati appeased. He is the first Emperor who offered
sacrifice at tlie tomb of Confucitia. He established his capital at Ch'angngan ^ ^ (Si-
ngan Fu), in Shensi, and connected it by a highroad with Lohyang ift |@, in Honan.
This road still exists, and its suspension-bridge, its resthouses and post-stations arte
marvels of skilful engineering and practical durability. The incursions of the Tartar
tribes (Hsiungnu -fij M. and Tungku M "S" ■ Huns and Tunguses. — From the former
are descended the Turks, Ouigurs and Mongols ; and from the latter, the K'itans,
Manchus and Koreans) became more frequent, and seriously menaced the stability of
the Empire. Kaoti advanced against them, but being defeated, was ciompelled to sue
for peace, and give his daughter in marriage to their chief. The remainder of his life
was occupied in suppressing internal revolts. He died at the age of 53, and left the
throne to his son HTreiti Mi ^^

Hfveiti St flf (B.C. 194-179) being but 11 years of age when he succeeded to his
father, his mother Lil Shih S ft acted as regent, and after the d*ath-of the young Em-
peror at 24, managed to keep the government of the State in her own hands. She. was
cruel and cunning, and plotted to found a new dynasty, but failed. After her death;
Wdnti ;^ ^ (B. C. 179-156), the illegitimate son of Eaotsu, was summoned to the
throne. He encouraged literature, established able judges and governors, and rendered
the punishments of his times less barbarous (commuting the branding of the face,
excision of the nose and mutilation,' into flogging). He died after a reign of 23 years. His
son KiDgtij^ ^ (B.C. 156-140) continued his good work, and was succeeded in turn by
Woti ^ #.

Woti K ^ (B. C. 140-86), the younger son of Kingti, added Pokien, Ewang-
tung, Yiinnan, Szechw'an and Liaotung to the Crown. He waged incessant war
against the Hsiungnu, but at first had little success. During his reign, a Tartar tribe
of Kansu, set out for the West, and took up its new abode in the Oxus region, till
it subsequently fell upon the Boman Empire in conjunction with the Huns. Further
attacks against those warlike nomads proved at last successful. The Chinese cavalry
pursued the enemy beyond the T'ien-shan (Heavenly mountains), and returned laden
with booty, among which was a golden statue of Buddha. Wuti was a great ruler,
who added to the stability of the throne, achieved great military conquests, and consi-
derably enlarged the Empire. He died after a reign of 54 years, and left the throne

452 SECTION ▼. POLITICAL AND ECONOUIC OEOOBAPHT.

to Chaoti IS ^, the youngest of his sons. Chaoti (B. C. 86-73) and his successors
continued the war against the Hans, and were at times felicitous.

P'insti T ^ (A U. 1-6), who reigned at the beginning of the Christian era,
was a weak monarch, and allowed Wang Mang ^ "^j a military official dismissed
under the previous reign, to seize the power.

Wangr Mang I ^ placed a two-year old child, Jutze Ying 88 ■?• S, on the
throne, but having poisoned him, he openly usurped the Imperial authority (A.D. 9),
and governed the country during 16 years, amidst the greatest disorder. He was killed
at Ch'angngan by the Princes of Han. The dynasty was then restored, and is sub-
sequently known as the Eastern (Tung Han ^ ^) or Later Han (Heu Han ife ^).

The Later Han (Heu Han S g| A.D. 25-221). — Kwang Wntt it ^ ^
(A. D. 25-57), the first Emperor of the Later San, removed the capital from Ch'ang-
ngan in Shensi, to Lohyang in Honan. He was a brave and just ruler, and constantly
engaged in hostilities with internal factions and turbulent princes. He reigned 32
years, and left the throne to his son Mingti ^ ^.

Mingti ^ $ (A.D. .58-76) kept the Huns in check throughout his reign, and
maintained the Imperial authority over them. One of his most important works was the
building of a dyke, 30 miles long, to relieve the overflow of the Hwang-ho. Under him.
Buddhism was officially introduced (A.D. 61) from Hindustan into China. In consequence
of a dream, Mingti sent envoys to India, and they returned with a copy of a Sutra and
some Buddhist priests. The new religion at first made but little progress, and was not
firmly established in the country till three hundred years later. Though not the official
religion, it is at the present day extensively entwined with the social customs and life
of the people. Mingti was a clement and peaceful prince, and reigned 18 years. His
son Ohansti Ift ^ (A.D. 76-89) succeeded him.

Hotl ^ ^ (A.D. 89-106) ascended the throne at the age of 10, and reigned for
17 years. His able generals defeated the Huns, and pursued them to Kashgar, and even
as far as the Caspian Sea. After his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides, and threat-
ened the dynasty with extinction.

Hwanti ig ^ (A.D. 147-168) was still an able ruler, and defeated the Eastern
Tartars. After his death, several Generals disputed the throne, and the decline of the
dynasty was rapid. Hsienti |R ^ (A.D. 189-221), the last reigning prince, retired into
private life, thus bringing to an end this famous dynasty. The 2 Hans lasted 426 years,
with a total of 25 monarchs.

The Han dynasty was one of the most famous of China, whether we consider it
from a literary, histoi-ioal, military, commercial or artistic point of view. Moreover,
no ruling family was ever more popular with the masses, and this is shown in the pride
with which the Chinese, especially those of the N., still proclaim themselves "the Sons
of Han'\ Numerous public works were undertaken, prominent among which were
bridges, aqueducts, roads and canals. The wealth and trade of the country developed.
The Classics were restored and engraved on stone ; Buddhist literature was officially
introduced from India, and intercourse opened with the Roman Empire. The
competitive examinations for literary degrees, lately abolished (September 2, 1905),
originated under this dynasty, and a Penal Code was drawn up. Years of peace, during
which the nation prospered, alternated with incursions by the nomad Tartars. The
modern Fokien, Kwangtung, Yiinnan, Szechw'an and Liaotung, were incorporated
with the Empire. Chinese armies marched as far 'West as the Caspian Sea, and China
occupied a foremost position among the nations of the East.

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PROGaSSS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 453

In the beginning of the dynasty, the Empire was divided into 103 Kiun fR or
Feudal Principalities. These came more or less under the jurisdiction of the civil
Governors appointed to administer the 13 Chows ffl or Provinces.

The Han dynasty is also remarkable as having given birth to Szeina Ts'ien nl
i^ S (B.C. 145-87), one of China's greatest historians.

3. The Minor Han (Shuh-Han ^ g|) and the Three Kingdoms (San-
Kwoh H @ A.D. 221-i65).— The difficulty of governing the Han Empire was great, and
so the State was divided into 3 separate principalities, called the San Kyroh H S or
Three Kingdoms. The first of these was the Kingdom of Wei ^, which comprised
the Central and Northern Provinces, and had for its capital Lohyang. It lasted .59
years. The second was the Kingdom of Wu ^, extending down to the Yangtze river,
and comprising Hunan, llupeh, Kiangsu and Ch^kiang, with its capital at Nanking.
It lasted 46 years. The third was the Kingdom of Shuh ^ in Szechw'an,with its
capital at Ch'fengtu. It lasted 44 years.

A struggle for supremacy soon began between these 3 Kingdoms. Ohao Llehtl
BS S3 ^ (A.D. 221-223), a descendant of the Han dynasty, ruled Shuh. He attacked Wu,
hut was defeated. Hencbu ^ i (A.D. 223-25iJ), his successor, made peace with
Wu. Both then combined in a joint attack upon the Wei kingdom, but this latter
vanquished them. Heuchu was taken prisoner, led captive to Lohyang, and thus
brought to a close the Minor San dynasty. The supreme authority was now wielded
by Smema Chao ^ ^ BS, General-in chief of the Wei troops. He died A.D. 265, and
his son, Szema Yin nl ,l| j^, founded a new dynasty, that of the Western Tsin.

The period of the Three Kingdoms is one of the most interesting of Chinese
history, and has been immortalized by the famous historical novel called the San-
K-woh H H, or History of the Three States. The actions recorded abound in
marvellous adventures and thrilling incidents,' and it may be compared to the age of
chivalry in Europe. Chinese and Japanese story-tellers draw largely from these
times, while the greater part of Chinese stage-plays reproduce the characters of the
period.

Although governed by different rulers, these three States spoke the same
language, and had a like administration, and so the influence of the Chinese race had
been able to extend far Southwards.

4. Ttae Tsin # dynasty (A.D. 265-420) was founded by Szema Yen
n] H ill, who took the dynastic title of Wnti ^ ^ (A.D. 26.5-290). He established
his capital at Lohyang, in Honan. Internal discord and agitation, combined with the
dread of hostile neighbours, rendered the consolidation and unity of the Empire an
imperious duty. The main object of Wuti was to add the Wu ^ principality to his
dominions. A naval expedition was fitted out, and a battle having taken place in the
Tungt'ing Lake (Hunan), Wu was defeated. China was now united again under one
ruler. Wuti however at the close of his reign gave himself up to pleasure, entertained
a company of 5,000 female comedians, and travelled in a car drawn by sheep. He
reigned 35 years, and left the throne to his son Hweiti.

Uweiti ^ ^ (A. D. 290-307). — During this reign, the Tartar Hnns fnt forth
claims to the throne. Nothing of importance however took place till the next Em-
peror, H-waiti S ^ (A. D. 307-313), ascended the throne. The Tartars then invaded
the N. of the Empire, took Lohyang (A. D. 310), and carried off in succession the

4U« rr..»i.«»» ».;.

454 . SEcariON T. political and economic geo&haphy..

supreme over N. China, while the enfeebled Tsins removed their capital to Nanking,
in Eiangsu Province, hence the name of Eastern Tnn given to the dynasty from A. D.
317-420. Of the 11 Emperors who ruled during this latter period, all were weak and
mcompetent. Liuyil £[ ^, an ambitious General, who formerly supported the
Eastern Tsin, in their struggle with the other rival chieftains, murdered one Emperor,
and compelled the last, Kungti $ ^ (A. D. 119), to abdicate in his favour. He
then established a new dynasty, known as the SvM,g 7^, with himself as first Emperor.

The Empire during the Tsin dynasty was divided into 19 Chows ^ orProvinces,
controlled by Civil Governors. Numerous wars also took place between the chieftains
of the 18 principal Feudal States, those of the N. being generally victorious over the
Southerners.

The Western and Eastern Tsin ruled for 155 years, under 15 monarchs.

5. The 'Snng ^ dynasty, known as the Liusung fll ^ (A. D. 420-
479).— Liuyji §l] fS, on becoming Emperor, took the dynastic title of IVnti R ^ (A.D.
420-423). At this time, there was a constant struggle between the Chinese of the S.
and the Tartars of the N., and hence it is called the period of the division bet'vreen
tbe N. and S. The N. was in the hands of the Tartars since Hwaiti (A. D. 310), of
the Tsin dynasty, and was divided into several petty principalities : Wei (T'oba Tartars ;
Capital Lohyang), Ssia (Hsiungnus), Northern Ten (Eastern Tartars), Western Liang
and Tsin (Tangnt Princes). Wuti held sway only over the Southern part of the Empire,
and had his Capital at Nanking, in Kiangsu. He reigned but 3 years.and left the throne
to his soon Shaoti ^ ^ (A. D. 423), who was deposed and murdered after a reign
of one year. Wflnti (A.D. 424-453) succeeded him, and struggled against the T'oia Tar-
tars of Wei, for. the conquest of Honan. Went! finally recovered this Province, but was
soon after compelled to relinquish it, and died murdered by his son, while the latter was
iniirdered in turn by his own brother. The two next Emperors, Mingti 9I§ ^ (A. D.
465-473) and Ts'angwa Wang^ ^g i (A.D. 473),,were cruel and bloodthirsty,
wbilB the two last, being adopted children, held but nominal sway over the country.
The dynasty thus ended miserably, after a series of unwonted crimes. It lasted 59
years, and had 8 sovereigns.

6, The Three short-lived dynajsties : the Southern Ts*! ^

(A.D. 479-502), Liang ® (A.D. 502-557) and Cb'dn ^ (A.D. 557-590). — During the
whole of this period, as under the previous Sung- dynasty, there was a dnal
Empire In Obina. The Southern Empire or NancVao ^ D] had three short dynas-
ties, while the Northern or Pehch'ao ;|fc || ruled through the three houses of Wei f|,
Chow ^, and the Northern Ts'i 5S. A struggle for supremacy constantly existed
between these houses, and the balance of success finally declared itself in favour of
Wei. We shall deal here only with the 3 Southern dynasties ;

The Ts'i H dynasty (A.D. 479-502) was founded by Siao Taoch'Sng ff
j^ JS, a famous General who rose to prominence by his wars with the Wei Kingdom,
and finally usurped the Imperial power. On ascending the throne, he took the dynastic
title of Kaoti j^ ^ (A.D. 'i 79-483), and maintained the capital at Nanking. He was a
wise, upright and frugal prince, but reigned only 4 years. He was followed by 6 other
short-lived rulers, the last of whom was Boti ^P $• (A.D. 501-502). This prince, aged
but sixteen, was cast into prison and strangled by Siaoyen |K W, another usurper,
who set up. a dynasty called the iJtanjT.

GHAPTEa Til. HISE AND PROfiHESS OF THE "CHINESE EMPIRE. 4B5!;'

The lalang % dynasty (A.B. 502-557). — This dynasty was estaUished
by SiaoySn S| ^, who took the dynastic title of Wuti ^ ^ (A.D. 502-550). His
ambition was to conquer the Kingdom of Wei, but he was defeated at Siangyang £
1^, in Hupeh. In another campaign, he was more successful. Wei however soon after
recovered its strength. Wuti, at the end of his reign, became a fervent Bjiddhist, and
abandoning his palace, entered a Buddhist monastery. The afiairs of the State being
neglected, a rebellion soon broke out, and resulted in the downfall of the dynasty.

The Cll'611 ^ dynasty (A. D. 557-590) was founded by Gh'Sn Pasien
^ ® iBi o°6 °^ ^^^ Generals of the former dynasty, who compelled Kingti |iJt ^, the
last ruler of the Liang dynasty, to" abdicate in his favour. He took the dynastic title
of Wuti g6 ^ (A.D. 557-560), and reigned three years. A new Kingdom, that of
Chow M , arose at this time in the North. It soon absorbed Wei, and became the
rival of Ch'to. At last, Yangkien ^ ^, a distinguished General, usurped the supreme
power, and marched upon Nanking at the head of 500,000 men. Having taken the'
city, he led the last Emperor of the Ch'Sn dynasty, Heuchu ^ ^.captive to Shen-
si (A.D. 590). The ruler of Chow then established a new dynasty, known as that of
Sui g.

7. The Sni Pf dynasty (A. D. 590-620). — YangUen 1i S, on ascend-
ing the throne, took the title of Wfinti ^ ^ (A.D. 590-605). He was a wise and able
prince, and had a magnificent court at Ch'angngan ^ ^c- He reigned but 15 years,
and was succeeded by his second son Yangti, who reached the throne through par-
ricide, and through the murder of his elder brother.

fan^i ^ ^ (A. D. 605-618) was an intelligent ruler, but a man of violent
temper, who also gave himself up to extravagance and debauchery, and squandered
immense sums in his palaces and pleasure-grounds at Yangchow Jg^. He trans-
ferred Ms capital from Ch'angngan to Lokyang, in Honan, and extended a system of
canals from the Hwang-ho to the Tangtze-kiang. He ordered also several works to be
collected, and instituted the literary degree of Doctor. He engaged in several expedi-
tions against Korea (A.D. 612-614), and made the country pay tribute to China
(A.D. 616). At the close of his reign, lAyiien^-l^, one of his Generals, leagued
with the K'itan Tunguses, and soon became the virtual ruler of the Empire. Yangti
fled to Yangchow ^ ffl , in Kiangsu Province, where he was shortly afterwards assas-
sinated. His son and grandson were also both murdered. Liyilen was thus the
undisputed master, and established a new dynasty known as the T'ang ^.

3°. The Medieeval Dynasties.

(A.D. 620-1368).

This period oompriaeB 8 dynasties : the T'ang ^ (620-907), the Posterior
Liang or Heu Uang # WS (907-923), the Posterior T'ang or Heu T'ang ^ ®
(923-936), the Posterior Tsin or Heu Tsin ^ ^ (936-947), the Posterior Han or
Heu Han ^ M (947-951), the Posterior Chow or Heu Ohow ^ M (9.')l-960), the
Sung 5jJ (960-1280), and the Tiien jc (1280-1368) dynasties. Of these 8 dynasties, 3
have Taeen illustrious: the first and the two last. The 5 others were but of short
duration, and are known by the name of the Five Dynasties (Wut'ai 5E ft) or Ten
Stoies (907-960).

456 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND BCONOUIC aBOORAPRT.

1. The T'ang ^ dynasty (A.D. 620-907). — Under this dynasty, ai
era of unity, peace and'prosperity opened for China, with the result that literature
agriculture and trade were especially developed. In the year 629, the Empire wa
divided into 10 Too jfi or Provinces, and later on into 15.

Kaotau |K ^ (A.D. 620-627).— £t2/»en$ii, the founder of the T'ang dynast;
but better known by the Imperial title of ^Taoisu, established bis ca^i^aZ at Ch'angngui
(Singan Fa), in Shensi. He pacified the warring factions and encouraged learning
while his second son, Li Shimin ^ iU; £-, led the army to battle, and was successfn
in all his campaigns. This excited the jealousy of his brothers, especially of the eldesi
who conspired against him, and wore subsequently killed by Shimin. Later on, Kac
tsu abdicated (surviving still 9 years) in favour of Shimin, who succeeded him on th
throne under the dynastic title of T'aitaung.

T'aitsang "fa S (A.D. 627-650). — Despite his fratricide and the forced abdica
tiou of his father, T'aitsung proved an able and far-sighted ruler, and deserved at tb
hands of annalists the name of Great. His military courage was tempered by compas
sion and gentleness. He restored peace and national unity, raised a standing army
and crushed the power of the Tureomana, but failed in his expeditions against Tibe
and Korea. Embassies came from foreign countries and kingdoms to pay him tribute
He favoured literature, and was an ardent admirer of Confucius, of whom he said
"Confucius is for the Chinese what the water is for the fish." It was during his reigi
that the Neatorians settled in China, and the Mahomedans entered the country. T'ai
tsung died in A.D. 650, after a reign of 23 years, and left the throne to his ninth son
Kaotaung.

Kaotsnng ^ ^ (A. D. 650-684) engaged in several wars. A campaign agains
the Tibetans proved at first unsuccessful, but finally resulted in expelling them fron
the Empire. Korea waa subdued, and divided into 5 provinces, over which Chinesi
officials were appointed. He took one of the widows of his father for his consort, th(
famous Dowager W« K, who later on will ruin the State, and tarnish the fair nami
of the dynasty. This ambitious and unprincipled woman had the Empress depose(
on a false accusation, and displayed the most barbarous cruelty towards all those shi
considered her enemies. Kaotsung died in 684, and left the throne to his son Chungtsum
»j» ^, but the Dowager Wu confined him to prison, and ruled the country for 21 years

The Dowager Empress Wn Hen ^ Jg (A. D. 684-705). — On the deatl
of Kaotsung, the Dowager Wu usurped the sovereign authority, clad herself in thi
Imperial robes, offered the annual sacrifices to heaven, and erected a temple to hei
ancestors. She banished or killed the principal Princes of the Honse of T'ang. Duiin;
her government, the Tibetans and K'itana were vanquished. She was at last deposed
and Ohangtanns 'I' ^ (^- ^- 705-710), the rightful heir, proclaimed Emperor, but
he did not reign long, and perished poisoned by his wife. Several weak and unimpor
tant Emperors succeeded him on the throne, and the dynasty gradually declined.

During the reign of Satsung St ^ (A.D. 756-763), the struggle between
N. and S. began anew, while a Hsiungnu invasion compelled Taitsiing ^ ^ (A. D
763-780) to abandon his capital at Ch'angngan. Wutsung fS ^ (A. D. 811-847!
persecuted Buddhism. At the close of the dynasty, several rebellions broke out, headec
by ambitious Governors and Generals. Itsung ^ ^ (A. D. 860-874) had no palace
and all the great towns of Central China were in rnins. Chao Soenti D3 g 4t
(A. D. 905-907), the last of the T'angs, abdicated and was soon after assassinated. Thi
dynasty thus collapsed. It lasted for 287 years, and 20 Emperors sat on the throne.

CHAPTER Til. RISE AND PROQtlESS OP THE CHINESE EUPIRE. 457

Like the Han, the T'ong dynasty is one of the most illustrious of China.
It assured union and peace, while agriculture and trade were wonderfully developed.
Ijiterature was patronised, axii. the most celebrated poets of China flourished. The
Western boundaries of the Empire were extended, and Korea became a Province
governed by Chinese officials. Embassies were received from different States. Maho-
medanism was introduced, and the fajnous Nestorian tablet erected at Ch^avgngan
(Singan Fu), by Imperial sanction A. D. 781.

At this period, the people of the South were incorporated with the Empire,
and to mark the event, style themselves T'angjen .S A <"' ™«™ "/ T'ang .

2. The Five Dynasties or Wntali •ft [Five Generations. A.D.

007-960). After the T'ang came five ephemeral dynasties, called also the Ten

States or Shihkwoh + 9- 1° 53 years, they had all disappeared, and the longest of
them lasted only 16 years. These dynasties are the following :

The Posterior Liang or Heu liinng ^ % (A.D. 907-923) was established by
Chiiwen "S' X, who took the Imperial title of T'nitsu jk IB- He established his
capital at Lohyang, in Hocan. The dynasty was overthrown by Li Ts'untsui ^^:g.

The Posterior T'ang or Heu T'ang ^ g| (A.D. 923-936). — Li Ts'untsui
on founding this dynasty, adopted the title of Chyrangtsung jffi ^. He was a great
soldier, and gained several victories over the K'itans. During the reign of his successor,
Mingtsang ?9 ^ (A.D. 926-931), it is said that the art of printing from wooden blocks
was invented (A.D. 932).

The Posterior Tsin or Heu Tsin ^ ^ (A.D. 936-947) was founded by Shih
Kingt'ang 5 fit lS> one of the Generals of the preceding dynasty. He formed an
alliance with the K'itans, and reigned under their patronage.

The Posterior Han or Heu Han ^ ^ (A.D. 947-951i. — Established by Liu
Chiyiien gll ^ S, it lasted but 4 years, and was suppressed by Kwohwei H! iS, a
General successful in his expedition against the K'itans.

The Posterior Chow or Heu Chow ^ Ml (A.D. 9.51-960) was founded by
Kwohwei. During his brief reign, confusion and trouble prevailed throughout the
Empire. Finally, Chao Kw'angyin ffl @ JH overcame all his rivals, and established
a new dynasty, that of Suiig 3?.

Here ends this long period of disunion and weakness, which began at the time
of the Three Kingdoms A. D. 214, and lasted for about 750 years.

3. The Sung 5lt dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), divided into the Northern or
Peh-Swng Jb M<. am^ ^^^ Southern or Nan-Sung ^ jjj. The Northern Sung ruled
from A.D. 960-1127 ; and the Southern, from A.D. 1127-12F0.

The Noithem Sung or Peh-Sung .f:. '^ (A.D. 960-1127). — The Sung dynasty
was founded by Chao Kw'angyin IS ^ Mi> who assumed the dynastic title of T'aitsu
jk jjl (A.D. 960-976). He established his capital at K'aifimg Fu ^ ^ W, in Honan.
He was a resolute warrior, but of a compassionate and kind disposition. His great aim
was the consolidation of the Empire, but he had to struggle against several rival Princes,
and the K'itans, who were then established in the Liaotung \S '^ peninsula. He
instituted a Board of Punishments, and thereby curtailed much the power of the
Provincial Governors. He left the throne to his brother T'aitsung.

T'aitsung jk ^ (A.D. 976-998) waged an unsuccessful war against the K'itans.
During his reign, a rebellion was quelled 'in Szechw'an.- He bestowed posthumous

458 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

honours on the descendants of Confucius, and exempted them from taxation. Chdn-
tsung 9t ^ (A.D. 998-1023), his successor, had nothing remarkable in his career.

Jdntsnng t^ ^ (A.D. 1023-1064) patronized literature and education, and
opened schools throughout the Empire. Some of China's greatest historians flourished
in this reign, the most famous being Szema Kwang SI g jfe (A.D. 1019-1080). At this
time, the Tangut Kingdom of Hsia, in Kansu, rose to prominence, and threatened to en-
croach on the Chinese territory. Peace was however secured, by China paying an annual
tribute of gold, silver and silk. J6ntsung was succeeded by Tingtsong ^ ^ (A.D.
1064-1068), who reigned but 4 years.

At this time, the Empire was divided in 26 Liia ^ or Circuits, a division adopted
to facilitate the administration of the country.

Sbdntsung jf ^ (A.D. 1068-1086).— During this reign, a social reformer named
Wang Nganshih 3£ 3c -5 (A.D. 1021-1086) attempted to change Hie methode of taxation
and the tenure of land. According to him "the poor should not be taxed, and the
Government should take all commerce, industry and agriculture, into its hands, and
thus protect the poor against the rich." The Emperor favoured the new system of
econcony. The scheme however met with violent opposition, and finally impoverished
and mined the State.

In A.D. 1125, the Kin ^ Tartars, better known under the name of the "Golden
Horde," defeated the K'itans, and founded a new kingdom (A.D.1125),with Liaoyang ^ |^
at first, and then Peking ;|b ^ as capital. The rising power immediately advanced
against the Sungs. At the approach of the army, H-weitsung ^ ^ abandoned
K'aifnng Fu, and fled to Nanking. His son capitulated, agreed to pay a large indemnity,
and ceded Shansi and Chihli to the conquerors. Nothing however was paid, and a
new invasion took place, in which the Emperor was carried off into captivity. AU the
Northern Provinces fell under the sway of the Kins, and thus closed the period of the
Northern Sung (A.D. 1127). A long struggle, principally centred in Hopan, now began
between North and South for the mastership of the Empire.

The Soatliem Song or Nam Svmg ^ ^ (A.D. 1127-1280). During this period,
the Chinese Empire was limited to the Provinces S. of the Yangtze.

Kaotsnng ^ ^ (A.D. 1127-1163), hrother of Hweitsnng, the captive Emperor,
established a new capital at Namking ^ ^, hence the dynasty was henceforth known
as the Southern Sumg. He was a weak and pusUlanimous monarch, refused to cross
the river and fight the Kins, but called in the Mongols against them. A struggle ensued.
Mongols and Kins fought desperately, till in A.D. 1234, "the Kins were finally subdued,
and their dynasty overthrown.

litsung S ^ (A. D. 1225-1265), the V"" Emperor of the Southern Sung, seeing
his enemies defeated, determined to occupy the old capital of the dynasty at K'aifung
Fu. The Mongols protested, and ordered him to retire. He refused, and war broke out.
The conflict was carried on with much energy, and several cities were taken, among
them Siangyamg S H and Hanyang ^ H, in Hupeh; and SoochowM)!^, in Kiang-
su. Hereupon, the Court withdrew to Hangchow ^ #1, in Chfikiang. This city was
also soon afterwards taken, and the young Emperor, Kungti |S ^i carried away
prisoner to Peking (A.D. 1276). The Emperor's brother fled to Foochow, in FoMen,
^nd after to Kwangtnng, where he died of exhaustion. Pingti ^ ^ was now placed
on the throne. The Mongols pursued him, and defeated him to the West of Macao,
where on seeing himself abandoned, he sprang into the sea and perished. Thus ended
the Sung dynasty. It lasted 320 years, and had 18 monarchs.

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PROaRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 459

The Sung is another of the great dynasties of China. During its sway of
power, the Empire was consolidated, the authority of the Governors restricted, and
peace developed. Literature and the arts were cultivated, and many eminent writers
flourished. Its philosophical tendency was rather materialistic, and its economic
scheme a failure. It lacked the military prowess and energy necessary to hold back
the Tartars and Mongols, while its alliance with the latter proved fatal, and sealed the
doom of the dynasty, which fell gloriously fighting to the last.

4. The Yiien 36 dynasty (A. D. 1280-1368). — The Mongols were
summoned to assist the Sung dynasty against the Kins. When these latter had been
defeated, the Mongols gradually conquered the whole of China, despite the heroic
resistance of the last supporters of the Sungs. Kuhlai Khan or Sitchen, after subduing
China, established the Yiiep yt dynasty, took the title of Shitsu ^ jg, and fixed
his capital at Karnbalu (city of the Khan) or Peking. His court was magnificent, and
he divided the country into 10 ShSng ^ or Provinces.

SbitsD ■JH: M. (A.D. 1280-1295), on ascendingtliethrone, assumedaoonciliatorj'
attitude towards the Chinese, adopted their customs, and patronized their literature.
In regard to religion, except to Taoism, he exhibited the widest toleration. In his
reign, trade and industry developed. He reconstructed the Imperial Canal {see p. 455),
and extended it to T'ientsin, in order to carry tribute to the Capital and supply the
Imperial granaries. His expedition against Japan was a failure, though he was a little
more successful against Cambodia and Burma. It was at this time that Marco Polo,
the great Venitian traveller, visited China (A. D. 1271), and resided there for 17 years.
Kublai died in 1295, and was succeeded by his grandson Temur, who took the dynastic
title of Ch'Sngtsung.,

Ch'dngtsang Wi ^ (A. C. 1295-1308). — During this reign, floods and famine
desolated the country, and rendered the people disoontented, and inclined to rebellion
and brigandage.

Under the Emperor Jdntsang -t ^ (A. C. 1312-1321), the Hanlin Academy
was restored, and the highest ofBlces conferred on the best scholars of the Empire.
He ignored however the rites, and sent a eunHch to sacrifice to Confucius.

During the latter period of the Ytien dynasty, rebellions were frequent, and
secret societies numerous, among them that of the White LiVy or Pehlien Kiao S^ffc-
Pirates ravaged the Southern coasts. Chu Yilenchang ^ yc ^i a rebel chief, became
notorious. A native of Nganhwei, he was at first a Buddhist monk, but threw off the
cowl to rescue the country from the Mongols.

Sbanti JH ^ (A.D. 1.338-1368) was the last of the Yiien Emperors. He was a
weak monarch, and gave himself up to pleasure and debauchery. He taxed heavily
the people, and this increased the general discontent. During the latter part of his
reign, Chu Yiienohang seined Nanking (A.D. 1356), and was soon everywhere victorious.
Peking was afterwards taken, and the Mongols driven beyond the Great Wall. The
Yiien dynasty thus came to an end, and the popular ex-monk set lip a' new dynasty,
known as the Ming.

The Mongols were hospitable to foreigners, but never popula/r with the Chinese,
who considered them as barbarians. Some good will was at first displayed, but preju-
dice, and a spirit of veiled rebellion rankled throughout the country. Unsuccessful
expeditions, heavy taxation, official extortion and misgovernment, increased the latent
discontent, and finally caused the downfall of the dynasty. In the last struggle, they

460 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOQRAPHT.

displayed little martial vigour. The Ytiens were devout Buddliists. The dynasty
lasted 88 years, and reckoned 10 sovereigns.

4°. The Modern Dynasties.
( A.D. 1368 to the present times).

Two dynasties are found in this last period : o7ie Chinese^ called the Ming ^
(A.D. 1368-16 W); the other of Manchu origin, and known as the Tb'ins }§.

1. Tbe Ming ^ dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644) was founded by Chu Yuen-
cAanfl', better known under his style of reign as HangTvu ^ jH (A.D. 1368-1399). He
established Nanking his principal, and K'aifung Fu his secondary capital. He was an
able general and a wise ruler, and throughout his reign, displayed prudence, economy
and moderation. He encouraged literature and education, opened schools and libraries
in the cities and large towns, and codified the laws. Mongol raids in the North were
suppressed, and at the close of his reign, peace was established throughout the whole
Empire. He appointed his grandson Kienwen to succeed him.

Kienvrdn ^ ^ (A. D. 1399-1403) was IC years of age when he ascended the
throne. His uncle, the Prince of Ten (Yftn Wang ^ I), rebelled against him, and
proclaimed himself Emperor, under the title of Yungloh. EienwSn fled to Szechw'an,
and entering a Baddhist monastery, led a secluded life there for forty years.

Tunsloh ^ KS (A. D. H03-1425). — During this reign, Tongking was annexed
as a Chinese Province, but became tribute-bearing again under the next Emperor (A.D.
1426). In the year 1416, he resolved to transport the capital to Peking, but the final
transfer was not effected till U21. Yungloh encouraged literature, and ordered the
best scholars to compile a vast encyclopaedia (Singli Tats'iien ^ i^ ;Ac ^) of 23,000
volumes. His 2 successors ruled but 11 years.

Cb^nst'ons JE ^ (A. D. 1436-1450). — Daring this reign the court eunuchs
completely controlled the Imperial wiU. The Slongols invaded the Empire and
defeated the Chinese army. The Emperor was taken prisoner, but allowed afterwards
to return. His brother Kingt'ai ;§; ^ (A.D. 1150-1458) was now placed on the throne,
but happening to die soon after, Ohdngfung still ruled for another 8 years. During
tbe reign of Oh'teghwa jffi -ft (A. D. 1165-1488), territorial grants were made to the
members of the reigning family, who contributed to its elevation. This discontented
much the people, and finally led to the downfall of the dynasty. Important public
works were also completed. The canal between Peking and the Peh-ho was deepened,
and the Great AVall repaired (A.D. 1470). Hami, an important trading centre, was
captured from the Tartars (A.D. 1477). Ch'Snghwa was succeeded by his son Hungchi
jg Jg (A.D. 1488-l.'i06', who put down an insurrection in Hainan.

OhSnsteh JE ^ (A.D. 1506-l.i22). — In this reign the Portuguese reached
Canton (A. D. 1516). Acts of piracy having been committed, they were afterwards
massacred in large numbers at Ningpo (A.D. 1545). Those who escaped, fled to
Ts'uenchow j|^ W in Fokien, and subsequently to Macao, where they were allowed
to settle (A.D. 1557), on payment of an annual rental of 500 Taels.

Kiatsing ^ i^ (A. D. 1522-1567) ascended the throne at the age of 14, and was
rather a poet than a competent administrator. His reign was troubled by the repeated
incursions of the Mongols in the N., and of the Japanese on the coast. Those latter
captured Ningpo, Hangchow, Sungkiang, Sooobow and Shanghai (A. D. 1554). Prom
this date, the dynasty began to decline.

CHAPTER VII. RISK AND PROGRESS OE THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 461

Wanlih j^ M (A.D. 1573-1620) ascended the throne at the age of 6 years, and
was the only great Emperor at the close of the dynasty. During his reign, the Japanese
invaded Korea, and were allowed to settle at Fusan (Fushan ^ iJj). Intercourse was
opened with the Spaniards, and the first Jesuit Missionaries entered China, Valignani
and Ruggieri in J579, and Ricci in 1583 {see p. 355).

In 1618, the Manchus under Nurhach'ih (^ g P^ ^), invaded Liaotung 52 ;^,
defeated the Chinose army and captured Liaoyang. In 1625, the conquerors established
their capital at Mukden, and in 1629 advanced against China, but failed to capture
Peking. The danger was but temporarily averted.

Ch'ungeh6ng; ^ jg (A.D. 162S-1644) was the last Emperor of the Ming
dynasty. During his reign, rebellions broke out on all sides. Among them, the most
fatal was that led by Li Tzech'erig ^ ^ SE, who after devastating Shensi and Ho-
nan, attacked and took Peking (A.D. 1644), and was for a short time the virtual master
of China. The Emperor, seeing that all was lost, ended his days by committing suicide.
The Chinese General, Wti Sankwei ^ S tt, summoned the Manchus against the
usurper. These acquiesced promptly, entered Peking in triumph, and Suppressed the
rebellion. They then refused to leave, and set up a new dynasty, called the Ts'ing J^,
of which Shunchi IS J& was the first Emperor. Thus ended the Ming dynasty,
amidst rebellion and bloodshed, and China wa? for the second time ruled by the
Northern Tartars.

The Ming dynasty encouraged literature and codified the laws of the state. The
territorial granting of land to scions of the reigning bouse was a mistake, discontented
the people, and revived the feudal system. The tyrannical power of the eunuchs, the
unsuccessful wars waged T^'ith Japan, the extravagance and improvidence of the last
Emperors, and the growing discontent of the people, caused the downfall of the
dynasty.

Under the Mings, the Empire was divided into 15 Sheng '-^ or Frovinces. In
the following dynasty, this number w&s extended to 18. Three of the old Provinces
were divided into 2, Shensi constituting the new Provinces of Shensi and Kansu
Kiangnan, the Provinces of Kiangsu and Nganhwei ; and Hukwang, those of Hunan
and Hupeh.

3. The TatS'lng :A; ^ dynasty (A.D. 1644 to the present day). — The
Manchus on reaching the throne spared no efforts to conciliate the Chinese, and only
imposed upon them to shave their heads in recognition of Tartar authority. This is
the origin of the queue or plait, which is worn down to the present day.

Shunchi M }& (1644-1662) was the first Emperor of the Manchu dynasty.
Wu Sankwei ^ ~. ^, who called in the Manchus, received the title of "P'ingsi Wang"
^ S i, or Prince Pacifier of the West, and was requested to continue in the service
of the new dynasty. Numerous uprisings took place in the N., but were soon suppressed.
At Nanking, an attempt was made to maintain the Mings. Ghu Yitisung ^ fy J^,
grandson of Wanli, was proclaimed Emperor, but the choice was unfortunate, and he
lacked wisdom and energy. The Manchus took Tangchow ^ m, in Kiangsu, and put to
death Shih K'ofah it W jt> the defender of the place. They then advanced on .Nanking.
The Emperor fled to Wuhu, and was treacherously drowned in the Yangtze. Nanking
was taken, and henceforth called Kiangning Fu ft'^ M (Peace restored to Kiangsu).
Soochow,Hangchow, Ningpo and Canton were subsequently subdued, and peace estab-
lished in the South. A great part of this reign was occupied by these wars. A pirate chief

462 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC ftEOORAPHY.

devoted to the cause of the Mings, and called Koxinga (Kwohsingy^ H jft SS ) ,
harassed the coast of Fokien and entered the Yangtze, but failed to take Nanking.
Another rebeUion was suppressed in Szechw'an. Shumchi died in 1662, at the age of 28,
and appointed his third son K'anghsi to be his successor.

K'anghsi ^ S6 (1662-1723) ascended the throne at the age of 8 years. During
his minority, a regency administered the State, and showed great hostility to the
Catholic religion. In 1667, having come of age, he assumed control of the Government,
and allowed the MissioTiaries to return to their churches^ and minister to their converts.
During his reign, ewnuchs were forbidden to hold official positions in the State, while
the Chinese were given equal representation with Manchus in all official appointments.
Two embassies came to Peking, one from Russia, and the other from Holland. In 1674,
Wu Sanhwei, the then Governor of Kwangtung and Yunnan, raised the standard of
revolt against the dynasty. Szechw'an, Fokien, Kiangsi and Hunan soon rallied to the
cause of Wu, but he died in 1678, and thus brought the rebellion to a close. K'anghsi
went to Mukden to thank his ancestors for the delivery of the dynasty. In 1683,
Formosa, held by Coxinga, was subdued, and annexed to the Empire. In 16?9, the
treaty of Nerchinsk wis signed with Russia, while in 1696, the Sleuths, a Ealmuch
tribe of Hi, were defeated. In 1720, Russia sent a second embassy to Peking, but little
good came of it.

K'anghsi firmly established the Manchu dynasty in China. To prevent revolts,
Mamchu garrisons were stationed in the principal cities of the . Empire, and it was
enacted that no official could hold office in his native Province, or govern for more than
3 years. K'anghsi was a wise, conrgeous, and magnanimous ruler, and a great patron
of literature. During his reign, a standard dictionary, known as K'anghsi's dictiormry,
was compiled by a commission of scholars. A large encyclopaedia of 5,000 volumes
was also published, while he himself wrote the 16 fajnums moral maxims, afterwards
annotated by his son Yungchtog, and called the Sacred Edict. K'anghsi died in 1723.
He reigned 61 years, and appointed his fourth son Tungcheng as his successor.

Tonschfiag IS JE (1723-1736) was 44 years of age when he ascended the
throne. He banished the Jesuits to Macao, except a few kept in his service as astrono-
mers. Over 300 churches were destroyed, and 300,000 christians left without their pastors.
In 1727, Russia opened a school at Peking for the study of Chinese, and the Portuguese
sent an embassy to the court. While a rebellion broke out in Mongolia, the Emperor
suddenly died. Yungching had but a short reign of 13 years. He loved literature,
cared little for military glory, persecuted religion, and was a bitter hater of foreigners.

K'ienliing |S ^ (1736-1796) succeeded his father at the age of 25. During his
reign, a rebeUion was suppressed in Kwangsi and Honan, as well as an uprising which
broke out in Mongolia. In 1768, he compelled Burma to pay a triennial tribute. In
1775, he reduced the Miaotze tribes of Szechw'an, put to death their leaders, and
banished others to Ili. In 1790, war was declared against the Gurkhas of Nepajil,
who had invaded Tibet. In 1793, Lord Macartney's embassy reached China. The
ambassador was received and treated as a tribute-bearer. He saw the Emperor twice
at Jehol, and obtained to trade at Canton, but subject to official caprice and exactions.
K'ienlung made frequent journeys to ascertain the state of the country. He reigned
60 years. Finding it nnfilial to surpass his grandfather K'anghsi, he abdicated in
1796, but lived till 1799.

K'ienlung via.a a ruler of far-seeing policy, and enjoyed a long and glorious reign.
He had a lust for conquest, and wanted peace on the frontiers, hence his wars. Like

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PRO&RESS OP THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 463

his father, he feared the influence of the Jesuit Missionaries, and being surrounded
by hostile advisers, he put restrictions on their work. In 1746, a terrible persecution
broke out, and lasted to the close of his reign.

Kiak'ing ^ gj (1796-1821) saw the oommenoement of hia reign troubled by
the rehellion of the White Lily Society, or Pehlien Kiao ^ % iiC. Caused by official
exaction and discontent, it extended to Hupeh, Honan, Shensi, Kansu and Szechw'an,
and was finally put down at the cost of an immense number of lives, and a large sum
of money. The Emperor's life was frequently imperilled. Pirates infested the coast of
Kwangtung) Pokien and Ch6kiang, and the Portuguese were requested to check their
depredations. In 1805, a Russian embassy refused to perform the Te'owt'ow B]! SS
(ceremony of prostration and knocking the forehead on the ground), and was turned back
at the frontier. In the same year, the propagation of the christian religion, either by
word or writing, was anew prohibited. It was also forbidden to enter the church, or
read any books oh the foreign religion. Furthermore in 1814, all missionaries, both
foreign and Chinese, were to be killed, and converts who refused to recant, were
condemned to exile. In 1816, Lord Amherst's embassy reached Peking. The k'owt'ow
was required and refused, as it marked vassalage and subjection. The ambassador was
treated with the utmost incivility, and dismissed without an interview.

Kiak'ing was a weak and voluptuous monarch, who delighted in actors and
theatrical amusements. During his reign, the dynasty declined much, and insurrec-
tions and disorder abounded. He ignored the status and power of foreign countries,
and assumed China's universal sovereignty as an undisputed fact, to which all nations
should bow. Kiak'ing reigned 25 years, and died at Jehol at the age of 61.

Taokwang M 3fc (1821-1850) began his reign by dismissing the court actors
of his father. Many local insurrections and disasters took place, among which was
the first war with Great Britain (1840-1843). It was caused by the contempt with
which the embassies of Lords Macartney and Amherst were treated, the assumption of
China's universal sovereignty, the refusal to treat foreign nations on terms of equality,
and grant liberty of commerce, while the confiscation and destruction of the opium
(20,282 chests), were the last straw which broke British patience. It resulted in China
being worsted, and 5 ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) opened to
foreign trade. The Treaty of Nanking stipulated besides, the cession of Hongkong to
Great Britain, and the payment of an indemnity of $ 21 ,000,000 (12 for the war, 3 for
debts due, and 6 for the opium destroyed). In 1844, France and the United States signed
also treaties with China. The Catholic religion began to be tolerated, and churches
could be built in the 5 open ports. After the Treaty of Nanking, various attempts were
made to evade obligations, but they proved unsuccessful. In 1849, the Ngaofei U j|
rebellion broke out, and merged subsequently into the T'aip'ing rebellion. In 1850,
the Yellow river abandoned its Southern course, and flowed henceforth into the Gulf
of Chihli.

'laokwamg was a more energetic and just ruler than hia predecessor. He was
opposed to the opium trade morally, and especially commercially, as it drained the
country of silver, but as much cannot he said of hia Ministers, who failed to carry out
his purpose. Had the opium incident not existed, war would have taken place on
the principle of universal sovereignty, diplomatic equality, and liberty of commerce,
upon each of which China was unyielding. Taokwang hated foreigners, and styled
them "outer barbarians" (Wei-i^^), to whom China had shown great condescension.
He reigned 30 years, and left-the throne to his fourth aon Ssienfung.

464 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC 6E00RAPHY.

Hsienfung J^ |g (1850-1861) ascended the throne at the age 6t 19. In his reign
the T'aip'ing jfc ^ reJeZMore broke out, and lasted tilll664. It originated in Kwangsi,
where its chief, Sung Hmts'uen 8t 5^ ^, a discontented Hakka peasant, assumed
the title of Heavenly King {T'ien Wang 5? 5E), and aimed at the overthrow of the
Manchu dynasty. He was for some time an inquirer of the Baptist Mission (Pro-
testant) in Canton, read the Bible, and fired with enthusiasm, intended also to destroy
idolatry. His followers abandoned the practice of shaving their heads, and hence
were called Gh'angmao ^ ^ (long-haired rebels). The rebellion soon extended to the
Yangtze valley. Nanking was taken in 1853, made the capital, and held till 18C1.
Several other cities fell also into their hands : Hangyang, Wuch'ang, Ngank'ing, Kiu-
kiang, Wuhu, Sooohow and Hangohow. In 1854, a column advanced on Peking, but
failed to capture it. The Imperial troops offered throughout but weak resistance to the
progress of the rebels, and even at times went over to their ranks.

Other important events, which took place in the South, brought on a second
war with Great Britain (1856-1860). The causes were the continual outrages on British
subjects (Canton factories burned), the refusal to open Canton as stipulated in the
treaty of Nanking (1842, art. 2), and the seizure of the "Arrow", a lorcha flying the
British flag. The French joined to seek reparation for the murder of a Missionary in
Kwangsi. Canton was taken (1857), and the Chinese fleet destroyed. The allied Forces
then proceeded North, took Taku, and occupied T'ientsin. Here a treaty was signed,
June 26, 1858, and its ratification postponed for one year. When the Foreign Ministers
returned in 1859, they were treacherously fired upon at Taku. The allied fleets
returned to Shanghai, and in 1860, left for the North to continue the war. Taku,
T'ientsin and Peking were taken in turn. The Emperor fled in haste to Jehol, and left
Prince Eung, his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. The war was brought to a
close by the Convention of Peking, signed in the Capital, October 24, 1860. A Minister
was henceforth to reside in Peking, T'ientsin to be opened, Kowloon ceded to Great
Britain, and an indemnity of 8 million taels paid to the Allies. France obtained on
her side important rights for the Catholics : the christian religion was to he tolerated
and christian converts protected; missionaries could live in the interior, erect churches
and open schools, rent and purchase property, while religious establishments confis-
cated in former times were to be restored.

In 1861, the Waiwn Pa ^ i^ oB, or Chinese Foreign Office (see p. 298), was
instituted, with Prince Kung as President. Hsienfung refused to return to Peking,
and died at Jehol in 1861, at the age of 30. He reigned but 11 years, and beheld to his
great regret the country further opened to Western nations. He left the throne to his
son T'ungchi.

T'ungchi HI }& (1861-1875). — After the death of Hsienfung, the Court re-
turned to the Capital. The Princes who favoured the Emperor's dissolute life hoped to
govern after his death, as his only son was but a child of i years. The mother of this
boy was Tx'ehsi ^ fj^, secondary wife of Hsienfung (to day the Empress-Dowager),
and i:ot the reigning Empress. Prince Kung tS, the late Emperor's brother, came to
an arrangement with the two Empresses-Dowager, and by a eoup-d'Mat, arrested and
put to death Prince Tsai, and the other leaders of the anti-foreign policy. Kung and
the Empresses-Dowager, especially Te'ehsi, formed a regency and ruled henceforth the
Empire,

The T'aip'ing >k -^ rebellion, commenced under th« previous reign, continued
its ravages throughout the country. Li Bungchang ^ ^ ijl, at that time appointed

CHAPTER YII. RISK AND PROORESS OF THE GHINE8B EMPIRE. 465

Governor of Kiangsu Province, engaged 2 Americans, Ward and Burgevine, to organize
a force of Foreigners and Manilamen called the "Ever Victorioii^ Army," to fight the
rebels. Ward achieved some success, but was defeated at Ts'ingp'u 'ff }S> "id sub-
sequently killed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of Chfikiang JPf tt. Li Hungchang
had monuments erected to his memory at Ningpo ^ JS and Sungkiang |S fL {see p. 159).
Burgevine was dismissed the service for misconduct, and went over to the rebels.
Major Gordon, an Englishman, was then entrusted (186-^) with the command of the
"Ever Victorious Army". Through his efforts SoochowWi: ffl was soon recovered, but the
rebel leaders were put to death by order of Li Hungchang, despite a promise to the
contrary. Hereupon Gordon resigned (though a gift of 10,000 taels was offered him), and
the "Ever Victorious Army" was disbanded. In 1864, Nanking ^ J{ was recovered by
the Imperial troops, and the Heavenly King ended his life by taking poison. The T'ai-
p'ing rebellion was thus suhdtied. It lasted 14 years (1860-1864), extended to ]2 Pro-
vinces, ruined 600 cities, and reduced the population of Kiangsu and Nganhwei Pro-
vinces by 20,000,000.

During the T'aip'ing rebellion, the Shanghai custom house was deserted by the
Chinese. The Foreign Consuls took charge of collecting the revenue, and this sytem
being extended to the other open ports, gave rise to the Institution known as the
Imperial Maritime Customs {see p. 355). Jf' E.N. Lay was appointed its first Inspector-
General (1855), and it depended on the Tsungli YamSn till 1906, when it was trans-
ferred to the Board of Eevenue. Prince Kung commissioned Lay to purchase 8 gun-
boats for the service of the Government. When they reached Shanghai, under
Captain Osborne, Li Hungchang wanted to control them exclusively. To avoid compli-
cations, the British Minister sent the vessels back. Captain Osborne was indemnified,
and Lay dismissed by the Chinese Government.

In 1861, a Mahomedan rebellion broke out in Kansu, and rapidly extended to
Hi and Kashgaria. In 1871, Russia, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, occupied Hi,
and held it till 1881, when it was restored to China. This Northern rebellion lasted
17 years, and was finally crushed in 1878. In 1872, another Moslem rebellion vras
queUed in Yilnnan {see p. 363). —In 1867, China sent iTaeBurlinghamie mission to Western
countries, to induce them to believe that she intended to reform, and entertain Idndlier
feelings towards Foreigners. Meanwhile anti-foreign riots broke out at Yangchow jft ffl
(1868) in Kiangsu, and displayed the hoUowness and insincerity of the mission.

The Tientsin 5^ ^ massacre, which occurred June 21, 1870, confirmed the
worst apprehensions. It was caused by anonymous pamphlets, scattered broadcast by
the anti-foreign party in Peking, against the catholic religion, and by stories that the
Sisters of Charity kidnapped children for the purpose of extracting their eyes and
hearts, to make telescopic lenses, medicine, and change lead into silver (sic). The pro-
verbial credulity of the Chinese took all this for granted, and an attempt was made to
examine the premises of the Orphanage. The French Consul refused, perhaps Belittle
too rudely, whereupon an attack was made on the Consulate, the Catholic Cathedral
and the Orphanage. Twenty-one Foreigners, and several native christians were mas-
sacred, while the Officials though appealed to, did nothing to quell the mob. The Foreign
Ministers demanded punishment. An Imperial Edict, dated June 30, exonerated th«
Missionaries from all the calumnies above mentioned, and added that everything written
in former times against the Catholic Church was henceforth suppressed. After long
negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 250,000 taels (£ 80,000), as compensation
money; an official was sent to France to apologize for the orime, and the Prefect and
district Magistrate of T'ientsin were banished.

466 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.

In 1871, the Ohinese Government made a proposal to modify article 13 of
the French treaty signed at T'ientsin, 1858, concerning the Catholic religion. The
"Memoramdvm,", as it was caJled, is remarkable as exhibiting the final goal towards
■which the Chinese Government tends in regard to the Catholic Church. No Mission-
ary Sisters, and no orphanages are wanted. Chinese women mnst not go to Church.
The Foreign Missionaries must not condemn the teaching ol Confucius. They cannot
purchase property or build thereon without consulting the local Official, who will
judge whether and to what extent, it may interfere with the unseen influences (native
geomancy or Fv/ngshui JSi /jt) of the locality. They must not protect in anywise the
native christians, and must hand to the local Officials the list of all applicants and
baptized members of the Church. If these conditions obtain, peace will be secured
between converts and non-converts throughout the Empire, for China cherishes both
equally. These proposals were rejected, and this holds down to the present day. In the
British Treaty signed at Shanghai, September 5, 1902, China obtained from Great Bri-
tain a promise to join in an intematioTial commission, should China and the Treaty
Powers so agree, to investigate the Missionary Question, and if possible, secure the above
mentioned and ever desirable peace between converts and non-converts (article 13).

In 1872, the Emperor was murried, and having assumed the reins of Government
and dispensed with the Regency of the Empress-Mother, the Foreign Ministers
demanded an audience. It was reluctantly granted, and to show China's real atti-
tude towards Foreign powers, took place June 29, 1873, in the Hall for receiving tribu-
tary nations.1 The last years of T'ungohi were filled with trouble, and disorder existed
throughout the country. A famine prevailed in Shensi and Kansu, and the Yellow
Eiver, "China's sorrow", overflowed its banks. On September 10, 1874, Prince
Kung was degraded by the Emperor for using unbecoming language to His Majesty,
but on the following day (September 11), another decree appeared from the two Em-
presses reinstating him in his former rank and dignity. The young Emperor thought
he was independent, but the two ex-Begents reasserted their power. Two months
after, His Majesty became seriously ill, and died January 12, 1875, at the early age
of 19. Se left no issue, and the young Empress followed him a few days afterwards
to the tomb.

K'wangsfi 'it IS (1875, and stiU gloriously reigning). — On the death of
T'ungchi, a four-year old son of Prince Shun (Shun Wang SS I> youngest brother
of Hsienfung), was proclaimed Emperor under the title of Kwamgsil (Brilliant
succession). Tifehsi, T'ungohi's mother, was aunt to the new Emperor, and thus by
placing her nephew on the throne, she could continue to govern the Empire. Prince
Kung was soon after deposed, and lA Mungcha/ng appointed as chief adviser to the
Govenvnient.

In 1875, the first year of KwangsQ's reign, M' Margary, of the British Consnlar
Service, was treacherously murdered by Chinese soldiers at Manwyne, in Yunnan.
Margary acted as interpreter to the Commission from the Indian Government for
opening trade with Yiinnan, to which China gave her consent. For some time, war
was imminent, as the official inquiry seemed to be a farce. The matter was however
settled on the following terms ; China to send an embassy to London to apologize for the
crime ■ an indemnity of 200,000 taels to be paid ; frontier trade to be allowed between
Burma and Yiinnan; 4 new ports (loh'ang, Wuhu, Pakhoi, and 'WSnchow) to be
opened to foreign trade, and guarantees given for the better protection of foreign life
in future. During the years 1877-78, a terrible famine desolated the Provinces of

CHAPTER VII. RISK AND PROSRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 467

Honan, Shausi, Shantung and Chihli, and caused the death of 8,000,000 of the population.
— In 1881, China concluded with Bussia the treaty of S' Petersburgh, and recovered lU,
occupied since 1871 (see p. 362). — Prom 1882-1885, Japanese interference and inroads
in Korea compelled China to intervene and protect her vassal. Both sides sent troops
to uphold their rights, but finally agreed to withdraw. To avoid complications and
maintain peace, neither was to occupy the country permanently, or send troops without
notifying the other. This convention lasted tiU 1894. — At the close of the Korean
trouble, a conflict broke out with France on the Southern frontier. In 1864, France
took Annam, and subsequently proceeded to annex Tongking (1884). Both countries
had been for centuries vassals of China, and now appealed to her for protection. By the
Foumier Convention (May, 1884), China consented to withdraw her troops from Tong-
king, and allow France to occupy the town of Langson. France, in return for this
cession of territory, consented to respect China's Southern frontier. The Chinese Govern-
ment delayed however to evacuate Langson, and on the advance of the French troops,
repulsed them with great loss. Hereupon war was declared. Admiral Courbet captured
the arsenal and fleet of Foochow. He afterwards proceeded to Formosa, took Kelung,
and blockaded the coast. A treaty of peace was signed June 9, 1885. China agreed
to pay an indemnity of 10,000,000 taels, and gave up aU claim to Tongking.

Several reforms followed the war with France, the principal being the formation
of a powerful fleet. Prince Shun, the Emperor's father, was placed at the head of the
Board of Admiralty, and Port Arthur and Weihaiwei were completed as naval bases
for the Northern squadron. Captain Lang, of the British navy, was loaned to the Chi-
nese Government. In a few years, he organized the Northern squadron, and retired
in 1890, leaving aU to Admiral Ting, the future hero of Weihaiwei.

In 1887, the Emperor came of age, and married in 1889 (February 26). At
the same time, the Empress Dowager retired from the regency. In March, 1891, the
Emperor gave his first audience to the Foreign Ministers. The interview proved most
unsatisfactory, as it took place in the Hall of tribute-bearing nations, and showed
that China held obstinately to her fiction of universal sovereignty. — During the same
year, riots broke out in the Yangtze Valley. They were caused by the Kolao Hwel
(society of old comrades), and the scurrilous writings of Chou San, one of the rabid
literati of Honan. Several christian churches, residences of European missionaries,
hospitals and schools were wrecked at Yangchow, Wuhu, Wusih, Tanyang, Ch6n-
kiang, Kiangyin, Ich'ang and Kiukiang. The Government claimed it was powerless
to punish the real culprits, but granted monetary compensation for the destruction
that had been wrought, and exhorted the Viceroys to protect foreign life and
property.

In 1894, war broke out with Japan, the bone of contention being Korea, and
lasted till February, 1895. The causes were, on the side of China : Korea was her
vassal and applied for protection. On the Japanese side : 1° the frequent attacks on
her legations in Korea, and the murder of her protegee, Kim Okkiun, killed at Shang-
hai, March 28, 1894, at the instigation of China ; 2° the desire to control the govern-
ment of Korea; 3° to avoid a civil revolution threatening at home, through the restless
activity of the military class. To these reasons must be added the rising of the Tung-
haks (Tungkiaos "^ fit Eastern religionists and conservatives), against the King of
Korea, and the reforms of his Government. The King appealed to China, his
Suzerain, for protection. Two thousand soldiers were sent to help in restoring order,
and Japan warned when they had arrived. Japan dissatisfied with this act, and
suspecting the sincerity of China, dispatched on her side ten thousand men.

SECTION y. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aEOORAPHY.

Negotiations were commenced to withdraw the troops of both countries. Meanwhile
the Kowlunng, a British steamer, chartered to convey Chinese troops to Chemulpo,
was funk by the Japanese cruiser Naniwa (July 25). Hereupon war was formally
declared. China lost the battle of P'ingyang (September 15), and the naval battle of
the Yalu (September 17), in which 5 vessels were sunk, and the rest put to flight. Soon
afterwards, the Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port Arthur taken (November 21)
by the Japanese. Weihaiwei, China's last naval stronghold, was next attacked, and the
forts and fleet captured (Febuary 12, 1895). Japan now proposed to advance on Peking,
but peace overtures were made, and the war brought to a close by the Shimonoseki
treaty, signed April 17, lf95. The principal clauses of the treaty were : 1° the indepen-
dence of Korea ; 2° the Liaotung peninsula, Formosa and the Pescadores Islands to be
ceded to Japan; 3° an indemnity of 200,000,000 K'np'ing taels ; 4° the opening to foreign
trade of Shashi (in Hupeh), Ch'ungk'ing (in Szechw'an), Soochow (in Kiangsu) and
Hangchow (in Chgkiang). When the day for the ratification of the treaty arrived
(November 8, 1895), Russia, Germany a/nd France protested against the occupation of
South-East Manchuria, and compelled Japan to restore it to China, on payment of an
additional sum of 30,000,000 taels. In return for their services, Bussia obtained from
China the right to carry her Siberian railway through North Manchirria to Vladivostock,
with branch lines to Mukden and Port Arthur ; France could con'tinue her Tongking
railway to Nanning Fu, in Kwangsi, while Germany obtained special mining and
railway privileges in Shantung.

The war with Japan revealed China's weakness, and a period of encroachments
on the part of the Western Powers set in. Germany seized Kiaochow (November 14,
1897), in reparation for the murder of two German Missionaries. To counteract Gei-man
influence, and secure an ice-free port in Manchuria, Bussia demanded Port Arthur
(March 27, 1898), and obtaind it on lease (May 1898), while Weihaiwei was leased to
Great Britain (July 1, 1898), who could not see Germany and Bussia advancing without
protecting her own interests. Kwangehow-wan M M |9 (Kwangtung) was also leased
to France, April 22, 1898. During the year 1898, the policy of spheres of interest culmin-
ating eventually in partition, and the international rivalry for railway concessions
amd mining, greatly alarmed China, and signs of a national uprising took place in Shan-
tung. At the same time, a series of reform edicts were issued by the Emperor (reorga-
nization of the Government, of the army and of education, the right to memorialize the
throne directly, numerous useless ofSices to be suppressed). The Empress Dowager
and the Conservatives found these edicts too radical, and determined that they should
be frustrated. The plot being matured, Ewangsil was seized, September 22, 1898, and
compelled to abdicate on the following day. 'J'he Empress Dowager, Te'ekai, resumed
the regency, abandoned since March 4, 1889. The reformers were arrested, 6 of them
put to death, and the recent reform decrees cancelled. Chinese being distrusted,
Manchu Officials were put in aU important positions. In 1900 (January 24), P'utsun
K fH, son of Prince Twan, and grandson to Taokwang, was chosen Emperor, in
succession to Kwangsii. This choice met however with violent opposition both from
Chinese and Foreigners, and P'utsun was declared to be only heir-apparent to the
throne. Subsequently he was degraded (November 30, 1901), and sent back to his
father's home. As the reform movement was being crushed out, the uprising started
in Shantung since the close of 1898, assumed great importance, under the name of the
Boxers (K'uenfei ft |i> Boxer rebels, called also Ihwok'iien g fll ^. Patriotic fists).
J'hese fanatics were opposed to the weak policy of the dynasty, and resolved to rid the
country of Foreigners. Countenanced by the Throne and several high Officials,

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 469

they began their work in Shantung by attacking the native ohristians, whom they
considered as sold to Foreigners, and hence deserving death. They then passed
over to Chihli, destroyed the railway from Paoting Fu to Peking, and finally
surrounded the Capital. The Legations alarmed, summoned extra guards, and on
June 5, 1900, were cut off from all communication with the outside world, the
Boxers having destroyed the telegraph and railway lines to T'ientsin. On June
21, the siege of the Legations, and of the Peht'ang or Catholic Cathedral, was
commenced. Boxers and Imperial troops poured in shot and shell, during 2 months,
upon the beleagured Foreigners and thousands of christians, but failed to annihi-
late them. TJie Chancellor of tlie Japanese Legation, and the German Ambassador
were murdered in broad daylight, and a secret edict was issued by the Empress
Dowager ordering the extermination of all Foreigners. A relief expedition, under the
conduct of Admiral Seymour, of the British fleet, attempted to reach Peking, but failed
through fierce and constant attacks from the Boxers. In the meantime, Taku and
T'ientsin were taken by the allied army of the Treaty Powers, and an advance made
to deliver Peking. The Legations were relieved August 14, and the Capital occupied
by the allied Powers of Great Britain, the United States, France, Bussia, Germany,
Austria, Italy and Japan. The Court had fled to Singan Fu, in Shensi, and remained
there till peace was established. The Boxers subdued in Peking, continued their
anti-foreign crusade in Shanai, where 45 Missionaries, Catholic and Protestant, were
killed by order of the Governor Yii Hsien, and their churches, schools and hospitals
destroyed. In Manchuria also a great persecution broke out, and several Foreign
Missionaries, and hundreds of converts fell victims to the hatred of their enemies.
Including both Catholics and Protestants, over ZOO Missionaries were put to death,
and the Christian converts, who were massacred, numbered several thousands.

On the part of China, a great political blunder had been committed, and the
Powers were compelled to exact full satisfaction for such a crime. Negotiations were
opened with Prince K'ing and Li Hungchang, representing China, and the Peace Com-
missioners delegated by their respective countries. The principal conditions imposed,
and accepted by China were the following : 1° China to erect a monument to the memory
of the German Ambassador, on the spot where he was murdered, and send an Imperial
Prince to apologize to Germany; 2° two Princes guilty of having ordered the attack
on the Legations, and several high Officials to be put to death, others to be exiled to
Turkestan; 3° the suspension of the official examinations during 5 years, in all towns
where Foreigners were murdered ; 4° an expiatory monument to be erected by China
in each of the foreign cemeteries (English, French and Bussian) desecrated ; 5° an
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,.500,000), to be paid in 40 instalments to the Powers,
corporations and individuals, who had suffered from the disturbance. The tael to be
calculated in the gold currency of each country (3 s. for Great Britain; 0.74 for
the gold dollar of the United States, and 3.75 for the French franc), and China to be
allowed to raise the tariff on maritime imports to an effective 5%; 6° the Legation
quarters to be exclusively reserved for Foreigners, policed by them, and put in a state
of defence; 7° the Taku forts to be razed, and certain points to be occupied by Foreign
troops, in order to maintain free communication between the Capital and the sea ;
8° the Tsungli Yamfen (Chinese Foreign Office) to be transformed into a Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, styled the Waiwu Pu, and to rank before the other Ministries of State ;
9° the representatives of Foreign Powers to be henceforth received in the Palace Hall
styled K'ients'ing Kung, to proceed thereto in a sedan chair, to enter the Palace
through the central or principal gateway, and to have yellow trappings and tassela

470 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SEOftRAPHY.

to their sedan, when presenting their credentials, or a communication of their respec-
tive sovereigns to the Throne; credentials to be handed directly to the Emperor, and
the representatives to be treated by China on a footing of perfect equality, without
assumption of supremacy on either side.

These terms though severe were far better than China expected. Above all,
the integrity of the coimtry was preserved, and no further demands made for portions
of her territory. The audience question was also satisfactorily settled, and the assum-
ption of universal sovereignty set at last at rest. These results were principally due
to the skilful diplomacy of Li Sungchang. As the great statesman completed his
work, he died November 7, 1901, at the age of 79. Peace being now established, the
Mnvperor and Empress-Dowager left Shensi (October 6, 1901) and re-entered Peking
January 7, 1902, having being absent 1 year and 4 J months. — ' Shortly after their return,
an Anglo-iTapanese Convention guaranteed the integrity of China and Korea, while
Kussia, who had occupied Manchuria during the Boxer crisis, promised she would
evacuate in 18 months. — In the course of 1902, the situation improved, T'ientsin
was restored (August 15), and the troops of the Allies withdrawn from the North, with
the exception of 2,000 men, who acted as a permanent guard to the legations in the
Capital. On October 9, Southern Manchuria was restored to China by Busfia.
— Subsequent negotiations resulted in 3 commercial treaties being signed, one with
Great Britain (September 5, 1902), and two others successively with the United States
(October 8, 1903) and with Japan (October 9, 1903). In these treaties, China agreed to
suppress "likin" and internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 J % surtax
to the effective 5 % allowed by the protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 {see p. 323).
She also agreed to adopt a uniform national currency (see p. 320), uniform standard
weights and measures, to protect trade-marks, patents and educational copyright, to
reform her judicial system and her mining regulations, to set apart in Peking a place
for international residence and trade, and to open the following ports, under the British
treaty : Ch'angsha in Hunan, Wan hsien in Szechw'an, Ngank'ing in Nganhwei, Hwei-
chow and Kongmoon in Kwangtung ; under the American and Japanese treaties :
Mukden and Antung or Tatungk'ow, in Manchuria (see p. 327).

In 1904, Bussia having delayed to evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with
China, Japan declared war with her (February 8). Port Arthv/r was attacked and
invested, and finally compelled to capitulate (January 1, 1905). The Baltic fleet was
soon afterwards annihilated in the Tsushima channel (May 27 and 28), and Russian
arms being equally unsuccessful on land, peace was concluded and signed at Ports-
mouth (United States) September 5, 1905. Both countries stipulated to restore Man-
ohu/ria to China, and to evacuate it completely and simultaneously within a period
of 18 months, except the territory affected by the lease of the Liaotung peninsula
(art 3); moreover, neither was to seek there any exclusive concession in impairment of
Chinese sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity for the
development of the commerce and industry of other nations. Bussia also agreed to
transfer to Japan, with the consent of China, the railway between Oh'angch'un and
Port Arthur, together with all rights, privileges and properties attached thereto, as
well as all coal-mines in the said region, belonging to or worked for the benefit of the
railway (art 6). Finally Bussia transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien
(Dalny, now Tairen) and adjacent territory with all rights and concessions connected
with said lease. Subsequently a treaty and additional agreement were entered into
between Japam. am,d China, and the Chinese Governmeiit consented to all the above
transfers and assignments made by Russia to Japan in Manchuria.

CHAFTBR VII. FOREiaN RELATIONS. 471

The year 1905 was closed by an important edict abolishing the old style of
literary examinations (September 2). In 1906, a special Commission was sent to Japan
and to Western countries, to study their political constitutions and report thereon. On
its return, the Throne promised (September 1) to grant to the country in the near future
a Constitution and a representative form of Government based on Western principles.
A short time after, China dealt with the suppression of the opium, habit (see p. 396),
and directed that the growth, sale and consumption of opium cease within 10 years.
Some Viceroys have already taken measures to carry out the desire of the government.
Great Britain and the other Powers have been also requested to co-operate, and if
China is earnest, it is hoped she will realize ere long this beneficent and much needed
reform.

We have thus briefly traced the rise and progress of the Chinese nation from its
cradle in Shensi, and the valley of the Hwang-ho {see p. 45), down to the present day.
Besides the ancient and legendary Emperors : Yao, Shun and Tti, 82 dynasties have
succeeded one another, some with a glorious record of justice, fame and national
prosperity, the Chow, the Han, the T'ang and the Sung ; others with deeds of crime,
bloodshed, cruelty and disorder. The present dynasty had to cope with a novel diffi-
culty ; the growing intercourse with the West, strenuously resisted on one side, and as
strenuously insisted upon by the other, through political, racial and economic reasons.
China's assumption of universal sovereignty, her overbearing attitude in treating with
outsiders, her ignorance of the status and strength of foreign nations, and her obstinate
exclusivism have but resulted in crushing defeats, and a series of national blunders
and misfortunes, for which she can blame only herself. The lesson, it seems, has been
at last taken to heart, and an era of reorga/nization has now commenced : a new Cons-
titution is promised; administrative, judicial and educational reforms are inaugurated!
mints are turning out coins of copper and silver; the army and navy are being remodelled
after the Western fashion ; railway and mining enterprise, native trade and industry
are being developed ; the opium habit is to be suppressed, and when all these reforms
are effected, and we sincerely wish they will, "New China" wOl surpass the glory of the
past, and take a place among the foremost nations of the East.

Modifications in the namber and names of the Provinces of China. —

Under the present dynasty, the number of the 18 Provinces was changed, during 3
months (Jan.-April, 1905) into 19 {see p. 164). Formosa was detached from Fokien
and Ch^kiang (MinohS), after the China-Japan war, and ceded to Japan.

Let us also mention here that China was successively divided into Chows ^
(under the Chow dynasty B. C. 1122-249), into Kiiins IR (under the Ts'in dynasty
B.C. 249-206, and the beginning of the Han dynasty B.C. 206 — A.D. 25), into Taos jg
(under the T'ang dynasty A.D. 620-907), and into Lus U (under the Sung dynasty
A.D. 960-1280). The present division into ShSngs ^ or Provinces, dates back only to
the Mongol or Yuen dynasty A.D. 1280-1368.

2°. Foreign Relations.

From early times China must have held relations with the adjoining countries,
especially with those from which its first settlers came. The earliest trustworthy
proofs of its intercourse with Europe date back to the first century of the Christian

472 SECTION y. political and economic GEOfiRAPBY.

era. At this period, China exported silk, iron and furs to the Roman Empire, and
a brisk trade was carried on between the two nations. Two routes were followed,
the overland (through Persia and Eastern Turkestan), and the sea route (by the Bed
Sea, the Indian Ocean and the Strait of Malacca). Persians, Arabians and Turks
took each an active share in the trade between China and the West.

Several travellers. Western and Chinese, have also left us the records of their
peregrinations, but many others have very likely made similar or more important
voyages. The following is a list of tbe most famous travellers to or from
China :

In A. D. 98, an Envoy was sent by the Emperor of China to inc^uire as to what
was Tata'in (Syria according to Hirth).

In 226, a Tats'in trader reached the Court of the Kingdom of Wu, which then
extended from Honan down to the Yangtze river, and had for its Capital Nanking
{see p. 453).

In 399, the Buddhist monk Fah Hsien travelled to Western Turkestan, crossing
over the Pamirs, visiting India, and returning along the coast of Java. He re-entered
China in 417, and brought back a collection of Sutras or Buddhist literature.

In 629 Hsiien Ghwang, another Buddhist monk, visited also India, and returned
to China after an absence of 17 years. He brought back 657 volumes, all relating to
Buddhism.

In the VII"" century, I Tsing (643-713), a Buddhist monk, travelled to Sumatra
and the Malayan Islands, and returned to Honan vi& Canton.

In the XIII*'' century, Mwrco Polo, the celebrated Venetian traveller, visited
China (1271-1295). He went to China by the overland route, and returned by the China
Sea and the Indian Ocean. During 3 years of his stay in China, he held high civil office
in ChSkiang Province, and was also sent on a mission to the King of Annam.

In the same century, John of PUmo Garpim, a Franciscan monk, visited China
(1245-1247).

In the year 1254, Carpini was followed by WilUwm of Bubruquis, a monk of the
same Order.

In 1277-1280, Pope Innocent IV sent an embassy to China, composed likewise of
several Franciscan monks.

In 1307, John of Montecorvino founded an archbishopric at Peking, and died
there in 1330.

In the XIV"" century, Andrew of Perouse was Bishop of Zaitun in Fokien (see
p. 223), while Odoric of Pordenone (Friar Odorio 1286-1331) travelled through China,
Tibet and Cabul, and died a missionary in Peking.

In the same century, John of Marignoli was appointed by the Pope legate to Pe-
king (1342-1346), while Nicholas Bonnet succeeded John of Montecorvino as arch-
bishop of the same city (1342).

In 1871, the founder of the Ming dynasty sent an embassy to Europe.

Several other travellers might also be mentioned, most of whom were traders.
These went to China to purchase silk, gold brocade, musk, and rhubarb. Others visited
the country for religious purposes. According to tbe oral traditions of the Jews, &
colony entered the country in the first century of the christian era, under the Han
dynasty (see p. 363), and possibly Catholic missionaries at the same period. The
Singan Fu U $ ^ff monument, in Shenei |^ H, erected A.D. 781, shows that the
christian religion was authorized in China by Imperial edict as early as A. D. 636
(seep. 354).

CHAPTBR Til. FOREION RELATIONS. 473

Despite these travels, voyages and commercial intercourse, China remained
pi-actioally isolated, and almost unknown to the rest of the world. It was only in the
XVI* century that closer relations were developed. Diplomatic intercourse however
did not hegin till 1842, when the treaty of Nanking was signed between China and
Great Britain.

Intercourse of Western Powers with China

from the XTF" century to 1843.

The Portuguese came to China for the first time in 1514. In 1.516, a
certain Raphael Perestrello proceeded in a junk as far as Canton. In 1521, Pirfes,
Ambassador of Portugal, arrived at Peking. Colonies of Portuguese then settled
in various parts of China : at Ningpo ^ Sfe in Chgkiang, whence they were ex-
pelled in 1545, on account of their arrogance, iU conduct and piratical deeds; at
TsSienchow Fu ^ ffl fl?F in Fokien, whence the same reasons caused their expulsion
in 1549. They established at this period factories at Sancian (Shangchw'an) and Lampa,
in Kwangtung J| ^, and settled at Macao, between 1553 and 1557. A second
Portuguese embassy proceeded to Peking in 1667, and secured the Emperor K'anghsi's
^ ^ protection over Slacao. Two other embassies were subsequently dispatched to
Peking, one in 1727, and the other in 17.53. Although established at Macao, the
Portuguese were not in absolute possession of the place. China maintained its
sovereign domain over it, opened a custom house, and received annually from
the Colony a rental of 500 taels. When the English landed for the first time at Macao
in 1802, they were opposed by the Chinese Officials, and again in 1808, when they
attempted to proceed to Canton. In 1849, after the murder of Governor Ferreira do
Amaral, at the instigation of the Viceroy of Canton, the Portuguese forcibly drove out
the Chinese custom house, and refused henceforth to pay the rental. The sovereignty
of Portugal over the peninsula was officially recognized by China in 1887 (see p. 288).

The Spaniards were the first, after the Portuguese, to hold intercourse with
China. Towards the close of the XVI"" century, Spanish Dominicans settled in
Fokien. The Spaniards held during long years the monopoly of foreign trade at Amoy.
In the XVIIl"' century, their ships alone were authorized to trade between China
and Macao.

The Dutch, after unsuccessfully attempting to seize Macao (1622-1624), settled
at first in the Pescadores Islands, and afterwards at Formosa. They were expelled
in 1661, from both places, by the followers of the Ming I8 dynasty who came from
Fokien, and fled before the Manchu army. The Dutch sent several embassies to Pe-
king (1653; 1655-57; 1666; 1795). The last, under the direction of Isaac Titsingh, has
been described by Van Sraam. Since that time, the Dutch, who even in the XVIII""
century enjoyed but little influence in China, ceased almost aU further intercom-se
with the country.

The relations of France with China began only in the XVII"" Century. In 1660,
a Chinese Company "Compagnie de la Chine" was formed, but subsequently changed
its name into "Compagnie Jourdan, la Coulange et C"" (1697-1698). This new com-
pany opened a French factory at Canton. In 1719, trade had wonderfully developed,
and in 1776, a French Consulate was established at Canton. — It is especially through
its Missionaries that France entered into relations with China. From the XVIII""
century and down to the present day, French Missionaries have formed the greater part

474 SECTION T. POLITICAL AMD ECONOMIC aEOORAPHT.

of the pioneers of the Gosper. They are found in almost every Province, and through
their zeal and devotednese have brought thousands of converts into the Church.

Denmark, Austria, Sweden, and Prussia, had also intercourse with China
in the XVII"" and XVIII"' centuries, but these relations never attained any great
importance.

The United States of America sent their first commercial expedition to China
in 1784, and from that time relations with the country have constantly developed.

The British flag appeared for the first time in Chinese waters at the commen-
cement of the XVII* century. In 1634, Captain Weddel reached Macao, and explored
the Canton river. Two other attempts were made in 1664 and 1672, to establish a
commercial intercourse with Canton. Again in the years 1742, 17-54, 1762, 1773 and
1784, every effort was tried to get an opening for commerce, but all proved fruitless,
mainly through Portuguese jealousy, misrepresentations and intrigues. Acting upon
the advice of Lord JlelviUe, the English Government then decided to send an embassy
to Peking. A first was lost at sea. The second, that of Lord Maca/rtney (to which were
attached G. Staunton and J. Barrow), reached Peking in 1793. The ambassador was re-
ceived and treated as a tribute-bearer. He saw the Emperor twice at Jehol (see p. 462),
but obtained none of the advantages he expected for the furtherance of British trade.
The embassy of Lord Amherst in 1816, fared no better («ee p. 463). In 1833, Lord Napier
was sent to Canton, as the first representative of the British Crown. Upon his arrival
the High Officials refused to have dealings with him, as they were unwiUing to enter
into any diplomatic relations with foreign nations. He therefore withdrew to Macao, and
died there October 11, 1834. In 1836, Captain MlUot was commissioned to take up the
work of Lord Napier, but the stoppage of trade, and the seizure and destruction of 20,282
chests of opium provoked a war with Great Britain, 1840-1843 (see p. 463). The Canton
river was blockaded (June 28, 1840). Hostilities were then carried North, and Amoy
(Hsiam^n H f^), Tinghai S ^ (i° ^^^ Chusan Islands), Ningpo ^ ^ and Shanghai
_t: ^ taken in quick succession. The British fleet proceeded up the Yangtze £ ^,
bombarded ChSnkiang IP tE, and advanced on Nanking '^ ^, where the expedition
arrived August 9, 1842. The Treaty of Nanking was then signed between China and
Great Britain, August 29, 1842, and ratified in Hongkong, June 26, 1843. Its principal
provisions were : 1° Five ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai) to be
opened to foreign trade ; 2° Hongkong ceded to Great Britain ; 3° payment of an
indemnity of S 21,000,000 ; 4° official correspondence to be carried on on equal terms ;
5° several places to be held till the indemnity was paid. Since this treaty was con-
cluded, British influence and trade have constantly expanded in China.

At the close of the XVIP'' century, Russia sent several embassies to China, that
of Daniel Artohisk in 1670, of Ivan Portchennikof in 1674, and Nicholas Spatar Milescu
in 1675. The death however of Stepanof, massacred by the Chinese together with 270
Bussians, and the treaty of Nerchinsk signed August 27, 1689, ruined Russian influence
on the North Manchurian frontier. The^numerous embassies dispatched during the
end of the XVII*'' and XVIII"" centuries, and at the commencement of the XIX*, were
unable to recover the influence of former times. It was secured at last by the treaty
of Kuldja, signed July 25, 1851. Hereby, settlement areas were granted at Hi (Kuldja)
and Tarbagatai, and trade allowed at those two places. Duties were not to be levied on
either side, caravans were to be protected, minor offences to be amicably settled, but
no dealings were to take place on credit. The treaty of Aigun, signed May 16, 1858,
extended the advantages already obtained at Kuldja. Muravieff negotiated the treaty

CHAPTER VII. FORBIftN RELATIONS. 475

for Russia, and Tihshan for the Empire of China. It fixed the boundaries along the
course of the Amur, and aUowed trading facilities to the subjects of both Empires on
the banks of the Usuri, Amur and Sungari. The establishment of the Eussiaus in
Siberia, and the extension of the Trans-Siberian railroad, through Chinese territory
and to Vladivostock, have furthermore consolidated Kussian influence, and developed
the intercourse and trade of the two nations.

Relations of Oblna wltb Foreign

Powers from 1843 (Treaty of Nanking).

In the preceding pages several events relating to Foreign countries have been
treated in their historical sequence. We will therefore here give but a summary of
them, keeping principally in view their international aspect.

Regular diplomatic relations between China and Foreign Powers commenced
at the Treaty of Nanking, 1842. From that time, the principal noteworthy occurr-
ences are the following :

The treaty of Nanking was followed by several other treaties concluded with the
Powers ; the treaty of Whampoa (September 24, 1844) with France ; the treaty of
Wanghsia (July 3, 1844) with the United States ; the Engagement with Belgium, signed
at Canton (July 25, 1845) ; the treaty of peace, amity and commerce with Sweden and
Norway, concluded also at Canton (March 20, 1847). At this time. Consulates were
established in the recently opened ports.

In 1856 (Feb. 29), Fr Chapdelaine, a French Missionary, was murdered in Kwang-
si, and the "Arrow", a lorcha flying the British flag, seized by Chinese officials, and
12 of the crew arrested. This high-handed action provoked a war with Great Britain, in
which France joined. Canton was taken (1857), and the city occupied during 3 years.
The allied fleet then proceeded to the North, and took Taku ^ f^ and T'ientsiu 5^ ^
(1858). At this latter place, China signed treaties with England and France, and both
countries were to have the right to appoint a resident Minister at the Court of Peking,
When the treaties were to be ratified in 1859, the Foreign Ministers were treacherously
fired upon at Taku. A formidable expedition was equipped both by Great Britain and
France to avenge this insult, and in 1860, the war was continued. Tinghai ^ ^,
Chefoo ^ ^ and Talienwan ;A; S J9 (South Manchuria) were taken in turn. The
Plenipotentiaries reached T'ientsin, August 25. The allied army then advanced on
Peking, gaining on the way the battles of Changkiawan ^ tji f^ (September IS) and
Fahlik'iao A £ 1§ (September 21). The Emperor fled in haste to Jehol, and left
Prince Kung, his brother, to negotiate with the conquerors. It being reported that
the Chinese troops rallied at the Imperial Summer Palace, or Yiienmingyiien |EI 99 B>
to the N.-W. of Peking, the place was occupied and sacked (October 7-8), and sub-
sequently destroyed (October 18). Peking capitulated (October 13), and a Convention
was signed there, October 24, 1860. A Minister was henceforth to reside in the Capital,
T'ientsin to be opened to foreign trade, Kowloon ceded to Great Britain, and an
indemnity of 8,000,000 taels paid to the Allies. France obtained important privileges
for the Catholics : the christian religion was tolerated, and religious establishments,
confiscated in former times, were to be restored.

The T'aip'img >fc ^ (1850-1864) rebellion broke out about this time and aimed
at the overthrow of the reigning dynasty. The rebels make Nanking their Capital,
and held it from 1853-1884. Peace being established in the North, the foreign troops

476 SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC 6BO0RAPHY.

rendezvoused at Shanghai, and China appealed to them to help in suppressing the
rebellion. Ward and Burgevine, both Anjericans, organized at first a force of
Foreigners and Manilamen, called the "Ever Victorious Army" , to fight the rebels.
Ward achieved some success, but was defeated at Ts'ingp'u ^ )S, and subsequently
kiUed (September 21, 1862) on the borders of ChSkiang. Burgevine was dismissed the
service for misconduct, and went over to the rebels. Captain Holland and Major
Gordon, both British officers, succeeded Ward. Through the efforts of Gordon, Soo-
chow m ffl was recovered, December 1, 1863. The British and French Admirals (Hope
and Protet) agreed also to clear the country of rebels within a 30 mile radius around
Shanghai. Admiral Protet was killed in an attack upon Nank'iao ^ffi(vulgo Nighiao),
to the South of Shanghai, May 17, 1862. In the meantime the French troops, under the
command of Lieutenant Giquel, assisted in reducing the rebel forces in Ch6kiang. Com-
mander Tardif de Moidrey succeeded Giquel, and was killed at Shaohsing Fn ^ $ J^,
March 18, 1863. Lieutenant d' Aiguehelle now led the troops, and recovered Hang-
chow Fu ;gi; !>H iff (March 31, 1864) and Huchow Fu JS| ^ A^, both in ChSkiang.
In the same year, Nanking ^ ^ was recovered by the Imperial troops (July 19),
and this brought the T'aip'ing rebellion to an end (see p. 465).

In 1S65, the Foreign troops evacuated Taku and Shanghai.

Several treaties were also signed at this period with Bnssia, the United States,
Germany, Denmark, Spain, Holland, Belgium, Italy and Austria.

In 1867-68, China sent the SwrUnghame mission to Western Countries. The
embassy proceeded first to the United States, and thence to Great Britain, France,
Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Eussia. The Mission came to an untimely end by
the death of M' Burlinghame, who expired at S' Petersburgh, February, 1870. The
Emperor of China gave 6,000 taels to defray the expenses of the funeral (see p. 465).

In 1870 (June 21), the T'ientsin massacre took place. Twenty-one Foreigners
and several native Christians were massacred. The Foreign Ministers demanded
punishment. After long negotiations, it was agreed to pay the sum of 250,000 taels as
compensation money, an official was sent to France to apologize for the crime, and
the Prefect and district Magistrate of T'ientsin were banished (see p. 465).

In 1874, a war was near breaking out with Japan. It was caused by the Chinese
putting to death some Link'iu $|ji 3$ sailors, who had been shipwrecked on the coast
of Formosa. At first, compensation was refused for this act of violence, on the plea
that the Liuk'in Islands were the vassals of China, but after the Japanese had landed
troops in Formosa and threatened hostilities, Great Britain intervened, and an
arrangement was entered into, China agreeing to pay an indemnity of 500,000 taels.

A Commission from the British Government of India having been attacked
in 1875, on the frontier of Yiinnan, the Cfee/oo S ^ agreement was signed between
Sir Thomas Wade, Her British Majesty's Minister Plenipotentiary, and Li Hungchang
(September 13, 1870). China apologized for the crime, paid an indemnity of 200,000
taels, allowed frontier trade to be carried on between Burma and Yiinnan, and opened
4 new ports (Ich'ang, Wuhu, Pakhoi and WSnchow) to foreign trade. A separate article
authorized a misHon of exploration to Tibet, starting either from Peking or from India.
It was also notified that China intended to establish Missions and Consulates abroad,
{see p. 46G).

Since 1851, Bussia had succeeded in opening trading establishments in Hi
(Kuldja). In 1871, to prevent disorder on her frontiers, she occupied Ili (Kuldja). In
1879, the treaty ofLivadia was signed. Hereby Russia restored to China only a portion
of the occupied territory, but kept the richer part, the city of Yarkand, and all the

CHAPTER VII. FOBEION RELATIONS. 477

Strong passes in the T'ien-shan ^ \\i range. This agreement was repudiated by China.
Blarquis Ts^ng negotiated a new treaty, which was signed at S< Petershurgh, February
12, 1881. Russia hereby restored to China the territory of Hi with the exception of a
Western strip, destined as a place of establishment for those who had abandoned the
lands they possessed there during the time of the occupation. China paid to Eussia
9,000,000 roubles to cover all expenses borne since the occupation of 1871.

The Tongking war and hostilities being over, a treaty was signed in T'ientsin,
April 25, 1886. It agreed to the appointment of a commission for delimitating the
bovindary between Tongking and China. The cities of Lungchow bI Wl in Kwangsi,
and M^Dgtze ^ § in Yiinnan, were also to be opened to foreign trade. An additional
convention was signed at Peking, June 20, 1895, and opened to trade the towns of Hok'ow
JbT P and Szemao ,© ^, on the same conditions as Lungchow and MSngtze.

In 1891, war broke out between China and Japan, on account of the claims which
both set forth to interfere in the affairs of Korea (see pp. 467-408).

Two German Missionaries having been murdered in Shantung, Germany seized
Kiaochow Jg ffl bay, November 14, 1897. An agreement relative to this occupation
was signed, March 6, 1898, and leased to Germany for a period of 99 years, the bay,
its islands, and the North and South tongues of land at the mouth of the harbour
(see p. 258).

A similar agreement was concluded with Russia, relative to Port Arthur and
Talienwan :^ ^ ^, March 27, 1898. Port Arthur was to be a closed port for the
sole use of Russian and Chinese men-of-war, while part of Talien was to be open to
the merchant vessels of all countries (art. 6). The duration of the lease was to be for
25 years, but could be extended by mutual agreement (art. 3).

Weihaiwei ^ ?& ?©, a port also in Shantung, was leased to Great Britain,
July 1,1898 {see p. 257), and Kwangchow-wan .R ffl j© (Kwangtung) to France, April
22, 1898 (see p. 289-290).

Great Britain secured moreover an important extension of the Kowloon (^ fj
Kiulung) territory, on the mainland opposite Hongkong (see p. 285).

In 1898, a series of reform edicts issued by the Emperor of China, compelled
the Empress Dowager to resume the regency abandoned since March 4, 1889 [see p. 468).
In 1900, the Boxer, or K'iienfei (^ g|) rebellion, broke out in the North. The
rebels committed various deeds of incendiarism and plunder, massacred numerous
Foreigners and native Christians, and finally entered Peking. The gravity of the situa-
tion being realized, the allied Powers of Great Britain, of the United States, France, Rus-
sia, Germany, Austria, Italy and Japan, dispatched troops to put down the rebellion,
and protect the lives and property of their respective subjects. The allied army captured
successively Taku and T'ientsin, and delivered Peking (August 14, 1900). The city
was taken the following day. After long negotiations, a peace protocol was signed
in the Capital, September 7, 1901. Hereby China agreed to inflict the death penalty
upon several princes and officials who instigated the revolt, to pay to the Powers an
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels (£ 67,500,000), to raze to the ground the Taku forts, and
to allow certain points to be occupied by foreign troops, in order to maintain free com-
munication between Peking and the sea (see p. 469).

In 1902 and 1903, three commercial treaties were concluded with Great Britain,
the United States and Japan. In these treaties, China agreed to suppress "likin
(see p. 322), and all internal taxation on foreign imports, on payment of 1 J % surtax
to the effective 5 % allowed by the Protocol of Peking, September 7, 1901 (see p. 470).
A treaty was also signed with Portugal in 1904, but has not yet been ratified.

478

SECTION v. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC &EOGRAPHT.

3°. Emigration.

The number of Foreigners who have settled in China is very limited (see p. 346
and 285) ; on the other hand, the proportion of Chinese who go abroad is considerable.
Emigration has in fact assumed great importance, and would increase were it not for
the restrictions placed upon it by certain Powers. It is especially in Mongolia
and Manchuria that large numbers of Chinese emigrants are found, from 10 to
15 millions and perhaps more. According to the last official investigations,
Chinese abroad (exclusive of students) is approximately as follows :

314,390

the number of

Hongkong „

Macao „

Formosa „

Philippine Islands „

French Indo-China „

Annam „

Siam „

Burma „

Straits Settlements and Singapore „

Dutch East Indies, Java „

Eussian Asia (Siberia) „

Korea „

Japan „

Sandwich Islands or Hawaii „

Australia and New Zealand „

Society, Fiji and other Islands of the Pacific „

Canada „

United States ,,

Mexico „

Cuba, Jamaica and Porto Bico „

Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, British Guiana „

Peru „

Chile „

Brazil „

Mauritius „

South Africa „

Transvaal „

Europe „

Total 9,816,280

These emigrants come, for the greater part, from the maritime Provinces of Fo-
kien and Kwangtung. Several return to their native homes, or provide before dying
that their coffins be brought back to China.

We here append the statistics of Chinese passengers to and from the 5 chief
ports of emigration, during the year 1906 :

Out. In.

112,661 92,704

84,190 88,801

21,994 18,743

1,381 1,401

1,590 1,913

74,560

2,258,650

OA nfifi (o^ whom about
B4,U6U ^Q QQg ijj ManUa).

1,023,500

197,300

1,500,000

134,600

1,300,000

1,825,700

37,000

11,200

17,700

017 nnn (o^* o* » total "f
ii,y)m 109,000 inhabitants).
35,460
20,000
12,000
150,000

3,000
90,000
10,000
45,000

7,000
20,000

3,150

5,000

8,200

1 7Ri\ (°* whom 800 in

^''^ Great Britain).

Swatow (Shant'eu) Jll| W
Amoy (Hsiam^n) H M
Hoihow (Haik'ow) ^ P
Pakhoi (Pehhai) * »
Fooohow Fu ffi ffl flf

CHAPTER VII. RISE AND PROfiRESS OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 479

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Peuples Musulmans avec les Chinois,

depuis I'extension de I'lslamisme jusqu'fl

la fin du XV' sifeole. Paris, 189S.
Dabry de Thiersant.— Le Mahometisme

en Chine et dans le Turkestan Oriental.

Paris. 1878.
Pelliot P.— Deux Itin^raires de Chine eu

Inde a la fin du VIII' si^cle. Hanoi, 1904.
Chavannes. — Voyages des P^lerins

Bouddhistes. M^moire compost par I-

tsing. Paris, 1894.
De Backer. — Guillaume de Rubrouck.

Paris, 1877.

31

482

SECTION T. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC aBO&RAPHT.

Huber E. — Uue Ambassade Cliinoise en
Birmanie, en 1406. Paris, 1904.

MadroUe. — Les premiers voyages Fran-
(ais k la Chine.

Van Braam. — Voyage de I'ambassade
Eollandaise en Chine. Fhiladelphie, 1 797.

Sonnerat M. — Voyages aux Indes Orien-
tales et el la Chine, 1774-1781. Paris, 1782.

Eelations de divers Voyages Curieux. 2
Vol. Paris, 1663. (Bxtrait du Voyage des
HoUandais envoyfis en 16.56-1657 vers
I'Empereur des Tartares. Vol. 1. 12 pp. —
Relation de la Cour du Mongol par le
Capitaine Hawkins. Vol. I. 12 pp. —
M^moires de Thomas Bhoe, Ambassadeur
du Eoi d'Angleterre aupris du Mongol.
Vol. I. 80 pp. — Voyage de Tern au
Mongol 1615. Vol. I. 28 pp. — Relations
du Royaume de Siam par Jooat Schuten
1636. Vol. I. 9 pp. — Voyage des Ambas-
sadeurs de la Compagnie Hollandaise
vers le Grand Khan de Tartarie, k Pekin
en 1656. Vol. II. 75 pp. — Voyage ft la
Chine des PP. Grueber et d'Orville. Vol.

11. 23 pp.).

De Gai^nes. — Reflexions gto^rales sur
les liaisons et le commerce des Remains
avec les Tartares et les Chinois. (Acad6-
mie des Insorip. Tome XXXII).

De Mas S. — La Chine et les Puissances
chr^tiennes. 2 Vol. Paris, 1861.

Jean le Oarpentier. — Ambassade des
Provinces-Unies en Chine. Leyde, 1665.

Kingsmill T. W. — The Intercourse of
China with Central and Western Asia
in the Z^^ century B.C. (N.C.B.R.A. Soo.
1879. p. 1-30).

Edkins J. — What did the Ancient Chi-
nese know of the Greeks and Romans ?
(N.CB.R.A. Soo. 1883. art. 1. p. 1-24|.

Playfeiir G. — The Mystery of Ta-ts'in.
(N.C.B.R.A. Soc. 1885. art. 3^ p. 69-79).

Allen H. J. — Where was Ta-ts'in ? (N.
C.B.R.A.SOC. 1886. art. 6. p. 89-97. —
Reply by Hirth. ibidem. Also 1887. art.

12. p. 209-214).

Speer W. — Notices of the Ancient In-
tercourse with China through Central
Asia. Chinese Repository. (Vol. XVIll.
p. 485-503).

Bridgman E. 0. — Early Nations who
visited China. Chinese Repository. (Vol.
I. p. 364).

Travels of Pahsien in India. — Chinese

Repository. (Vol. IX. p. 334-3661.

Legge J. — Fa-hien's Record of Buddhistic
Kingdoms. Oxford, 1886.

Morrison J. R. — Early Foreign Inter-
course with China. Chinese Repository.
(Vol. III. p. 107-115).

Intercourse of China with Foreign N ations.

— Chinese Repository. (Vol. I. p. 364-
370).

Chinese Intercourse with Western Asia
during the 15* Century. — China Re-
view. (Vol. IV and V).

Philips G. — The Seaports of India and
Ceylon described by Chinese Voyagers
of the IS"" Century. (N. C. B. R. A. Soc.
1885. art. 10. p. 209-226. — ibid. 1886. art
3. p. 30-42).

Braddel T. — Ancient Trade in the East.
(16"" and 17"" Centuries). The China and
Japan Repository. Vol. III. p. 57-72.

Ynle H. — Cathay and the Way Thither
(MedisBval notices of China). 2 Vol. Lon-
don, 1866. Odoric of Pordenone. p. 1-162.

— Letters and Reports of Missionary
Friars, p. 165-250. — Pergolotti's Notices
of the land route to Cathay in the 14">
Century. — John of MarignoUi and his
Recollections of Eastern Travel. — Ibn
Batuta's travels in China. — Journey of
Benedict Goes to Cathay).

Bretsclineider E. — Mediaeval Resear-
ches from Eastern Asiatic Sources. 2. Vol.
London, 1888, (Chinese Mediaeval Tra-
vellers. — The Uigurs. — The Mahom-
medans. — Mongol Expeditions to the
West Invasion of Poland and Hun-
gary. — Chinese Intercourse with the
Countries of Central and Western Asia,
during the IS"" and le"" Centuries. —
European nations mentioned in the Ming
dynasty).

Chinese Explorations of the Indian Ocean
during the IS"" Century. — China Review.
(Vol. HI and IV).

Yule H. — The Book of Marco Polo, the
Venetian, concerning the Kingdoms and
Marvels of the East. 2 Vol. London,
1875.

Yale H. — The Book of Ser Marco Polo.
London. 3"» Edit. 1903.

The History of Foreigners in China. —
China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 189-194).

Parker E. H. — China's Intercourse with
Europe. London, 1890.

CHAPTER VII. FOREIftN RELATIONS.

483

Japanese Invasion of Korea 1592. — China
Eeview. (Vol. XXIII. p. 215-219 ; 239-
254).

Chinese Eolations with Tartar Tribes. —
China Review. (Vol. XIV. p. 281-285.
Vol. XV. p. 23-29 ; 339-345).

Manohu Belations with Bussia. — China
Review. (Vol. XVI. p. 41-16).

The Bussians and Manchuria. — China
Beview. (Vol. XXIII. p. 143-153).

The Dutoh Occupation of Formosa. —
China Beview. (Vol. X. p. 123-128. Vol.
XIII. p. 161-207).

Hobson H. E. — Fort Zelandia and the
Dutch Occupation of Formosa. (N .C.B.
B.A. Soo. 1876. art. 1. p. 33-40).

Embassies to China. — Chinese Eepository.
(Vol. V. p. 518-524).

Auber P. — British and Foreign Embas-
sies to China. London, 1831.

'Williams. — Foreign Intercourse with
China. (The Middle Kingdom. New York,
1871. Vol. II. Ch. XXI. p. 417-467).

Embassies to Peking (from the Chinese). —
Chinese Eepository. (Vol. XIV. p. 153-
156).

Audiences granted by the Emperors of
China to Western Envoys. — China Be-
view. Vol. III. p. 67-83).

Gundry R. S. — China Present and Past.
London, 1895. (Early Diplomatic Inter-
course. — The Eight of Audience. Ch. I.
and n. p. 1-51).

Rockhill Xff. W. — Diplomatic Missions
to China. — The Kotow. — (Eeprinted
from the American Historical Beview.
pp. 34).

Dyer Ball. — Things Chinese. Shanghai,
1903. (The Audience Question, p. 68-
72).

Parker E. H. — China : Her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Arrival of Europeans. Ch. V. p. 82-115).

Donglas Sir B. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (Foreign Belations. Ch.
XV. p. 264-281. — The Audience Ques-
tion. Ch. XVII. p. 290-302).
Jemigan T. R. — China's Business Meth-
ods. Shanghai, 1904. (Western Nations
in China, p. 301-322. — Chinese Policy
and Western Powers, p. 323-343).

Early Portuguese Intercourse with China.
— China Beview. (Vol. XXIII. p. 313-
321).

Origin of the Colony o£ Macao. — China
Eeview. (Vol. XXIV. p. 137-142).

Macao in the Early Days. — China Review.
(Vol. XXV. p. 1S3-188).

Macao's Deeds of Arms. — China Eeview.
(Vol. XXI. p. 146-159).

Murray's China.— Edinburgh, 1843. Ar-
rival of the Portuguese in China. (Vol.
I. Ch. VI. p. 182).

The Portuguese in China. — Chinese Re-
pository. (Vol. III. p. 289-303).

Historical Sketch of Macao. — Chinese
Eepository. (Vol. I. p. 398-408, and 425-
446).

Montalto de Jesus. — Historic Macao.
Hongkong, 1902.

Philips G. — Early Portuguese Trade in
Fokien. China Review. (Vol. XIX. p. 42-
51).

Philips G. — Early Spanish Trade with
Changchow Fu (Fokien). — China Ee-
view. (Vol. XIX. p. 243-255. — Vol. XX.
p. 25-28).

Bridgman E. O. — Spanish Belations with
China. Chinese Eepository. (Vol. II. p.
350-355).

Bridgman E. O. — Belations of Great
Britain with China. Chinese Eepository.
(Vol. V. p. 123-131). •

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
Early Dutch Embassies. (Vol. I. Ch. VII.
p. 183-256. — Eeoent Dutch Embassies.
(Van Braam's). ibid. Ch. X. p. 335-356).

NewhofE's Embassy to Peking, 1654. —
Chinese Eepository. (Vol. XIII. p. 393-
407).

Imbault-Huart O.— Le voyage de I'Am-
bassade HoUandaise, de 1656, k travers la
Province de Canton. (N.C.B.E.A.Soo.
1896. New Series. Vol. XXX. p. 1-73).

Belations of France with China, 1685-1834.
— Chinese Eepository. (Vol. V. p. 132-

137).
Bannister S. — A Journal of the 1=' French

Embassy to China 1698-1700. London,

1859.
Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,

1844. Early European Intercourse with

China. (Vol. I. Ch. I. p. 1-30).— English

Intercourse with China, ibid. Ch. II.

III. IV. p. 31-133).
teavenworth C S. —The History of the

Loochoo Islands. (N.C.B.E.A.Soc. 1906.

p. 103-119).

SECTION V. POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC GEOaRAPHY.

Murray's China. — Edinburgh, 1843.
British Embassies to China. (Vol. I. Ch.
IX. p. 278-334).

Historical Account of British Intercourse
with China. (Vol. II. ibid. Ch. V. p. 325-
414).

Eilel E.J. — British Trade with China
A. D. 1625-1834. China Eeview. (Vol. XX.
p. 173-201).

Eitel E. J. — The History of Hong-
kong. China Review. (Vol. XX and XXI.
passim).

Eitel E. 3. — Supplementary Notes on
the History of Hongkong, showing Popu-
lation, Income, Expenditure, Shipping,
from 1882-1890. China Review. (Vol.
XXII. passim).

Notices of Hongkong. — Chinese Reposi-
tory. (Vol. XIV. p. 291-298).

Douglas Sir R. — British Commercial
Relations with China. Ch. XIII. p. 228-
241. — The War of 1860. Ch. XIV. p. 232-
263).

Staunton Sir G. — Authentic Account
of Lord Macartney's Embassy to the
Emperor of China, 2 Vol. London,
1779.

Wintertmtbiun. — Narrative of Lord
Macartney's Embassy to China. (View
of China. London, 1795. Appendix).

Account of Lord Macartney's Embassy to
China 1793. — Chinese Repository. (Vol.
IL p. 337-350. Vol. VI. p. 17-27).

Anderson A. — A Narrative of the Em-
bassy to China. London, 1795.

Earl of Macartney. — Selections from
unpublished Writings. London, 1807.

Anber P. — British and Foreign Em-
bassies to China. London, 1834. (British
Intercourse with China. Ch. IV. p.
128-169. — Lord Macartney's Embassy
and its Results. Ch. VI. p. 193-25?. —
Embassy of Lord Amherst. Ch. VII.
p. 254-406).

Ellis H. — Journal of Lord Amherst's
Embassy to China. London, 1817.

Olark A. — Narrative of Lord Amherst's
Embassy to China. London, 181S.

Relations between the United States and
China 1785-1834. — Chinese Repository.
(Vol. V. p. 218-231).

Williams S. W. — Narrative of the
American Embassy to Peking. (N. C. B.
E. A. Soo. 1859. art 6. p. 315-349).

Barker E. H. — Russia and China. (Asiat-
ic Quarterly Review. Jan. 1905).

Murray's Oliina. — Edinburgh, 1843.
Russian Embassies to China. (Vol. I,
Ch. XI. p. 357-368).

Kransse A. — The Far East, its History
and its Question. London, 1903. (Treaty
of Nerchinsk. Appendix B. — Treaty of
Peking signed between Russia and China,
Nov. 14, 1860. Annuls the Treaties con-
cluded at Nerchinsk 1689, and at Kiakta
1727. ibid. p. 300-301. Statutes of the
Chinese Eastern Railway, ibid. p. 334-
343).

Krausse A. — Russia in Asia. A Record
and a Study, 1558-1899. London, 1900.

Kransse A. — The Far East. London,
1903. The Dawn of Western Influence.
— Early Travellers. — English Trade
with China. — Lords Macartney's and
Amherst's Mission. (Ch. II. p. 1.5-34). —
The Opening up of China. (Ch. III. p.
35-57).

The Story of Russia and the Far East, with
a table of Chronology and a Map. —
Shanghai Mercury Office, 1?99.

Douglas Sir R. — Society in China.
London, 1895. (The China-Japan War in
Korea. Ch. XXVII. p. 416-434).

Leroy-Beanlien P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 190O. (Foreigners
in China. — The Attitude of the Chinese
towards Western Civilisation.— The Posi-
tion and Work of Foreigners in China.
(Part III. Ch. VI, and VII. p. 228-233).

Pinon R. — La Chine qui s'ouvre. Paris,
1900.

La Chine : Expansion des Orandes Puis-
sances, 1895-98. Paris, 1899.

Gumpach J. Von. — The Burlinghame
Mission to Western Countries. Shang-
hai, 1872.

Medtaurst 1^. H. — The Foreigner in Far
Cathay. London, 1872.

Jemigan T. R. — China in Law and
Commerce. New York, 1905. (Extra-ter-
ritoriality. Ch. VIII. p. 193-204).

Jemigan T. R. —China's Business Meth-
ods. Shanghai, 1904. (Extra-territorial-
ity. p. 219-229. — Strategical Positions,
p. 230-239. — Consuls and the Consular
System, p. 240-253).

Fergusson. — Juridiotion et Bxterrito-
rialisation en Chine. Bruxelles, 1890,

CHAPTER VII.

EMIGRATION.

485

Douglas Sir R. — Europe and the Far
East (Historical Series) . Cambridge, 190-1 .

Pigott F. T. —Exterritoriality : The Law
relating to Consular Jurisdiction and to
Besidence in Oriental Countries. London,
1892.

M° Oarthy. — The Coming Power : A
contemporary History of the Far East,
1898-1905. London, 1906.

Balfour F. H. — Waifs and Strays from
the Far East. London, 1876.

Norman H. — The Peoples and Politics
of the Far East. (Studies in British,
French, Spanish and Portuguese Colonies,
China, Japan and Korea). London, 1895.

Onrzon Sir G. — Problems of the Far
East. London, 1896. (China and the Pow-
ers. Ch. IX. p. 260-310. — Great Britain
in the Far East. Ch. XIV. p. 413-i28).

Temple Sir R, — Progress of India, Japan

and China in the Century. London, 1902.
(State of China in 1800, and in 1899).

Colquhoun A. — China in Transforma-
tion. London, 1898.

Colquhoun A. — The Problem in China
and British Policy. London, 1900.

Putnam Weale. — The Ee-shaping of
the Far East. London, 1905.

Putnam Weale. — The Truce in the
East and its Aftermath. London, 1907.

Blue Books on China (from 1862-1906).

Hertslet Sir E. — Trade Treaties between
Great Britain and China. London, 1877.

Hertslet Sir E. — Treaties between Great
Britain and China ; and between China
and Foreign Powers. ^ Orders in Coun-
cil, Decrees etc. 2 vol. London, 1896.

Mayers W, F. — Treaties between the
Empire of China and Foreign Powers.
5* Edition. Shanghai 1906.

EMIGRATION.

Revue Franpaise d'Exploration, 1903. (pp.
709 et seq).

Dyer Ball 3. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Chinese Abroad, p. 141-157).

BOOK II.

OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTER I.

MANCHURIA OR THE MANCHU
COUNTRY.

Note. — Owing to the Eusso-Japan war (1904-1905), Manchuria was till recently
under military occupation. By the Portsmouth Treaty, signed September 5, 1905,
Russia and Japan stipulated to withdraw their troops from the country completely
and simultaneously within a period of 18 mionths, except the territory aSected by the
lease of the Liaotuug Peninsula. Moreover, neither was to seek there any exclusive
concession in impairment of China's sovereignty, or inconsistent with the principle
of equal opportunity for the development of the commerce and industry of other
nations. The evacuation has now been faithfully carried out, and the country restored
to China. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree dboUshed the Tartar-GeneraUhip,
and appointed a Viceroy, who is also Imperial High Commissioner, and three Gover-
nors, to rule henceforward over the country, and administer it on the same basis as
the 18 Provinces of the Empire.

Area. — The area of Manchuria is 363,700 square miles.

Popnlatlon. — 8,500,000, or 23 to the square mile.

Name. — Manchuria is so called from the Manchus (Man-
chows td JW)i or people who actually inhabit it, and have given
to China the present reigning dynasty. The country is more
properly designated by the name of Tungsan-ShSng j^ H ^t^^
or the Three Eastern Provinces. It is also known as lAantung
jjg ^, or region JSast of the lAao River} as Pahh^i AJKi country

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 487

of the 8 Bannets, on account of its military division ; and as
Shanhaikwan-wai Matushow SanahSnff [Il^^^hf^^H^i
that is the 3 Manchuritm, Provinces beyond Shanhaikwan, as
in fact they are so situated in regard to the 18 Provinces. It is
also sometimes styled Rwantwng ^ ^, or country East of the
Barrier.

Bonndaries. — Manchuria is bounded on the

N. — By Siberia (the Amur and Transbaikal Provinces),
W. — By Siberia (the Transbaikal Province), Mongolia

and the Province of Chihli ||[ ^,
S. — By the Poh-hai '^ i^ ov Gulf of Liaotung, and

the Hwang-hai ^ ^ or Yellow Sea,
E. — By Korea and the Maritime Province of Siberia
(Primorsk).

Capital. — MUKDEN, also called Fungt'i^i JFw ^ 55 jQ:,
or Shingkinff :^ j|C, in the Southern Province.

ProTlnces and Prefeetnral DlTlslons. — Manchuria is
divided into 3 Provinces :

1". Tlie ProTlnce of Slidngfeing :^ ^, to the South.
This Province has 6 Prefectures or Fua J^ :

V Fangt'ien Pu ^ 3? ;S or Mukden,
2° Kinchow Pu US ffl iSf,
3° Ch'angt'u Fu S II Iff,
4° Hailung Pu «| f| W,
6° Sinmin Pu ff R #,
6° T'aonan Pu Sfe IB )ff.
And « T*ings j^ :

1° Hsingking T'ing Pi Sf H,
2° Prmghwang T'ing B S li.

2". Tlie Province ofKlrln (Kihlin) ^ ^, in the Centre.
This Province has 2 Prefectures:

1" Kirin Pu $ » ^jif ,

2° Ch'angch'un Pu :g # W.

And 4 T'imgs :

1" Wucfang T'ing S.'^M,
2° Ygnkih T'ing ® § E!,
3° SuifSn T'ing iSS ^ H,
4° Pinchow T'ing « ffl SS.

488 BOOK II. outer'dependbncies.

3°. Tbe Province of Hehlung-kiang ^ ^ {L (Black
Dragon River or Amur) to the North. This Province
has 2 Prefectures:

V HxdanFuiif iJff,

2° Suihwa YuMit^.
And 3 Tings :

1° Hailun T'ing % # 81,

2° Hehshui T'ing Wt t- Si,

3° Talai T'ing :^ ^ SS.
The Viceroy of Manchuria resides at Mukden, but is also
to have a permanent Yam6n in each of the 3 Provinces, and will
sojourn there at stated times, in order to better supervise the
organization and development of the country. A Japanese Im-
perial Mesident will likewise reside at Mukden, and control
all important relations concerning his nationals.

Aspect and Cliaracteristlcs. — Manchuria is naturally
divided into two distinct regions : the Northern, which slopes
towards the Amur River, and is watered by the Sungari and its
tributary the Nonni ; the Southern, which inclines towards the
gulf of lAaotung ^ ^, and is irrigated by the Liao-ho ^ ^
and its upper branch the Shara Muren. The former region is
much the larger and better wooded ; the latter is more fertile and
more thickly inhabited. Both are almost entirely mountainous,
though each has a beautiful atid rich plain : the lAao-ho plain,
in the Southern Province, 30 miles wide by 900 in length; and
the central Sungari plain in the Northern Province. In the
South, Manchuria has some good ports. The Amur river, which
skirts it on the North, is navigable, as well as several other large
streams. Manchuria possesses an exceptionally rich soil, and
abounds in minerals and extensive forests. These constitute its
real wealth. The railway, which now runs through it, will afford
it means of developing this wealth.

Geological constitution. — The greater part of Manchuria is composed of
azoic and primary strata (gneiss, granite and schist), overlapped here and there by
sandstone, conglomerate and limestone rocks. These rocks are often interspersed
with eruptive layers. Extinct volcanoes, immense sheets of lava, especially in the
Eastern and Northern regions, indicate the great volcanic activity which prevailed
there in former times. Specimens of alluvial soil are found in the two gi-eat plains
of the Liao-ho 3{ }f , and of the Sungari.

CHAPTRH I. MANCHURIA. 489

Orograpliy. — Two great mountain ranges enclose Man-
churia on the West and Bast, both taking the same direction

S.W.-N.E.

The Western range is the prolongation of the Khingan or
Hingngan-Ung $^ ^ ^, and slopes gradually to the "W., while
to the E., it falls more rapidly to the level of the plain. The
average elevation of this range is 4,200 feet, but some peaks
reach 4,500 and 5,500 feet. Its highest summits and its valleys
are covered with forests.

Uie Eastern range or Ch'angpeh-shan ^ ^ [Ij (long white
mountain), also called Shan-Alin, runs from the Southern extre-
mity of Liaotung, to the angle formed by the Ussuri and the
Amur rivers. Its highest peak is the Peh-shan ^ [{j, which
attains an elevation of 8,500 feet.

Between these two mountain masses, a rather confused range
extends to the North, and is sometimes called the Zesser Khi-
ngan. It rises to an inconsiderable hight, slopes abruptly on
the North-East towards the Amur, and on the West towards the
Nonni. To the South, a small chain of hills skirts the right
bank of the Liao-ho ^ jpj", and is called the Kwangning-shan
>^ W lU-

Climate. — The climate of Manchuria varies exceedingly from one extremity of
the country to the other. In the Northern portiov, the winter is very severe, the ther-
mometer then falling as far as 40° Fahrenheit below zero, while the rivers are frozen
over from the end of October to the beginning of May. In the Southern portion, the
climate is milder, the thermometer however falls to 13° P. below zero in Winter, and
rises in Summer to 90° and 95° in the shade (during the month of July). The daily
variation is at times considerable, ranging for instance from 2° to 55°.

Part of the sea-coast is covered with ice during several months of the Winter,
except in the Eastern portion of Liaotung.

XTydrograpliy. — Manchuria is well watered. Some of
its rivers flow into the Amur, others into the Poh-hai '^ ^,
and the Hwang-hai ^ f^.

The North is irrigated by the Amur and its tributaries, the
principal of which is in this region the Sungari or Milky River.

The Amur or Hehlung-kiang ^ fl ;tll (bluck-dragon river;
in Manchu, Sahhalin-ula; in Mongol, Kara-Muren), is a large and

490 BOOK II. DBPENDBNCIB8.

beautiful river, with a plentiful flow of water. It is formed by
the junction of two streams : the Shilka ot ShihhHnk'oh-ho ^ |ft
^ jp[ coming from Siberia, and the Argun or Ngaikiun-ho ^
if ?pI, coming from DfOai-Nor, a lake which itself receives the
waters of the Kerulun, a river of Mongolia. The Argun and
the Amur rivers, form for a long distance on the North, the
boundary-limit of Manchuria up to the junction of the Ussuri.

The Amur is navigable for 450 miles of its course, for stea-
mers drawing 12 feet of water, and for 1,500 miles, for boats
drawing 4 feet. It has a total length of 2,500 miles, and flows
into the gulf of Tartary at Nicolaievsk. It owes its name of
"Black river" to the colour of its waters, which are of a darkish
hue.

The Sungari (Sunghwa-kiang !fe^iL)or Milky ri»cr, rises
in the Peh-shan ^ ll| mountains. Its copious waters present
a somewhat milky appearance, hence its name. In the flood-
season, it has more water than the Amur, and is navigable up
to Kirin. Its tributary, the Nomni or Nuen-kiang ^ f£, can
be navigated for a still greater distance. It drains the Eastern
slope of the Great Khingan. It abounds with fish, and is navi-
gable during the whole year as far as Tsitsihar, and even further
up in the flood-season. It receives at Sansing ^ ^, the Hurka
(Mutan-ho ^ ^ fpj) or JPeomy river.

The Ussuri (Wusuli-kiang ,^ |^ TpJ Jc), another tributary of
the Amur, rises in the vicinity of Vladivostock, traverses lake
Khanka or Hstnffhai ^ f^, and runs Northwards, forming the
boundary-line between Manchuria and Siberia. It is 350 miles
long.

The two rivers, which water the South of Manchuria, are the
JAao-ho ^ fpf , which flows into the Poh-hai ^ ^, and the Tah-
luh-ktang || i^ ^, which flows into the Yellow Sea or Hwang-
hai ^ ^. — On account of the hills being denuded of their
forests, the rivers of the South overflow at times their banks ;
they then inundate the country, ruin villages and destroy the
crops.

CHAPTBR I. MANCHORIA. 491

The lAao-ho ^ m rises to the North-East of Dolo-Nor, in
the Great Khingan, where it is known by the name of Shara-
Muren or IMaosi-ho ig H {^, that is the West Liao River. It
runs at first from W. to E., and forms the boundary-limit
between Chihli and Mongolia. A little after entering Manchuria,
it makes a bend and afterwards flows Southward. The Liao-ho
is navigable in the flood-season throughout its whole course
in Manchuria.

In its lower part, its channel is fairly deep, and it can be
approached by steamers as far as Newchwang 4^ ^. In the
flood-season, numerous junks sail on its waters up to Sinmin

The YaMuh-Mang ^f^fx. "ses in the Long "White Moun-
tain, and comes from Korea. It is a large and beautiful river, and
utilized to convey timber, cut on its upper slopes and on the
White Mountain, to the coast. It marks part of the boundary-
limit between Korea and Manchuria. It is navigable in its
lower course, and flows into the Yellow Sea.

Another river, the fumht, ^ f^, is less important than
the preceding ones. It comes also from Korea, and forms the
boundary-line on the N. E. , between Korea and Manchuria, for
a distance of 60 miles. It then proceeds to Siberia (Province
of Primorsk), and empties its waters into the Sea of Japan.

Iiakes. — Manchuria possesses several beautiful and large
lakes. The principal are, on the North-West : the DaUti-yor,
also called HtUon or KitUm lake, and Buir-Nor or Fir lake; on
the East, lake KJumka and lake FUten, to the South-West of
Ninguta.

CToast-Ilne. — The coast-line of Manchuria is straight and
low along the Gulf of Liaotung ^ y^. The Liaotung peninsula
is, on the contrary, largely indented and mountainous, and
possesses several deep bays and numerous islands.

The principal hays are : Kinchow ^ jHI bay, the bay of
Port-Arthur or Liishun-k'ow JS| jl|| 13, and Dalny bay or Ta-
lienwan :^ ^ if.

492 BOOR II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

The chief ports are Newtiiwang ^^, or more exactly Ying-
h'ow 'g D, at the mouth of the Liao-ho ^ JpJ. It is an impor-
tant port, but is ice-bound for several months of the year. It
carries on a vast trade with Northern and Central China.

Port-Arthur or Lushun-k*ow JSS jlp D, leased in 1898 to
Russia, and subsequently transferred to Japan, 1905.

Dalny or IMiemvan ::fc5l§J^, (called in Japanese, Tairen), a
commercial port, leased also to Russia in 1898 for 25 years, and
lately transferred to Japan.

The two last ports being free from ice during the Winter,
are the best in Manchuria.

Ifffantung (Antung) ^ ;^, a small port at the mouth of the
Yahluh-kiang ^ H JI, opened to foreign trade under the
American and Japanese treaties of 1903. [see p. 327, and 470).

Fauna and Flora. — Manchuria, despite its rigorous climate, has quite a rich
fauna and flora. The country is well irrigated and abounds in forests, especially on
the slopes of the Northern mountains, which are covered with trees up to their sum-
mits, the principal being the pine, spruce, oak, birch, elm, walnut and willow-trees.

AVild animals are very numerous, especially in the N., where are found the bear
wolf, tiger, panther, wild-boar, fox, deer, stag, antelope, sable, marten and marmot.

The rivers teem with fish, excellent salmon being caught especially in the
Sungari.

Agrlcnltnral Wealtb. — A great part of Manchuria is
uncultivated. In the plain watered by the central Sungari and
by the Liao-ho ^ }pf, the soil is excellent, and produces corn,
sorghum (kaoliang "^ ^), millet, maize, tobacco, pulse, peas,
potatoes, indigo, flax, sesamum, hemp and the opium-poppy. In
the South, rice and cotton are also cultivated. — When oil has
been extracted from the beans, the residuum is used in making
beancake, which is extensively exported to the S. of China and
to Japan, and employed for feeding cattle and manuring the ground.

Ginseng thrives well in the country. It is a medicinal plant
much sought after, and fetches a high price in the market.

Wild silk is produced in the South, by worms that feed on
the leaves of the oak. The produce is known as "Tussa/i", and
is much used in the silk industry of Lyons.

In the rich pasture-lands of the plains, horses, mules, oxen,

CHAPTBR I. MANCHURIA. 493

sheep and goats are extensively reared. — The pig, as in China,
is found everywhere throughout the country.

In the N., are found immense pasture-lands, the grass of
which attains a height of 6 feet, compelling travellers to cut a
way through it with the sickle. Forests occupy immense tracts
in the North, but so far they have not been worked. Orchards of
pear-trees, apple and plum-trees are met with almost everywhere.
Vineyards are also found in the S.

Every year, in April, thousands of labourers come from
Chihli and Shantung Provinces, and help in tilling and cultiva-
ting the fields. They return home in September.

Mineral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Manchuria
consists in coal-fields, iron, silver, gold, copper and lead. Coal
is extracted in several places, but is of a rather poor quality.
Gold is relatively abundant, and is found in a few dozen places,
the 3 principal centres being : the Russian frontier, the sands
and basin of the Sungari, and the Peh-shan Q 1I4 mountains.

Population. — The population of Manchuria is almost exclusively confined to
the plains and valleys, especially the valley of the Liao-ho and of the Sungari. The
Southern Province, or Shgngking, is the most densely peopled, the inhabitants being
principally of Chinese stock. The Mancbus form at most -jy of the total population
of Manchuria, while the Chinese number about 4 millions. The other races are the
Tunguses, Daours, Scions, Koreans, Duars, Buriats, Goldi (Fish-skin Tartars), Mongols
and Russians. — The greater portion of the population is a cross between all these
races. The unsubdued tribes and nomads are scattered over the steppes and wooded
regions of the North, while the Chinese occupy especially the towns and villages.

The terrible MunghuUe j^t ^ -f (Red-beards) brigands occupy the forest-clad
tracts of the North. They are the descendants of Chinese adventurers, who migrated
during the course of the last century to the country, in the hope of discovering gold-
fields. The speculation having proved a failure, the adventurers became brigands,
and live by terrorizing and plundering the peaceable inhabitants of the plains.

The Manchus were formerly a tribe of the Tungusic Tartars, and like them led
at first a nomadic life. They gathered near the upper course of the Sungari, lived prin-
cipally by hunting, and engaged occasionally in agriculture and cattle-rearing. At
present, nearly all have become fixed to the soil, and live by farming. They are a
more robust and sturdier race than the inhabitants of Central China, but differ little
in features and character from those of the North, save that their eyes are horizontally
set and shaped. They are perhaps also more sprightly and more enterprising than
the "Sous of Han", but less intellectual and less skilful in conducting business affairs.
The Manchu peasant is industrious and frugal, and the family large. The women's
feet are unbound, and they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed cross-wise
on the top of the head.

494 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

lianguage. — In Manchuria, Chinese is the most widely spoken language of the
country. The Manchui, when speaking among themselveB, employ their own dialect,
which is very different from the Chinese and Mongol languages. All candidates for
the Metropolitan Offices are bound to know it. It is of Tungusic origin, sonorous and
easily learned. It is composed of dissyllabic roots, the meaning of which is modified
(especially in verbs) by agglutinative suffixes. The alphabet is syllabic, and of Syro-
Uigur origin. The latest form has been borrowed, in the XVI**" century, from the
Mongols. There are 6 to 8 vowels, 18 consonants, and 10 diacritical marks. Like the
Chinese, it is written in vertical columns, but from left to right. The Manchu language
has no indigenous literature.

SPECIMEN OF MANCHU WRITING.

^ Si 2

ql Nikan *-»'

I

Baite

Bahanara

Wubaliyambure

Miyalma
Kai

(To become a Manchu tramslator, you, Chinese student. ..J.

Religion. — Nearly all the inhabitants of Manchuria are Buddhist-Lamas, a
phase of religion introduced from the Mongols.

Mahomedanism is widely diffused throughout Manchuria, Chinese Mussulmans
forming at times j; of the population.

The nomad tribes practice Shamanism, as also the Tunguses, generally speaking.
Many worship the heavens, their ancestors, and the spirits of the mountains and rivers.
Evil spirits (Posinko) are considered to be the source of all misfortunes. Ancestor
worship is an almost daily practice among the Tartars.

Towns and Principal Centres :

In the Province of HeMungteiang W: W> tL ■

Aigun or HeMunghiang Ch'ing H f| JQ i|^. — A town
built on the banks of the Amur, with a population of 60,000
inhabitants. Its houses stretch along the banks of the river
to a distance of 6 miles, and extend as far as 8ahheainf& village
lying opposite the large Russian city of Blagoveetehensk.

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 495

Mergen, {Meheulken M W ^) on the Nonni river, has a
population of from 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.

Tsitsihar {Ts'itsHhaheul ^ ^ B^ M) or BehhtngMang . —
An important commercial town, situated on a river of the same
name. On market days, in September and October, the Mongtas
bring their cattle there. The population then rises to from
30,000 to 70,000 inhabitants.

Tsitsihar comprises two cities, one interior, where the
officials reside, and in which are found the barracks and some
Tartar families; the other exterior, inhabited by Chinese. It is
in this latter that trade is carried on.

Hulan 1^ ||. — An important military station situated on
the Sungari, at the confines of the two Provinces. The popula-
tion reaches from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. It has 50 oil
factories, and a large number of spirit {"vodka") distilleries.

Hailar or KhaUar. — A town situated between Dalai-
Nor and the Great-Khingan. It is 250 miles distant from
Tsitsihar. Some years ago, only a few Mongol tents were
found there; it is now a Russian city, supplied with provisions,
hotels and hospitals. Its population is about 2,000 inhabitants.
A distance of 90 miles further on, a great fair is held every
year, in August.

Bayan Susu. — A town situated 9 miles North from the
Sungari. It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and pos-
sesses 18 spirit distilleries, and 60 oil-factories.

.B» Oie Province of Kirtn :

Kirin or KUtn Fu "^ 1^ }^- — Capital city ol the central
of the 3 Manchurian Provinces. It has a population of 100,000
inhabitants, and is a great industrial and commercial town. The
principal exports are tobacco, cultivated in the neighbourhood
SiXiA forwarded to China; timber and furs also abound. It is
the head of steam navigation on the Sungari, and is a great
inland ship-building centre. The town has also an arsenal
and a powder factory, while earthenware is manufactured some
30 miles to the North.

496 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENOECIES.

Harbin {Haheulpin W^ ^ ^). — On the right bank of
the Sungari, and in the midst of a rich wheat-growing country.
It has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and has much developed
of late by railway enterprise. Here the trunk line branches into
two, one proceeding Eastward to Vladivostock, the other running
South to Port Arthur. It has several steam flour-mills, and
numerous small steamboats convey the flour to the Amur ports.

The town comprises three parts : old Harbin, new Harbin
and the Port. Old Harbin is a village of mud-built hovels
clustered round the ancient distillery. New Harbin is situated
upon an elevated plateau, and has already over 300 stone-built
houses. An international settlement has been recently opened
by China outside the walls of the city, and is to have a Russian
Municipality and Council controlled by the Railway C. The
Port is the administrative centre of the North Manchurian railway,
and contains numerous workshops, machine-sheds and storehous-
es. It abuts on the Sungari, which is here f a mile wide, and
covered with steamers and junks.

Sansinff H ^- — A. town situated at the confluence of the
Mutan-kiang or Peony river, and of the Sungari. It has a
population of 15,000 inhabitants. The town has 2 distilleries,
10 oil factories and 3 dye-works. It is an important barter and
trading centre.

Pefuna [Pehtunei f|S| fP Ift)) also called SUnch'inff fgf j^.
— A town built on the banks of the Sungari, at a short distance
from its junction with the Nonni. It has a population of 30,000
inhabitants, manufactures cotton piece-goods and ropes, and
exports furs and oil.

Kwaneh'ing Chow. — Population, 35,000 inhabitants. It
is the centre of a great tobacco-growing region, and has also 8
distilleries and 40 oil factories ,

Mnffuta {Ningkut'ah ^ "fi' .^). — Population, 30,000
inhabitants. It is built on the Mutan-hiang or Peony river,
in a very advantageous position for trade with Japan. It is the
home of the fish-skin Tartars, and its houses are nearly all mud-
built hovels. The railway passes 10 miles to the South.

CHAPTER I. MANCHUHIA. 497

In the Pi'ovince of SMnghing ^ "ffi :

MukOen, called in Chinese Ikingfien Fu ^ J^ }^ ov

SMngking ^ ]^ (abundant Capital). — Population, 180,000
inhabitants. Mukden is the metropolis of Manchuria, the ances-
tral home and the sacred city of the reigning dynasty. It is
built on the Hun-ho ^ {pf, a tributary of the Liao-ho ^ jp[,
and lies in the midst of a rich but treeless plain. The town is
surrounded by a mud-built wall 10 miles in circuit. An inner
wall, made of bricks, separates the Emperor's residence from the
town. This part of the city is about 3 miles in circumference.
The imperial palace and buildings, the Government offices and
courts are arranged on the same plan as those of Peking. Trade
is carried on in the Outer City. The streets are clean and
lined with large shops, where piece-goods, manufactured articles
and furs are sold. The output of the mint, for the year 1906,
was 35,036,000 10-cash pieces (copper coins). Mukden has
a Foreign Settlement, and is now open to Foreign trade. The
Resident-General of Japan, and a Consul-General for Great
Britain, will reside there. A railway connects Mukden with
Sinmint'un JBf J5 tfe on the West, while another of small gauge
runs Eastward to Ngantung $ )g (Antung 175 miles). This
latter will be converted to the standard gauge in 2 years.

To the West, is a Buddhist temple, which receives the
Emperor's effigy every ten years, since the time that His Majesty
ceased to visit in person the ancestral city. Kiak'irig ^ ^ (1796-
1821) was the last Emperor who visited Mukden, in the year 1804.

The tmnhs, or Fuhling |g ^, of the Manchu Sovereigns
lie 3 miles to the N. E. of the walls. Six miles to the N. W.,
are the Pehling 4fc^, or ancestral tombs of the present reigning
dynasty. At Hsinghing ^ ff,, ^ town 50 miles to the East,
is the family residence of the Manchu Monarchs, and also the
burial-ground of some of their ancestors.

lAaoyang Chow ^ [# jHI- — A. large Russian town before
tfee war of 1904-05, expanding beside the old city of the same
name. — Liaoyang was taken by the .Japanese after a continuous

498 BOOK II. ODTER DBPENOENCIBS.

and severe fight, in which the Russians were defeated, Septem-
ber 4, 1904.

Utewehwang &^ ]^ (cattle depot). — Population, 74,000 inha-
bitants. An important treaty port situated at the mouth of the
Liao-ho ^ ^, a few miles from the old town of Newchwang,
now some distance inland, though it was formerly on the sea-
coast. It has a poor harbour, and as the river is silting up,
the port has been shifted 10 miles further down to Tinghfow
T*ina ^ P ;^, which can be reached by ships displacing 2,000
tons. Here are found the Settlements, the Foreign residences
and the custom house. The control of the town returned to the
Chinese government, December 6, 1906, having been 6^ years
in alien occupation. The Japanese have established at New-
chwang "the Liao river sailing ship Company", which carries
goods between points on the river with the terminus at New-
chwang. During the year 1906, the trade of the port was much
hampered, owing : 1° to its exports and imports being taxed,
while those entering through Dalny and Vladivostock were free ;
2° to railway discrimination, the rate per ton per mile from
Newchwang being double that from Talien ^ ^, so that when
Kw'anch'fingtze (Oh'angch'un ^^)was reached, the cost from
Talien was 2^ yen (5 s.) less than from Newchwang. These
two causes have now been removed by the establishment of a
custom house at Dalny, and a unified railway fare from MSng-
kiat'un ^ ^ ifi (Northern terminus of the South Manchurian
railway) to the sea-coast, both to take effect from July 1, 1907.
The place will however have to struggle against competition,
and against the drawback of being an ice-bound port.

The principal imports of Newchwang are plain and striped
cotton goods (American, English and Japanese), cotton yarn
(English, Indian and Japanese), kerosene oil (American, Russian
and Sumatra), sugar from Hongkong, foreign flour, coal and
matches. The exports are beancake (1,715,058 piculs in 1905,
and 3,662,824 in 1906), bean-oil, medicines, goat and dog skins^
rugs, mats, wild and refuse silk, ginseng, deer horns, driufed
and salt fish, "samshu" (sanshao = ^, thrice fired. A general

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA.

499

name for all Chinese fermented and alcoholic liquors), and
indigo. The total gross and net values of the port from 1901-
190(3, were as follows :

Gross and Net Values of Trade, 1901-1906.

Year.

Gross Values.

Net Values.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1901

42,365,680

42,262,209

1902

42,870,569

42,692,135

1903

47,961,251

47,632,059

1604

41,600,696

41,517,878

1905

61,986,054

61,752,905

1906

44,861,087

44,482,001

The market being overstocked in 1905, foreign imports fell from Tls. 31,00.3,143
in 1905, to Tls. 13,720,743 in 1906.

Part JLrthur or Lixshun-h'ow JS JIP P. — Population,
14,000 inhabitants. A port of great importance as the terminus
of the Trans-Siberian railway. In 1880, China began to fortify
it as a naval base for her Northern squadron. In 1894, it had
13 forts and 330 large guns. It was however badly protected
on the land-side. In July, 1894, war broke out between China
and Japan. The Liaotung peninsula was occupied, and Port
Arthur taken (November 21). When the treaty was to be ratified
November 8, 1895, Russia, Germany and France protested,
and thus compelled Japan to restore it to China. In 1898,
it was leased to Russia by China for 25 years, but the lease
could be extended by mutual agreement (art 8). The port was
for the sole use of Russian and Chinese men-of-war, and was to
be unopened to the naval and mercantile vessels of other na-
tions (art 6). Russia could erect forts and defences within the
leased territory, as she thought fit (art 7). It was in fact im-
mediately fortified, and put in a state of defence awaiting
the final struggle with Japan. It thus became a place of con-
siderable importance. In 1904, Russia having delayed to

500 BOOK II. OUTER DEPBNDBNCIES.

evacuate Manchuria, as stipulated with China, Japan began
hostilities (February 8). On Feb. 9, Japanese torpedo-boats made
a midnight attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. On Feb.
10, war was declared by the Tsar, and on Feb. 12, by the Mikado.
On March 21, the first bombardment of the port took place. On
August 3, it was completely invested, and finally compelled lo
capitulate, January 1, 1905. Peace being concluded at Ports-
mouth (United States), September 5, 1905, Russia transferred to
Japan the lease of Port Arthur, Talien and adjacent territory, with
all rights and concessions connected with said lease (art. 5). A
subsequent treaty and an additional agreement were entered into
by China and Japan, and the Chinese Government consented to
the above transfers and assignments made by Russia lo Japan.

Dalny or Talien-tvan -j^ j^ ^, called by the Japanese
Taireti. — Population, 40,000 inhabitants, of whom 10,000 are
Japanese. A port well situated for commerce, and opening
on a wide bay, sufficiently protected from the sea. During the
Russian occupation, 1898-1904, only part of the port was open
to the merchant vessels of other countries (art. 6). The town
was divided into three parts : a special department for the
civil administration, and 2 commercial quarters ; one for
Foreigners, and the other for Chinese. In the late Russo-
Japan war (1904-1905), Dalny was abandoned by Russia,
March 27, 1904, and occupied by the Japanese troops. May 30.
At the conclusion of the war, Russia ceded Dalny to Japan on
the same conditions as Port Arthur (l^ortsmouth Treaty, art. 5).
It was thrown open to foreign trade by Japan, September 1,

1906, as a free port, no duties being levied on goods entering
or leaving. This measure of Japan greatly injured the trade of
Newchwang, which was a dutiable port, and China to remedy
the evil has decided to open a custom house at Dalny, July 1,

1907. The agreement signed at Peking, May 30, 1907, between
M'' Hayashi, Minister for Japan, and Sir Robert Hart, contains
the following regulations: 1" the Commissioner and Staff of Ihe
Customs Office at Tairen are to be of Japanese nationality; 2* sea-
borne goods will pay no import duty, but this will be levied

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 501

according to existing treaties, if or when the goods pass the
frontier of the leased territory ; 3" merchandise brought from
the interior of China into the leased territory, and shipped at
Tairen, will pay export duty according to existing treaties.
Produce raised in, or imported by sea into the leased territory,
and when manufactured may be shipped, shall pay no export
duty; 4" Chinese merchandise, or products from the treaty ports
to Tairen, shall pay no duty so long as they remain in the leased
territory, but if they pass the frontier into the interior of China,
they shall pay according to existing treaties ; 5° the custom
house can issue inland steam-navigation papers, and grant
transit passes for merchandise going into the interior of China,
or coming therefrom to Tairen ; 6° the transmission of Chinese
closed mails between Tairen and inland ports shall be free of
charge ; 7° the Customs tariff in vigour in Chinese treaty ports
shall be applied likewise by the Maritime Customs Office at Tai-
ren. A similar agreement will be also concluded with Russia,
and Chinese Custom Offices established at the frontier. — The
South Manchurian Railway Company carries on a steam service
between Dalny, Shanghai; and Hongkong. Coal is the principal
export article.

Industry and Commerce. — Manchuria has displayed
up to the present but little industrial activity. There are
however a considerable number of sorghum distilleries and
bean-oil factories. Gold mines and collieries are also somewhat
actively worked.

Commerce occupies an important place. The pHndpeil
exports are beancake, beans, bean-oil, furs, skins and wild silk.
The itnports are cotton piece-goods and yarn, kerosene oil,
sugar, coal and matches.

Highways of Coiuninnlcatlon. — Besides the great
waterways (the Amur, Sungnri, Nonni and lAaohoJ, Manchuria
has several important land routes. The principat is that which
starts from, FcTcing ^ ^, and proceeds to Siberia, via Kinchmo
JP^ f^ m }^, Mukden, Kirin, JPetuna, Tsitsihar and Mergen
(these two Inst in the Proviftce of Hehlungkiang).

502

BOOK II. OUTER DBPENDENCIE8.

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RAILWAY SYSTEM OF MANCHURIA.

CHAPTER I. MANCHURIA. 503

Railways In SKancliniia. — Manchuria has 2 principal
railway lines : the Chinese Eastern railway, and the Shanhai-
kwan-Mukden railway.

1*. The ClUnese Eastern railway has been financed and
constructed by the Russo-Chinese bank. It traverses Manchuria.
from E. to S.E., then from N. to S., from the Siberian frontier
in Hehlungkiang to Port Arthur, at the Southern extremity of
Regent's Sword. Entering from Transbaikalia, on the N.W.,
the line passes via Hailar, Tsitsihar and Harbin. Here it bran-
ches S., passing via Ch'angch'un ^ ^ and Mukden, and finally
ending at Port Arthur. The total length of this line is 1,200
miles. From Harbin, a branch runs Eastwards to Vladivostoch,
a distance of 300 miles within Chinese territory, and 100 in
the Russian province of Primorsk. By the treaty of Portsmouth,
signed Sept. 5, 1905, Russia agreed to transfer to Japan, with
the consent of China, the railway line between Ch'angch'un
(Kw'anch'gngtze) and Port Arthur (465 miles), and this transfer
was effectively carried out July 31, 1906. The Japanese section
is henceforth styled the South Manchurian Railway. From Port
Arthur, a short branch runs to Dalny in the bay of Talien.
Another line (15 miles) runs Westward from Tashihk'iao ^ ^
;f^ junction to Yingk'ow (Newchwang). A short distance N. of
Liaoyang, a third line runs E., to the YSnt'ai mines, from
which the railway derives its coal supply. A light military rail-
way, constructed by Japan, joins Mukden with Ngantung ^ y^
(Antung), at the mouth of the Yalu river (175 miles). It will
be restored to China, and converted to the standard gauge in
2 years.

2°. The S/umhaiktoanr-Mukden roMway lime. — This is the
extra-mural extension of the Imperial North-China railway, or
the Peking-T'ientsin line. At the Keupangtze ^ ^ ^ junction,
a branch line runs to Newchwang (Peking to Newchwang, 170
miles). The main line continues Northward to Sinmint'un ^
J5 Tft. The section between Sinmint'un and Mukden (36 miles)
was built by Japan during the Russo-Japan, and has been res-
tored to China, June 1, 1907, on payment of $ 1,660,000. It has

504 BOOK. II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

the Japanese gauge of 3 ft. 6 in., and will be reconstructed
jointly by China and Japan, the latter supplying half the capital,
which will be borrowed from the South Manchurian Railway
C, and redeemed in 18 years.

The PfUismle or Liuch'Sng ^ ^ (willow barrier). — A
palisade, or barrier of stakes, formerly separated Mongolia from
Manchuria. It was constructed to protect the Liao valley, on
the W., from the Mongols; and on the E., from the Koreans
and outlaws of the Long White Mountain. It extended from
the N. of Kirin city to Shanghaikwan, with a spur running out
into Liaotung peninsula. It is traceable to-day only in a few
tottering gate-ways across the main roads, and still upheld for
purposes of toll-collecting.

Administration. — Previous to 1876, Manchuria was
controlled directly by the various Boards at Peking. It was
then decreed that each of the 3 Provinces should have a civil
Governor or Siinfu 5^ ;^. The Southern Province, or Sh6ng-
king ^ ^, was to have a Viceroy called Shfingking Tsungtuh
M 1^ 18 W- At Mukden, there was to be a Tartar-General or
Tsiangkiin ^ ^, with the title of Mayor or Fuyin jj^ ^ of
Mukden. In addition to the functionaries of the Provincial
Government enumerated above, Mukden was furthermore to have
a Provincial Literary Chancellor or Hsioht'ai ^ ^, and 6 Boards,
on a reduced scale, corresponding to those at Peking. The
Southern Province was also to have 3 Taot'ais jf J, stationed
respectively at Mukden, Yingk'ow ^ p (Newchwang), and Pung-
hwang Oh'eng JUL JH M- Kirin was to have a Military Gover-
nor or Tsiangkiin, and a Taot'ai.

The military organization was composed of the Army of the
8 Banners or Pahk'i j\^, 2 yellow, 2 white, 2 red and 2 blue.
The nationalities composing the Banner force were Manchus,
Mongols, and descendants of those Chinese who joined the Manchu
troops at the time of the conquest A.D. 1644. Each of these
formed a special division, three to each Banner, thus constituting
24 Banners in all.

The above system of administration was applied during

CHAPTER I. HANCHUBIA. 505

the last 30 years. On April 20, 1907, an Imperial decree
abolished the Tartar-Generalship, and appointed a Viceroy and
3 Governors to rule henceforth over the country, and administer
it on the same basis as the 18 Provinces of the Empire. The
Viceroy bears the title of Tungsansh€ng Tsungtuh S-H ^IS#
(Viceroy of the 3 Eastern Provinces), and is to reside at Mukden.
He is to fulfil all the duties of the extinct Tartar-Generalship,
and is to have a permanent Yamen in each of the 3 Provinces.
These he will visit at stated times, in order to supervise the re-
organization and development of the country. He is also Im-
perial High Commissioner, this title giving him the right to call
to his assistance troops from other Provinces outside his Viceroy-
alty, and to hold control over them while within his jurisdic-
tion. The 3 Governors of Fungt'ien, Kirin and Hehlungkiang
have the additional title of Majors-General, thus enabling them
to control Manchus and Mongols within their respective juris-
dictions. The Viceroy and Governors are allowed to come to
Peking by rail, for Imperial audiences, in matters concerning
foreign intercourse, or other important business relating to the
administration of the country.

A special military Commander is to control the troops of
the Viceroy in the 3 Provinces. These troops may not exceed
6 divisions, or 72,000 men (see p. 332). Schools for military
education are also to be established in each Province, and the
Viceroy will exercise full control over them

The territory leased to Japan has a military Governor-Gen-
eral. He is under the direction of the Minister of Foreign Affairs,
and controls the civil and military administration of the terri-
tory, the courts, and the administration of the South-Manchurian
Railway Company.

Open Porta. — Manchuria has 5 ports open to foreign
trade : yeiichiitmo ^ ^, Ngnulnng ^ ^ (Antung), Jialtty
(Tairen), Mukden or Fungt'ien Fii ^ 7c ^i and JfarMn. In
the treaty and additional agreement relating to Manchuria,
entered into between China and Japan, 1905, it has been
provided to open several other towns as places of international

506 BOOK II. OITTBR DEPENDENCIES.

residence and trade: Liaoyang, Sinmin Fu, Funghwang Oh'6ng,
Tiehling, Tungkiangtze, and Fakum6n in Shfingking Province ;
Kirin, Ch'angch'un, Ninguta, Hunch'un and Sansing in the
Kirin Province; and Tsitsihar, Hailar, Aigun, and Manchuli in
Hehlungkiang Province.

Btotorlcal sketcli. — It was about the middle of the
XIV"^ century that the Manchus began to play a conspicuous
part among the other Tungusic tribes of the same stock. Their
original home was in the neighbourhood of the Long White
Mountain. The founder of their power was T'ienming ^ ^, or
T'aitsu Kao Hwangti ^fc ^ ]g ^ ^ (great ancestor and lofty
Emperor, 1616-1627), who organized the Manchu Kingdom,
grouped his warriors into bands of 300 men, and transferred
his capital to Mukden. His son and successor T'ients'ung Ji
^, or T'aitsung W6n Hwangti ic ^ ^ M ^ (great forefather
and literary Emperor, 1627-1644), extended his sway over Liao-
tung jgg 3|[ and Korea, and seized Peking 4fc ^. The Chinese
General, Wu Sanhwei ^ ^ ^, summoned him to the assistance
of the Ming 5| dynasty, against the usurper Li Tzech'^ng ^ g
J^ (see p. 461). He acquiesced promptly, entered Peking at
the head of 60,000 men, suppressed the rebellion and pursued
the usurper into Shensi. Ch'ungcheng ^ jjg, the last Emperor
of the Ming dynasty, strangled himself during the siege, and left
no successor. T'ients'ung refused to leave, but having died in
the midst of his triumph, his infant son of 6 years was brought
to Peking, and proclaimed Emperor under the title of Shunchi
jig ^, or Shitsu Chang Hwangti ift jjl j|c ^ ^ (ancestor and
accomplished Emperor, 1644-1662). He was the first Monarch
of the Manchu or Tats'ing ^ ^ dynasty, which rules over China
down to the present day.

References

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Paris, 1904.
Teniookov. — Les Fays fronti^res de la

Knssie Asiatique. (In Bussian).

Verrolles. — Notes sur la Mandohourie.

(Revne d'Orient, 1844).
KeclDS E. — Nouyelle Giographie Uni-

verselle. Paris, 1882. (Vol. VII. L'Asie

orientale. p. 222-248).

CHAPTBR I.

MANCHURIA.

507

Venaalt. — Voyage dans les Provinces
de Mandohonrie. 1851.

De Iianoye. — Le Fleuve Amour. {Tour
du Monde, 1860).

Pozdnfiiev. — La Mandohonrie, 1897. (In
Bussian).

Madrolle. — Chine du Nord. 1904. (p.
57-70).

De Witte. — Kapport sur le Chemin de
fer Eusse et de Mandohonrie. (Bulletin
du ComitA de I'Asie Franjaise. Paris,
1903. Mai).

Bnselme H. — A travers la Mandchourie.
Paris, 1903.

Barr6 P. — La Mandohonrie. (Eevue
Fran^aise d'Exploration. Mars, 1904. p.
155-166. — ibid. D4c., 1900 ; La Mand-
ohonrie, grenier de rAmour. — Mars,
1905 : les Khoungonzes. p. 168-171).

Launay A. — Ms' VerroUes et la Mission
de Mandchourie. Paris, 1895.

Orlov. — Les Cosaques de Transbaikalie
en Mandchourie, en 1900.

Description de la Mandohonrie. — (Minis-
tSre Russe des Finances).

H. I. M. K'ienlang. — Bloge de la Ville
de Moukden. (traduction par Amyot.
Paris, 1770).

La Mandchourie. — Annales de la SocifitS
des Missions-EtrangSres. ( Mai-Jnin ;
Juillet-Aout, 1904).

De la Salle G.— En Mandchourie. (Revue
de Paris. 15 Avril, 1905).

Flatli. — Geschiohte der Mandohurei.

De Caix R. — La Mandohonrie et les
Puissances. (Bulletin du OomitS de I'Asie
Franeaise. JuiUet, 1903. p. 278-290).

La Guerre Russo-Japonaise.— (Bulletin du
Comite de I'Asie Fran^aise. 1905. passim).

Les Japonais en Mandchourie. — (Bulletin
du Comite de I'Asie Franfaise. 1906. p.
259. — Les Japonais et le Commerce
etranger en Mandchourie. ibid. p. 286. —
Les Japonais et la Porte ouverte en
Mandchourie. ibid. p. 319. — Chemins
de fer Japonais en Mandchourie. ibid. p.
320. — Chemins de fer de la Mandohonrie
M6ridionale. ibid. p. 399. — Les affaires
de Mandchourie. ibid. Avril, 1907. p. 144-
146).

Gatzlaff O. — China opened. London,
1838. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Ch. VI. p. 169-
201).

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire

of China and Chinese Tartary. London,
1738.
Grosier. — Description of China. London,
1795. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Boob II. Ch.

I. p. 123-142).

Winterbotham. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. (Manchuria, p.

121-132).
Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New

York, 1861. (Manchuria. Vol. I. Ch. IV.

p. 151-163).
Williams. — Notices of the Saghalien

River. (Chinese Repository. Vol. XIX.

p. 289-300).
Topography of Manchuria. — Chinese Re-
pository. (Vol. XX. p. 57-61).
Ross J. — The Manohus, their Rise and

Progress. Paisley, 1880.
Ross J. — Notes on Manchuria. Chinese

Recorder. (Vol. VI. p. 214-221).
Ross 3. — Some Notes on Liaotung. Chi-
nese Recorder. (Vol. VII. p. 99-106).
Parker E. H. — The Progenitors of the

Manchus. Chinese Recorder. (Vol. XXIV.

p. 501-513).
Parker E. H. — A Thousand Years of the

Tartars. Shanghai and Hongkong, 1895.
Parker E. H. — Chinese relations with

Tartar tribes. China Review. (Vol. XIV.

p. 281-285. — Vol. XV. p. 23-29).
Parker E. H. — The Manchus in China.

China Review. (Vol. XV. p. 263-270).
Williamson A. — Journeys in N. China.

London, 1870. (Central Manchuria. Vol.

II. Ch. 3-4. — S.B. Manchuria. Ch. 9. —
N. Manchuria. Ch. 11-13).

James H. E. — The Long White Mountain
or a Journey in Manchuria, with some
account of its History, People, Adminis-
tration and Religion. London, 1888.

W^ylie A. — Journey through Central
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1893, Vol. II. n° 5. p. 443-451).

Turley R. T. — Notes of a Tour in "no
man's land" (Manchuria). Geogr. Journal
London, 1894. (n° 6. p. 534-556). — A
visit to the Yalu region and S. Manchu-
ria, idem. Geog. Journal, 1904. (n° 4. p.
473-481.) — Some Notes on the upper
Liao. idem. Geogr. Journal, 1905. (u° 3.
p. 297-300).

Wingate A. W. — Some further notes
concerning the Liao-ho. (Geogr, Journal.
1905. n" 4. p. 421-428).

508

BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

Russel C. — A Journey from Peking to
Tsitsihar. (Geogr. Journal. London, 1904.
n" h. p. 613-6i!3).

Agnssiz A. R. — Our commercial rela-
tions with Chinese Manchuria. (Geogr.
Journal. London, 1894-. n" i>. p. 534-55«).

Allen H. — Commercial Eeport : Man-
churia. London, 1879.

Byrner 3. — The Province of Shfingking.
Shanghai, 1830.

Younghusbnnd F. E. — The Heart of a
Continent, (travels in Manchuria, the
Gobi desi-rt and the Pamirs). London,
1904.

Fleming G. — Travels in Manchu Tartary.
London, 1863.

Colquhonn A. — The Overland to China.
London, 1900. (Manchuria. Ch. X-XII.
p. 188-2.51).

Hinman G. W. — Manchuria, the coveted
Land. (East of Asia Magazine. 1904. Vol.
IILp 208-217).

Vay de Vaya. — Notes of a Voyage
across Manchuria. (East of Asia Maga-
zine, 1901. Vol. III. p. 32C-330. Vol. IV.
p. .57-69).

Ed'wards E. H. — Through Siberia to
China. (Bast of Asia Magazine, 190.5.
Vol. IV. p. 175-182).

Bro^vne Colonel. (British Military Atta-
che). — Notes on Manchuria. (China
Blue Book. N° 1. London, 1899).

Hoste A. — Manchuria : its People, Re-
sources, and recent History. London,
1905.

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 190.5.
The Dependencies : Manchuria. Ch. X.
p. 1.55-170.

Hnnsi. — Port Artliur. (Kast of Asia Ma-
gazine, 1902. Vol. I. p. 61-72).

Putnam Weale. — Manchu and Musco-
vite. London, 1904.

Dyer Mali J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Manchus. p. 410-4 l;i).

lynch G. — Corea, China and Manchuria.
London, 1905.

Wigh!»m. — Manchuria and Corea. Lon-
don, 1904.

Mayers W. F. — The Chinese Govern-
ro'ent. Shanghai, ISSfi. (The Three Man-
churian Provinces. —The Manchn. mi-
litary oi'ganization).

Thp Enssians in Manchuria. — China Re-

view. (Vol. XXIII. p. 143-153).

Atkinsaii T. W. — Travels in the region
of the Upper and Lower Amur, London.
1800.

Ravenstein E. G. — The Russians on the
Amur ; its Discovery, Conquest and Col-
onisation. London, 1861.

The Story of Russia in the Far East. Shang-
hai, 1899.

Beveridge A. — The Russian Advance.
London, 1903.

Krausse A. — The Far Kast : its History
and its Question. London, 19 3. (Origin
of the Siberian railway. — The Liaotung
peninsula. — Cession of Port Arthur.
Ch. VII. p. 147119.— Russia and Ja-
pan. Ch. VII. p. 147-149. — Russian Aims.
Ch. XII, p. 252-25K).

Ogawii. — The Geology of Liaotung.
Tokin, 1905.

Tiirley R. T. — Map of Central and
Southern Manchuria. London, 1901.

Mif-hie A. — The Siberian Overland, from
Peking to S' Petersburg. London, 1864.

KiiropalUin General. — The Great Si-
berian Railway. (Geogr. Journal. London,
190.5. n° 2. p. 146 1.54).

Leroy-Beaulieu P. — The Awakening
of the East. London, 1900. (The railway
through Manchuria. Part I. Ch. X. p.
71-75\

Leaven-vvortli C. — The Great Siberian
Thoroughfare. Shanghai, 1902.

Amyot. — Dictionn.aire Tartare Manchou-
Pran^ais (14,000 words). Paris, 1787.

Kaulen. — Linguae Mandshuricae Insti-
tutiones. Ratisbon, 1956.

Von lUOIlemlorr P. G. — A Mancbu
Grammar. 1892.

De la Gabelentz — Elements delaGram-
maire Mandchoue. Altenbourg, 1832.

Adam L. — Grammaire de la Langue
Mandchoue, Paris, 1873.

Wylie A. — A Chinese Grammar of the
Manchu Language. Shanghai, 18.55.

History of the Manchu Language. — Chi-
nese Recorder. (Vol. XXII. p. 100-113;
149-157).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (The Manchn Iiangnsge. p.
41.3-415).

China : Imperial Maritime Customs. De-
ci-nni.al Reports, 1892-1901 (Newcbwang).

CHAPTER II.

MONGOLIA OR THE MONGKU ^ *
COUNTRY.

The vast plateavi which lies to the North of China Pi'oper, and spparatos it from
Siberia, is called Mongolia. The surface of this plateau is far from being equally level
throughout, but is composed in reality of a basin formed by the depression of the Gobi
desert. The latter is bounded on the N.W. by a still higher region; on the N.E., E. and
S.E. by the Khingan fHsingngan i| ^) and Yin-shan ^ llj mountains; on the S.,by the
Ordos country, aud on the S. W., by the Alashan (Holan-shan ^ B8 Ul) range. For
clearness' sake, we shall give, besides some notions on the country in general, a few
details upon each of these regions.

Area* — 1,367,953 square miles.

Popnlatlou. — 2,580,000, or nearly 2 to the square mile.

Name. — Besides its name of Mongolia, derived from the
word Mongku ^ ^, it is sometimes called Gobi (Kwopih -^ ff)
or the Desert, also Shamo ^ ^, that is Sandy Waste. The
Chinese call it Han-hai ^ ^ (rainless sea), but this last
denomination is applied more particulary to the central part.

Boundaries. — Mongolia is bounded on the

N. — By Siberia (Provinces of Transbaikalia, Irkutsk,

Yenesei and Tomsk),
W. — By Siberia (Province of Semipalatinsk), and the

New Dominion or Sinkiang Jgf ^,
S. _ By China (Kansu ^ 3§, Shensi ^ |ff, and Chihli

B. — By Manchuria (Manchow ^ ^).

510 BOOK II. ODTER DEPENDENCIES.

Aspect and Cbaracterlstlcs. — Considered from the
Chihli plain, the table-land of Mongolia appears like a serrated
chain of high mountains. Ascending one of these summits, an
immense plateau, ranging from 3,000 to 4,000 feet in height,
discloses itself to the view. To the North and South extends a
verdant zone, pasture-lands prevailing more to the North, and
cultivated fields to the South. An immense mountain chain, the
Great Khingan (Hsingngan $^ ^), rises boldly to the East. Its
vast mass is covered with forests, while it slopes gently towards
the Gobi desert, but more abruptly towards the low plains of
Manchuria. A considerable rriountain mass extends throughout
the whole North-West. Its peaks afford pasturage, when uncovered
with snow, and numerous streams issue from its sides. At high
altitudes, some fine expanses of salt water are still found, remnants
of those vast inland seas, which must have formerly existed there.
To the S. W., are mountains and table-lands higher than the Gobi,
and like it covered with sand. There are few important towns
in this immense tract, and the population is largely nomad.
The Chinese farmers constantly advancing from the S., their hand
on the plough, and the numerous sedentary Lamas who live by
thousands in the monasteries upon the plateau, are however an
exception. This country is on the whole rather poor, and inha-
bited by cattle-breeders, continually shifting their tents. This
however was not aJwaj/s so. The numerous ruins found in the
desert attest that it was formerly cultivated, and dotted over with
towns.

Geological constitution. — The Mongolian plateau is the extension of the
T'ien-shan ^ llj, or heavenly mountains. It seems to be composed of metamorphic
and igneous strata : gneiss, granite, crystalline and slaty schist. It was formerly bel-
ieved that it had formed the bed of a dried-up sea during the primary and secondary
periods, but no traces of rook belonging to these periods have been found on the pla-
teau. The name Han-hai ^ ^ (rainless sea) should not therefore be interpreted in
this sense.

On the elevated plains which border the plateau, and on the slope outside Mon-
golia, lie extensive beds of basaltic and other volcanic upheavals, as well as limestone
and carboniferous rocks.

Red and brown oonglomerate, sandstone and clay are found everywhere through-
out the Gobi, but the fossU remains which they -contain, attest that these rooks have
been formed at the bottom of fresh-water, and not of salt-water lakes or inland seas.

CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 511

Orography and Bydrograpliy ortlte Tarlons regions
of Mongolia.

1". The region N, W. of Kobdo and TJrga. — This region
forms a high plateau surrounded by four ranges of mountains :
the Sayan (Saiansk) and Rusgian Altai to the N. and N.W., the
Mktagh Altai or Central Altai to the S.W., the Artaa-Bogdo and
Keniai to the S. E., the KJiamar-Doban and the Urgik-Tangak
to the N. B. — This plateau, which is about 110,000 square
miles in extent, never falls below a level of 2,300 feet (at the
Ubsa-Nor lake), and this only over a limited space. All the
rest, even at the bottom of the valleys and in the lowlands, has
an elevation ranging from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. Several moun-
tain chains rise much higher. A good many peaks of the
Southern Altai exceed 10,000 feet, and one of them, the Tasagtu-
Bogdo, seems to attain an elevation of 14,000 feet. Peaks,
reaching 10,000 feet and more, encircle the horizon, except to
the S. E., between the Kentai and Artsa-Bogdo ranges.

The passes^ whereby the plateau is approached, are also
exceedingly steep. In the Southern Altai, they are not lower than
9,000, and rise as high as 10,000 feet. One of the principal
of this South Altai range is the Olen-Darba pass, which is 9,240
feet high.

Numerous rivers water this region, and several flow into
salt-lakes with no outlets. The principal are the JRobdo river
or Kobdogol, which flows into the Karaussu-Nor, a lake situa-
ted at an altitude of 3,800 feet; the Tea river, running into
the Ubsa-Nor, a lake 2,230 feet above sea-level; the Yenisei,
formed by the TTlukem, the JBeUeem and the Kemehik ; the
Seienga with its tributary the Orkhon, itself receiving the Tola
or Urga river. These two latter rivers (the Yenisei and the
Selenga), together with their tributaries, waterthewholeNorthern
parts of this vast table-land.

From the outer sides of this mountain-mass only a few small
and short lived streams flow towards the Gobi and Sungaria,
and are soon lost in the sands. The principal of these is the
Urungu, which waters the depression situated between the

512 BOOK II. OUTER 0EPENDBNC1B8.

Central Altai and Sungaria, at an altitude of from 1,500 to 3,000
feet.

Besides the lakes already mentioned, numerous others
occupy here and there the depressions of the plateau. The
principal is lake Kosogol, which is over 60 miles in length. It
is the only one whose watei-s escape by a river, called the
Egingol, and flowing into the Selenga. It is situated at an
elevation of 5,300 feet, and lies at the foot of the snow-capped
peak, known by the name of Miinku-Sardj/k. — These lakes vary
in dimension with the years and seasons, and are at times gradu-
ally dried up.

The S. E., and S. W. parts are covered with gravel, and
are destitute of trees. The wide valleys of the table-land are
all in a similar condition. The elevated parts, especially the
slopes towards the N., are covered with larch, pine, cedar and
birch-trees. Wherever the forest disappears, as when the S.
is approached, excellent pasture-land is found throughout nearly
the whole region. On the N., the two slopes of the Sayan
mountains are covered with woods. Further Southwards, trees
are found only on the slopes facing the North. The Altai range
is completely destitute of trees.

2*. Segion of the Mongolian Desert or Gobi. — This is
the lowest part of the Great Mongolian table-land, and is some-
what funnel-shaped. It has its sand-rivers called sha-ho jjf JpT,
and is almost everywhere a stony and sandy waste, in the
midst of which arise, like islands, rocky masses constantly eroded
by sand storms. The Gobi is not, however, entirely a sand/ess
waste. Beyond the sand-rivers, there is good land which yields
shrubs, and a scanty but nutritious kind of grass. Agriculture
is encroaching more and more on the Southern plateau, where
the land is nearly everywhere fertile, and yields splendid crops,
without manure, for years.

Here the climate is too dry, and the sands too permeable
by water, to allow of rivers being formed. The only water
available is drawn from cisterns, fed by the summer storm-
showers.

CHAPTBR II. MONGOLIA. 613

The Gobi Desert has an altitude of from 2,500 to 3,000
feet, and is slightly undulated, its surface being broken by a
series of hills rising from 100 to 1,100 feet above the plateau.

High grass covers in Spring its South-Eastern part, and
imparts to it the aspect of a sea of verdure. This is the origin of
the name given to it by the Chinese, "Land of high grass."

3". Segion of the Great Khingan (Hsingngan ^ ^). — The
Khingan is a long chain of mountains, running in a 8.W.-N.B.
direction. It comes from Manchuria, and extends to the N. of
Shansi ilj |f , through the Tinrshan |^ ilj range. It is formed
by a series of two or three parallel chains, ranging in all from
75 to 100 miles wide. The Great Khingan itself rises on a
base of from 3,000 to 3,200 feet in height, and attains finally
an elevation of from 4,500 to 6,000 feet.

To the N., between the Great Khingan and the Kentai,
extends a high undulated table-land, covered with low and flat
hills, well wooded and irrigated, and marshy in some places.
Two important rivers drain this region : the £ei*u2«», which
runs into the Dalai-Nor lake in Manchuria, and the Onon river,
which flows into the Shilka, in Siberia.

The Tin-shan is but a prolongation of the Khingan, and
rises to an elevation of 5,800 feet.

East of the Great Khingan, the low plain, which extends
into Manchuria, is from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the sea-level.
It possesses fine pasture-lands, and is watered by rivers which
rise in the Great Khingan. The principal of these are the Ifouni
with its affluents, and the Sharannuren, which is known
further on as the Liao-ho ^ fij, and forms the boundary-line
on the N., between Chihli Jg ^ and Mongolia.

4". The Ordos plateau, called the Ho-t'ao }pj g or Ngoh-
eultusze IP M ^ W. is hemmed in on the N., by a bend of the
Hwang-ho ^ Jpf. It slopes gently down from the S., where ils
elevation is over 5,000 feet, to the N., where it falls to 3,200.
It is almost entirely covered with sand, especially in the N.
and W., and has rather large depressions called " tsaidams,"
which are the bottems of dried-up lakes. Several small expanses

33

514 BOOK II. OUTER DBPENDENCIES.

of "water are scattered over its surface, and short affluents of
the Hwang-ho drain itg Eastern part. The Arhuz-ola mountains,
which are a continuation of the Alashan (Holan-shan ^ |H ll|)
range, rise to an elevation of 3,000 feet above the plateau.

To the N. of the Ortos country, on the opposite side of the
Hwang-ho, extends a fairly fertile and populous plain, walled
in on the N. by several chains of mountains. It is called the
"Urat country."

5*. The jUaahan JReffion, (Holan-shan ^ ^ [Ij). — This com-
prises two parts, one mountainous and the other a plateau, both
situated between the Ordos country, and the New Dominion or
Sinkiang ff If.

17^ mountains rise at a short distance beyond the Hwang-
ho H fai, and run in a S.W -N.E. direction. They extend to
a distance of 150 miles, and have a mean width of 15 miles.
Their peaks rise to from 5,000 to 6,500 feet beyond the plateau,
itself in this place from 3,300 to 5,000 feet above sea-level.
They do not, however, reach the line of perpetual snow. These
peaks are very rocky and of barren aspect.

2%e plateau is broken up with hills. The altitude of its
lowest parts reaches 4,000 feet, but falls to 3,500 towards
the Etsingol, and to 3,300 at lake Sogok. The hills rise to
about 1,000 feet beyond the plateau. The principal river found
there is the Msinffol, -which empties itself into Soffok-Nor. Two
other rivers, coming likewise from the Kansu -^ ^ mountains,
are partly dried up before reaching the lakes towards which
they flow.

Climate. — The climate of Mongolia is very dry, and offers great variations of
temperature, not only from one season to another, but even within the same day. The
country is swept constantly by sand-storms, and seems to be ever covered with a cloud
of yeUow dust.

The N. W. region is especially cold on account of its elevation. At Urga, the
mean annual temperature is 43° Fahrenheit. The thermometer descends to zero in
January, and rises to 79° P. in July. The dry, cold winds, which blow from the N.W.,
render the Winters even still more severe.

In the Gobi desert and the Alashan region, the climate becomes still drier and
more rigorous. In Winter, the thermometer faUs at times to —29° F., and rises in July
to 100°. Occasionally, it has reached as high as 113° F.

CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 515

At Siwantze S B5J ^, in the extreme S. E. of the Gobi desert, the aunual mean
temperature is 37° P., that of January — 1°, and that of July 93° P.

In the N. of the Ordos country, snow begins to fall in October, and does not
melt until April. A temperature of — 22° P. is not uncommon, and the thermometer
registers sometimes during whole weeks even lower readings.

The daily variation is often considerable, ranging in March, from — 18° P. at
daybreak, to 68° in the shade, during the afternoon.

The dryness of the country arises from the encircling mountains which arrest
the rain-clouds. During Summer, no rain falls in Mongolia save during heat-storms.
At Urga, the mean rainfall is 8 inches. At Siwantze, better exposed to the S. E.
monsoon, it is 18 inches.

Faona and Flora. — The flora of Mongolia varies according to the regions.
In the N.f are found forests, rich in pine, fir, larch, aspen, birch and cedar-trees. In
the S., in the Yin-shan mountains, there are also large forests, in which are found the
aspen, birch, willow, alder, dwarf oak-trees and thuyas. In the N. and S.E., there are
fine pasture-lands. In the Gobi desert, there are scarcely any trees or shrubs except a
few dwarf-elms, fragrant artemisias, and willows, and here and there some patches of
stunted grass.

The fauna of the country is richer, without however being copious. The prin-
cipal wild animals found, are the wolf and fox {both numerous), the antelope, argali,
wild horse, onager (dsiggetai in Mongol), monkey, tiger (near the borders of Manchuria),
bear, and wild boar, while the birds are the eagle, kite and crow. In Winter, numerous
aquatic birds frequent the swamps and lakes. Lizards and reptiles abound in the Gobi
desert. Several of the latter are very dangerous, especially the hothrops serpent.

Agricultural TVealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Mon-
golia consists chiefly in pasture-lands, and the flocks reared
thereon : sheep, goats, horses, camels and yaks.

Mineral Wealtli. — The mineral wealth of the country is
up to present little explored, and seems to consist principally of
salt, coal, marble, granite and graphite.

Population. — The population of Mongolia is scanty. It is especially centred
in the N., the S., and the S. B. The Central region, and that of the S. are almost unin-
habited.

Mongolia is peopled by three principal races : the Mongols, the TurMs and the
Chinese. The Turkia occupy the W., the Chinese are confined chiefly to the S., where
they are engaged in opening up the country, while the Mongols inhabit the remaining
parte of the country.

The Mongols are divided into numerous tribes. The principal are : in the N.,
the Kalkhas (the Great Conqueror, Genghis-khan 1164-1227, belonged to this group) ; in
the W., the KaUmicTcs (divided into Buriats, Turguts and Eleuths), the majority of
whom have crossed over to Tibet, Sungaria and Siberia •,intheE., the Chakhars. — The
name Ta/rtar sometimes given to the Mongols applies only to the Northern group,
but even this must be taken with restriction, the proper appellation being Tatars.

The Mongols are a weU-built and sturdy race. They are often of great width
across the shoulders. The chest is, generally speaking, arched; the neck thick-set; the
face large and flat ; the cheek-bones prominent ; the eyelids less oblique than those of

516 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

the Chinese ; the nose broad and flat ; the heard black, short, and scanty ; the voice
deep and sonorous, the features tanned by the smoke of the "yourt" or tent, and exposure
to the sun's rays, while the hands and feet are relatively small. Men and women are
full of vigour and strength. Their character is frank and open, though rather rude.
They are warm-hearted and hospitable, but improvident.lazy, filthy and much addicted
to drunkenness. They are jovial, and fond of physical exercise and athletic sports. They
are splendid horsemen, and as many as 4,000 may be seen at times contesting for the
prize of daring and speed. On foot, they are awkward and walk heavily. Accustomed
to live either in the "yovH" (tent) or in the open air, they have become inured to pri-
vations of all kinds.

The majority of the men embrace a life of celibacy, in the Lama monasteries, and
thus thin the population, which is fast advancing towards extinction.

The Eirghis, who inhabit the W., are of Turkish origin. Their cheek-bones
are high like those of the Mongols, but in a lesser degree ; their limbs are strong and
well shaped, their eye is quick, but the nose is convex, the beard black and fairly
abundant, while their bearing is proud and haughty. Their reputation of highway-
men is well deserved. They are, however, hospitable and open-hearted, and like the
Mongols, pass the greater part of their life on horseback.

Relig^ion. — Nearly all the Mongols are Buddhists. Indian Buddhism, however,
after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamaism. Lawias are Buddhist monks
who observe the forms of Tibetan Buddhism, and lead generally a conventual life.
Two principal sects are distinguished, from the colour of their dress and their head-
covering : the red Lamias and the yellow Lamas (Red Caps and Yellow Caps). The
latter predominate in Mongolia. Of the three High Dignitaries of Lamaism, or Living
Buddhas, 2 reside in Tibet, and 1 at Urga, in Mongolia. This latter bears the name of
Bwi'MSfei'it Bf @ ^ ^ ( a Mongolian word meaning one who returns again, or a.n
Avatar). He holds authority over 25,000 Lamas, and maintains 150,000 slaves, who
tend his flocks. Previous to 1664, he resided at Kweihwa Ch'Sng ^ "ffe ^, in Shansi
|lj ff Province. Nearly all Lama monasteries have now their Avatars, or Living
Buddhas. These Lamasaries are very numerous, and reckon some, as many as 20,000
Lamas or more. According to recent statistics, the Lamas form the | of the male
population of Mongolia. They wield great power, and enjoy wealth, owing to the
numerous donations which they receive.

The Lama form of Buddhism is much adulterated in Mongolia with Shamanism
and Idolatry.

Iiangaage. — The most widely difiused type of the Mongol language, spoken
throughout the country, belongs to the Ural-Altaic family, as the Turkish and Manchu
dialects. It abounds in dissyllabic roots, and is rich in words and forms. The alphabet
is syllabic, and of Syro-Uigur origin. It has 7 vowels, 17 consonants and 5 diphthongs.
Gutturals and aspirates are largely used. The writing has undergone various trans-
formations. Its latest form, which resembles knotted cords, dates from the XIII""
century. Mongol is written in vertical columns, from top to bottom, but unlike
Chinese, the lines proceed from left to right.

The Mongol language has its conjugations and declinations. Sentences consist
of a number of participial clauses, with the principal verb at the end, and this gives
them at times an indefinite length. In the spoken language, the letter r is frequent,
but the consonant f is non-existent.

The liturgical books, which the Lamas are bound to learn by heart, without

CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 517

understanding their meaning, are written in Tibetan. For this reason, and also
because the book style differs much from the oolloquial, there is very little literature
to be found in the Mongolian language.

SPECIMEN OP MONGOL WKITING.
(Ordos Dialect).

Enguguet satsha Borh'ano oronn tor torog'o boloyo.
{After his demise, he will be reembodied in the realm of Buddha).

Towns and Principal Centres. — Mongolia has but few

important towns. This is due to the manner of life of the
inhabitants, who are largely nomads. The principal towns are :
Vrffa or K'urun J^ f^, — Population, 13,000 Lama monks,
and 25,000 Chinese and Mongols. It is the Sacred City of the
Mongols; the Great City (Dakuren), the Holy City (Bogdokuren).
The name Urga, given to it by the Russians, comes from "Orgo"
(palace of a high official). It is situated on the Selbi, a tribut-
ary of the Tola (T'ohla-ho fg fft fpf), from which it is distant
2 miles. It is built on a hill, opposite the sacred mountain, an
extinct crater 5,200 feet high, and upon which Oenghis-hhan
(the Greatest khan) is said to have been born. At the present
day, it is composed of three parts : 1" the huren or monastery.
This contains the principal sanctuaries, and the residence of the
living Buddha. The Dalai Lama of Tibet withdrew there before
Ihe British expedition entered Lhassa, August 3, 1904 ; 2" the
Lama city, in which are several monasteries and Lama habita-
tions ; 3° Maimai Ch'ing ^ ^ ^. This is the commercial
city, where important dealings (in cattle, camels, horses, sheep,
piece-goods, milk etc), are carried on between Russians, Mongols
and Chinese.

China has her Imperial-Agent or Arnhan (Manchu term for
high officer) at Urga. He is styled K'ulunpanshi Tach'Sn Jg
f^ ^ ■^ ;^ E (^'"V'ty-n Imperial Agent), and is associated with

518 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

a high Mongolian Official (Panshi Tach'6n i$ ^ :f; E, Imperial
Agent). Both are charged with the superintendence of commerce
between Russia, and the frontier city of Kiahhta. (K'iahk'oht'u

'i-^ js m)-

Mobdo f4 ^ ^. — A small town situated on the Bayantu,
at the opening of a low plain. It has a fortress, where the
Governor of the city resides, and a small commercial quarter,
occupied principally by Chinese with some Mongols. It is an
important commercial centre for the cattle-breeders of the region.

Uluasut'ai i^ M ^ S "n • — ^ town situated to the East
of Kobdo, and similar to it in many respects. It is the seat of
the military Governor of the Kalkhas region.

Industry and Commerce. — Industry is little developed,
and limited almost entirely to the manufacture of felt tents.

Commerce is important: 25,000 horses, 10,000 horned cattle,
250,000 sheep, 330,000 hides, and a considerable quantity of
furs are exported annually from Eastern Mongolia. From Xorth-
Western Mongolia, the annual export is still more considerable,
and comprises : 70,000 horses, 30,000 camels, and from 1,500,000
to 2,000,000 sheep. Mongolia exports also salt, timber and
deer-horns.

The imports from China are tea, cotton, Chinaware,
cutlery, tobacco and paper. The imports from Sussia are less
considerable, but are however constantly increasing.

The transport of goods occupies a large number of Mongols.
As many as 100,000 camels are employed in conveying tea from
Kalgan (Ghihli it#) to Siberia. Another 1,200,000 camels and
300,000 bullock-waggons are employed in the inland caravan
trade.

HIgtaways of Communication. — The most frequented
thoroughfare is that which leads Irom Kalgan to Kiakhta^ via
Urga.

Another road branches off at Sair-Usu, and proceeds to
Uliasut'al and Kobdo.

During Winter, transport is effected by camels ; in Summer,
by bullock-waggons.

CHAPTER II. MONGOLIA. 519

A regtOar postal service ^^OTgamized by Russia" connects
Kiakhta and Kalgan, passing via Urga. There are 4 depar-
tures per month in each direction, 3 for the light mail, and 1
for the heavier parcels. The light mail is carried by two horses
mounted by Mongol riders, who travel at full speed. Relays
are established every 20 miles. The light mail takes 8 days
in Summer to make the trip, and 9 ^ in "Winter. For the
heavier parcels, from 20 to 25 days are required.

Administration. — Mongolia is under the control of the
Lifan Yuen 3 @ ^, or Mongolian Super intendency, whose
head-quarters are at Peking.

A part of the country is now attached to Shansi (Ij H and
Chihli ig^. The rest is divided into Inner and Outer Mongolia.

Inner MongoUa, or Nei Mongku ft ^ iS", comprises the
whole country lying between the Gobi desert, China Proper
and Manchuria. It is also called Mongolia of the 49 Banners,
from the military organization adopted there. It is arrayed in
two sections, termed the right and left wings, the left occupying
the Eastern, and the right the Western half of the country.
These two sections are divided into 6 chogolgan or Leagues
(Meng ^ in Chinese), which embrace the whole of the 24 tribes
or Pu ^ (in Mongol, Aimahs ^ If Jg), under which they are
distributed. Each tribe comprises 1 or several banners, that of
the Ordos, for instance, having 7. Bach League is ruled by a
petty Prince called the Captain-General (MSngchang fg ^) of
the chogolgan. He is selected from among the leading chieftains
of the tribes, and approved by the Emperor of China, on the
recommendation of the Mongolian Superintendency. — Two
Military Governors-General, one residing at Jehol, and the other
at Kalgan (Changkia-k'ow ^ ^ P , the gate-town on the line
of the Great Wall), are appointed for the control of Inner Mon-
golia. In civil matters, they depend on the Viceroy of Chihli.
The Commissaries of this latter reside at Kalgan and Jehol, and
administer the civil affairs of the Chinese population inhabiting
Inner Mongolia.

Outer Mongolia, or Wai Mongku ^\> ^ "j^, comprises all

520

BOOK II. OUTBH DBPBNDBNCIBS.

the rest of the country. The Mongols who inhabit it, especially
the Kalkhas 1^ M l^i have maintained their independence
longer than the other tribes, and even now, their allegiance is
rather nominal than real. They constitute 4 great tribes or
aimaks, 3 of whom are still governed by hereditary rulers,
bearing the title of Khan (in Chinese, Han 'ff). The number of
banners, distributed among the 4 tribes, is 83. By the addition
of 2 banners of Eleuths, and 1 of Khoits, the number of the ban-
ners of the Kalkhas reaches 86 in all. The Khans of the Kal-
khas testify their allegiance to the Sovereign of China by an
annual presentation of 9 white animals (Kiupah ^ g), consist-
ing of eight horses and a camel, all pure white in colour.

Next in importance to the Kalkhas are the Kalmuks or
Western Mongols. They are divided into 6 tribes : Eleuths,
Turbets, Turguts, Khoshoits, Khoits and Oh'oros. They inhabit
the region of Kuku-Nor, and the Northern borders of Tibet
(ancient Tangut).

A Chinese Imperial Agent resides at Urga, and maintains
his authority over the Kalkhas chiefs. The Western Kalkhas
are under the rule of the military Governor of Uliasut'ai.

Army. — The Mongol tribes have to Berve in the ranks of the army, but in fact
only Inner Mongolia supplies soldiers. The Mongol army has but cavalry. There are
1,325 camps numbering 198,000 men, of whom ^j is armed with rifles. Evry 3 or 4
years, a general review is held at Kalgan.

References ;

Reclus E. — NouveUe Gtographie, 1882.

(Vol. VII. p. 176-222).
De Lesdain. — En Mongolie. Paris, 1903.
De Batz. —La Mongolie. (Tour du Monde,

1901).
De Guisnes J. — Histoire Gen6rale des

Huns, Turos, Mogols. 4 Vol. Paris,1756-58.
LaTiBse et Rambaad. — Histoire Qeni-

rale. (Tome II. Oh. 16, et Tome III. Ch.

19).
Oahiut. — Introduction k I'Histoire de

I'Asie. Paris, 1896. (Turos et Mongols,

des origines k 1605).
D'Ohason O. — Histoire dee Mongols, i

Vol. Amsterdam, 1854.

Hue et Gabet— Voyage dans la Tartarie
et le Thibet. Paris, 1850.

SonIi6. — Les Tribus Mongols : leur si-
tuation actuelle, politique et geographi-
que. (Kcho de Chine. 19 Mai, 1904).

Revue illustrie des Missions en Chine et
au Congo. (Missions Beiges), passim,
v.g. 1889, p. 97 sq., aperju du Vioariat de
la Mongolie Centrale. — 1891, p. 433 sq.,
MongoUe S.B. — 1892, p. 1 sq. Etat, fa-
mille, religion des Mongols etc.

Le Pays des Ortous. — (Missions Catholi-
ques, 1875).

CHAPTBH ir.

MONGOLIA.

521

Wolff. — Gesohiohte der Mongolen. Bres-
lau, 1872.

De Ohavaiines. — Cou^u^te en Asie par
les Mogols et les Tartares sous Gengis-
Khan et Tamerlan. Tours, 1876.

Feer 1j. — La Puissance et la Civilisation
Mongoles au XIII= sitele. Paris, 1867.

Gaabil. — Histoire de Gengis-Khan, et de
toute la Dynastie des Mongous, ses suc-
cesseurs. Paris, 1739.

R^musat. — Mimoire sur les relations
politiques des Princes Chretiens avec les
Empereurs Mongols. Paris, 1827.

David. — Voyage en Mongolie. (Bulletin
dela Soo. G6ogr. Paris, 1875. p. 5-45;
131-176).

Plan-Oarpin. — Gelations des Mongols
ou Tatars. Paris, 1838.

Douglas Sir R. — The Life of Jinghiz
Khan, irom Chinese Sources. London,
1878.

Da Halde. — Description of the Empire
of China. London, 1738. (Geogr. Obser-
vations on Tartary. Vol. II. p. 235-265.
— Travels of Verbiest and Gerbillon into
Tartary. ibid. Vol, 11. p. 270-369).

Gi«sier. — Description of China. London,
1795. (Mongolia. Vol. I. Ch. III. p. 166-

190).
Wintorbotbam. — View of the Chinese
Empire. London, 1795. (Mongolia, p. 132-

144).

Davis Sir J. F. — The Chinese. London,
1844. (StongoUa. Vol. I. Ch. V. p. 158. —
Kalkhas, Ortous, Calmucs or Eleuths.
Ch. VI. p. 187-189).

WiUiamB. — The Middle Kingdom. New
York, 1861. (Mongolia. Vol. I. Ch. IV.
p. 163-170).

Keane A. H. — Asia. London, 1886. (Mon-
golia, p. 631-532; 539-544).

Williamson A. — Journeys in N. China.
London, 1870. (From Peking to Kalgan.
Vol. II. Ch. V. p. 92-105).

Gatzlaff O. — China opened. London,
1838. (Mongolia. Vol. I. Ch. VII. p. 202-
233).

Edkins J. — A Visit to the agricultural
Mongols. (N. 0. B. E. A. Soc. 1865. p. 99-
112).

Prejevalsky. — Mongolia and the Coun-
try of the Tanguts. 2 Vol. St Petersburg,
1875. — Third and Fourth Journey. 1885.

Obrucbeff. — Central Asia, Northern

China and the Nau-shan. 1900-1901.
Pyevtsoff. — Sketch of a Journey to

Mongolia. 1883.
Pozdneeff. — Towns of North Mongolia.

1880. — Mongolia and the Mongols. 1896-

1899.
Kropotkin. — Mongolia. (Encyolopsedia

Britannioa. 1901).
Kozloff P. K. — Mongolia and Tibet.

(Geogr. Journal. 1906 Vol. XXVIII.).
Potanin. — Sketches of N. W. Mongolia.

1881-1883. — The Tangut-Tibet Border

of China and Central Mongolia. 1893.
De Windt. — From Peking to Calais by

land. Loudon, 1889. (Mongolia. Ch. 2-7).
Parker E. H. — A month in Mongolia.

(The Phoenix, 1870-71. passim).
Mongolia. — Chinese Repository. (Vol, I.

p. 117-121; 170-172).
Topography of Mongolia. — Chinese Repo-
sitory. (Vol. XX. p. 62-67).
The Chinese in Mongolia. — Chinese Re-
corder. (Vol. VIII. p. 273-295).
Gilmour J. — Among the Mongols, 1883.

— More about the Mongols, 1893.
Atkinson T. W. — Oriental and Western

Siberia. London, 1858. (Mongolia. Ch.

24-29).
Atkinson T. W. — Travels in the Regions

of the Upper and Lower Amur. London,

1800.
Borradaile A. — Notes of a Journey in

Northern Mongolia. (Geogr. Journal,

1895. Vol. V. p. 562-572).
Freemon-Mitford. — The Attache at

Peking. London, 1900. (Mongolia. — Our

Mongol hosts. — Lama-miao. p. 246-

329).
Hoivorth H. H.— History of the Mongols,

from the 9"" to the 19"' century. London,

1876.
Rockhill. — Diary of a Journey through

Mongolia and Tibet in 1891-92. Washing-
ton, 1894.
Campbell O. M. — Journeys in Mongolia.

(Geogr. Journal. London, 1903. Vol.

XXII. p. 485-521).
Youngtansband Sir F. — The Heart of

a Continent. London, 1904. (Travels in

Manchuria, the Gobi Desert and the

Pamirs).
Wingate A. W. — Nine years survey

work in N. China and Mongolia. London,

1906.

522

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Michie A. — The Siberian Overland Route,
from Peking to S' Petersburg. London,
1864. (MongoHa. Ch. fl-14).

Colquhoun A. — The Overland to China.
London, 1900. (Eastern Mongolia. Oh.
XIII-XIV. p. 255-308).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
hai, 1903. (Mongols, p. 446-449).

Mayers F. W. — The Chinese Govern-
ment. Shanghai, 1886. (Mongolia and
Turkestan. Part XI. p. 80-96).

Little A. — The Par East. Oxford, 1905.
(The Dependencies : Mongolia. Ch. XI.
p. 171-185).

Hedley J. — On Tramp among the Mon-
gols. Shanghai, 1906.

Bowra E. C. — On the words Mongol,
Mogul, Tatar and Tartar. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I.
p. 57-59).

Kovalevski. — Dictionnaire Mongol-
Ensse-Pranjais. 1844-49.

SouliS. — Elements du Dialecte Mongol.
(Ordos). Paris, 1903.

Vitale et de Sercey. — Grammaire et
Vocabulaire de la Langue Mongole. (Kal-
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RSmusat. — Eecherohes sur les Langues
Tartares. Paris, 1820.

Edkins J. — Mongol and European com-
mon words. (Phoenix Vol. II. p. 149...).

Dyer Ball J. — Things Chinese. Shang-
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Yule. — Primer in the Mongol Language.
London, 1837.

Dennys N. B. — A short Vocabulary of
the Mongolian Jjanguage. (Notes and
Queries on China and Japan. Vol. I.
p. 132).

CHAPTER III.

CHINESE TURKESTAN OR THE

NEW DOMINION

ALSO CALLED SINKIANG fr M.

Sinkiang forms, as it were, the 19^^^ Province of China. Thus considered, we
might have described it immediately after the 18 Provinces. The region, the climate,
tho language, the administration, are however, widely different. Sinkiang itself, is
composed of such heterogeneous parts, that we deem it necessary for the sake of clear-
ness, quite in exhibiting a general view of the whole, to give also some detail^ upon
each of its principal divisions.

Area. — 550,579 square miles.

Popalation. — 1,200,000 inhabitants, or 2 per square
mile. As in Mongolia, a great part of the country, viz. the
desert and the mountains, is uninhabited. The population is
grouped in isolated oases, or in some of the well irrigated valleys.

Name. — The name Sinkianff flf H has been given to it
from the fact of its being recently organized, in 1878, after the
victory gained over the Mussulman insurrection in the North-
West [see p. 363). It is also sometimes called JSastem Tur-
kestan, from the name of its larger portion ; also Chinese Tur-
keatan, in opposition to Russian or Western Turkestan ; finally
Kaahgaria from Kashgar, the name of its principal town.

Bonndarles. — Sinkiang is bounded on the
N. — By Siberia,

W. — By Russian or Western Turkestan, and by Hin-
dustan,
S. — By Tibet,
E. — By Kansu ^ "^ and Mongolia.

524 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDRNCIBS.

Prefectwral and other Divisions. — Sinkiang has 6 JVe/ec-
tures or Fus )^, 2 Chows j^ and 8 T*ings J^.

The Pr^ectures are :

1» Tih-hwa Fu Ji -ffc fl?= or Ummtsi,
2° Teak'i Fu ^ W (ff or Karashar,

3° Shuleh Fu BS $!l /ff (Kashgar or Shufu hsien gSPS'SS depends on it),
4° Soch'd Fu }5 $ Jff 01" Yarhand,
5° Wfinsuli Fu ia ^ ;fiF or ^foa,
6° Hi Fu ^ S! flr.
The Chows are :

1° K'uCh'fi Chow S ^ iW or £:ttc;sa,

2° Hwotien Chow W g@ ffl or Khotm.
The Things are :

1° Yingkihshaeul T'ing ^"^ •S>W Mot Yangi-mssar,
2° WusMh T'ing ft fr S! or Uch-Turfan,

3° K'ueulk'ohlali Wusu T'ing %^i@nJ;%i>IIS or jSttriara-trstt,

4° Chdnsi T'ing ^ H ^ or Barkul,

5° Hahmih T'ing n^ ?B ^ or Hamj (Khamil),

6° T'ulufan T'ing l?t ® # K or Turfan,

7° Tsingho T'ing (g if S,

8° T'ahch'eng T'ing ^ M ii or Tarbagatai.

Aspect and Characteristics. — Sinkiang is an immense
desert, surrounded by lofty mountains, and except for a few cases,
sandy and barren throughout. The melting snows give rise to
few rivers, and hence it well deserves the name of "Chinese
Siberia". The Southern part is a closed in basin, communicating
with the outside only through a few passes. For the safee of
clearness, we shall call all this part Eastern Turkestan, or
THenshan Nanlu ^ |1| ^ U& (the great road South of the T'ien-
shan range). — Its North-Eastern part is a series of mountains,
valleys and plateaux. We shall style it likewise by the name of
Sungaria or T'ienshan Pehlu 3^ llj 4b 1^ {the great North road
of the T'ienshan). — The Eastern T'ienshan ^ \l] range
separates these two regions from one another. — Sinkiang being
largely a place of passage, is inhabited by a great variety of races
Though impoverished and distressed in general, the country
seems to have been formerly well populated, and the sand-
buried ruins discovered there, attest that in days gone by, it

CHAPTER III. CHINESE TUBKKSTAN. 525

enjoyed a certain prosperity. The inroads of the sandSj however,
seem to threaten with ruin, and hinder the development of all the
new towns which are rising there.

Geological eonstitntion. — Sinkiang is a series of gravelly and sandy basins,
surrounded by high mountains of igneous and primary formation, where granite,
schist and crystalline locks predominate. It may possibly be that the sea filled these
basins during the secondary and tertiary period, but there is, however, no proof of this.
What seems certain is that vast inland lakes formerly covered part, if not all, of these
basins. Some of these lakes remain, even to the present day, especially in Sungaria.

Orograpliy. — Eastern Turkestan forms a basin closed on
all sides, and varying in altitude from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above
sea-level. It is bounded by a circle of mountains, the height
of which diminishes only towards the East, as they approach
Kansu-y*^. These mountains incline abruptly in narrow terraces
to the South. They slope also in a series of chains, but less
rapidly, to the West and North. These mountains are the
following :

1°. In the South, the Nan-shan "^ [Ij and Altyn-Tagh
mountains, both branches of the K'uenlun ^ !^ range. They
reach an altitude of from 21,300 to 25,500 feet, and are capped
with perpetual snow above the line of 18,000 feet.

2". In the West, the Karakoratn mountains, the massive
block of the Pamirs, and the Trans-Altai. Their highest peaks
attain an elevation of 26,000 feet.

3°. In the North, the Vien-shan ^ [ij. This mountain-
range stretches out into a series of parallel chains which slope
to the South. Its base sometimes attains 180 miles in width.
All the summits of the T'ien-shan are covered with large gla-
ciers. The most famous peak is that of Khan-Tengri, the altitude
of which is 22,300 feet. The T'ien-shan continues Eastward
by the Bogdo-ola, and more to the South, by the Feh-shau
Q llj (white mountain), a low range 4,500 feet high, and
intersected by parallel ridges rising to the height of 7,200 feet.

Further to the North lies the table-land of Sungaria, rising
from 1,600 to 6,000 feet, and the Hi valley which is encircled
by steep mountains.

526 BOOK II. ODTER DEPENDENCIES.

JDepressions. — In certain parts of Sinkiang ^ |^, the
surface of the land sinks considerably. At the South-Bastern
foot of the Western T'ien-shan 5c llji there is a large depres-
sion of the soil, 50 miles wide by 100 in length, situated at
an elevation of from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above sea-level.
Further to the North-East, between the Eastern T'ien-shan J^ \lj
and the Shol-iagh, another but much deeper depression is found.
To the West of Hami, it is but 120 feet in altitude, while to the
West of Turfan, it even seems to be below the sea-level. The
depression between the Eastern T'ien-shan and the Shol-tagh is
called the Luk-shun depression, from the place where it is deepest.
It is very fertile, and appears to have been formerly well inha-
bited.

Passes. — Few passes allow Sinkiang to hold relations with
the neighbouring countries. The following are the principal :

1°. In the K'uenlun ^ !^ range, the Tash-Davan pass (to
the S. of the ancient Lob-Nor), at an altitude of 13,000 feet above
sea-level ;

2". In the Karakoram range, the Karakoram pass, at an
altitude of 18,500 feet. The road over this pass is much fre-
quented, and leads from Yarkand to Leh (Ladak in Kashmir) ;

3". In the Pamirs, the Shishihlik pass, at an altitude of
14,200 feet;

4°. In the Trans-Altai, the Kyzil-Art pass;

5°. In the Western T'ien-shan range, there are 2 passes :
the Muz-Art which is the principal one, and the Terek-Davan,
at an altitude of 12,500 feet;

6". In the Eastern T'ienshan, one of the passes is situated
at an elevation of 5,300 feet, all the others are at an altitude of
7,000, and reach at times even an elevation of 13,500 feet. The
principal of these passes is that of Urumtsi •

7°. To the N. of the Hi valley, in the Boro-koro range, is the
Talhi pass, which reaches an altitude of 4,500 feet above the
Hi valley.

Climate. — Although the climate of Sinkianp; varies exceedingly from one extre-
mity of the country to the other, it may be said in general that it is very dry and

CHAPTBH III. CHINESE TURKESTAN. 527

severe. It rains or snows scarcely 20 or 25 days in the year. In January, the ther-
mometer falls to 13° Fahrenheit below freezing point, and rises in Summer to 86°
and 97° F. The nights are often calm, but in the middle of the day, especially in
Spring, terrible sand-storms sweep over the country. The air ever laden with
sand, even when it appears rather clear, forms one of the characteristic features of
this region. The sand penetrates everywhere, and saturates even a person's clothes,
without there being any means of protecting oneself from it.

Bydrograpliy. — In Winter, the rivers and lakes are frozen.
In Spring and Summer, when the snows melt, numerous rivers
are formed at the feet of the mountains, but as they continue
their course, they soon disappear in the sands. Only one large
river, the Tarim, irrigates this region. The principal towns of
Sinkiang are built along its banks, and upon those of its tribu-
taries.

The Tarim (T'ahlimuh-ho ^M-l^^) rises in the Karakoram
glaciers. It is at first a foaming torrent, ever increasing in
volume till it leaves the mountains, a short distance to the S.W.
of Yarkand, its bed falling 13,000 feet in 200 miles. After reach-
ing the plain, its current becomes less impetuous, and its bed
falls only 13,000 feet in 300 miles, till the place where it recei-
ves the Khoten-Daria. From this point till its great southward
bend, its bed falls 300 feet, but further on, the incline is only
100 till it finally reaches the Kara-koshum lake. The Tarim
is about 1,250 miles in length, and receives numerous affluents.
Its bed is sometimes from 12 to 20 feet deep. It is then navi-
gable, but being utilized by the peasantry who divert its waters,
and absorbed by the sand and the dryness of the air, its
volume quickly diminishes, and it is but a mere stream, when
it ends in the Kara-koshum lake. This latter has taken the
place of Lob-Nor, formerly an immense expanse of water, but
now a marsh.

At the end of its course, the Tarim continually changes its
positions along with the lakes, into which its waters flow. These
variations are due to the low level of the region, and to the
drifting sands which are heaped up by the Bast wind.

A series of lakes, bordered by sand-hills, from 60 to 320
feet high, extends along the course of the Tarim.

The chief affluents of the Tarim are on the right, the

528

BOOK n. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

Khoten-Daria and Cherchen-Daria ; and on the left, the Xas/igar-
Daria and the Turfan-Daria.

In the E. of Sinhiang 3gf Mi i" the Peh-shan ^ [Ij, two
small rivers, swollen by the melting of the snow, water the
border-land adjoining Kansu -^ j^.

In the N,, only a few short rivers flow into lakes without
issue. The principal of these lakes are the Bagrach~Kul or
Tenghiz, in the Eastern T'ien-shan region ; lakes Aiar-Nor,
Ebi-Nor, and Sairam-Nor, in Sungaria. This last lake lies at
an altitude of nearly 6,500 feet above sea-level.

An important river, called the Hi ^ ^, rises in the Hi
valley, and flows into lake Balkash, in Russian Turkestan.

Fauna and Flora. — The fanna and flora of Sinkiang are very meagre, whether
we consider them either in regard to variety of species, or to the nnmber of individual
specimens.

The principal wild animals are the camel, onager, wolf, tiger, yak or bnsh-tail
ox, gazelle, deer, fox, eagle and serpent.

On the vast sandy deserts, there are but a few tamarisks and reeds. In the
verdwnt belt encircling Eastern Turkestan, at the foot of the mountains, is a vast forest,
from 50 to 60 miles wide, and containing principally dwarf-poplars or tograka. A little
further to the N., is a belt 6 miles wide, covered with reeds and tamarisks. Still higher
up, after a sandy tract some 25 to 30 miles wide, are pasture-lands.

In Sungaria, the principal shrubs are the artemisia fragrana, which reaches
from 6 to 10 feet in height, and grows in clumps ; also a species of wormwood, which
grows to a height of 10 or 12 feet, and is utilized as food for camels.

The slopes of the T'ien-shan range, better favoured, are partially clad with
forests, and have a greater variety of trees : the birch, pine, and especially the fir.

Agrlcnltural IVealtli. — The agricultural wealth of Sin-
kiang consists of wheat, barley, oats, millet, rice, cotton, lucerne
and chiefly fruit (grapes, peaches and apples...).

Horses, camels, oxen, asses, sheep and goats are also
raised.

Wherever irrigation is possible (and this is always very
skilfully carried out), the soil, which is excellent, produces good
crops.

Mineral Wealtb. — The minerals of Turkestan are little
worked, but they are nevertheless not wanting : sulphur, saltpetre
and alum, are found extensively in the environs of Uch-Turfan
and Yarhand; jade-stone and gold in the K'uenlun ^ :^ range:

CHAPTBR in. CHINESB TUHIK8TAN. 529

lead, naphtha, coal and copper to the West of Kashga.r; coal at
Kurla and Turfan; rock-salt to the East of Aksu, and to the
North of Turfan.

Btistern Turkestan is feiMous throughont China for Jts jade-
stone, which is much priaed alt over the 18 Provineee- hence
the name "Yuhm6n" g| f^ (jad^rstone gate) given to the town
nearest the Great Wall.

The Different Beglons dma CUelr Chief Tovns.

1", The region of Bami or Feh-ahan 6 [Ij. — This is the
country first reached when coming from Kansu -^ ^. A part
of it (Ngansi and Yuhm6n) is at present even attached to the Pro-
vince. It is composed of a plateau 4,000 feet high, connecting
the Eastern T'ien-shan ^ f]j with the Nan-shan '^ \\] range.
This plateau is intersected by a series of parallel mountain-
ranges, with an altitude of from 5,500 to 7,300 feet, and between
which lie wide lengthy valleys, covered with gravel and red
deposits. Two roads cross it, leading from Kansu "H" J|" to
Sungaria, via YuhmSn, Ngansi and Hami. It is an arid and
stony region, especially between Ngansi and Hami.

The towns have little importance, except as post-stages for
officials, soldiers and traders. The principal are :

TuMnen ^ P^. — A charming little town surrounded by
fine ramparts.

Ngansi ^|f . — A wretched place, more and more invaded
by the sands.

Hami or Hamil (Hamih T'ing B^ ig J||). — A verdant oasis,
lost in the immensity of a sandy waste. The oasis is about 12
miles wide, and owing to its fertility, produces in abundance :
barley, oats, wheat, millet, and especially excellent melons famed
throughout the whole of China. Every year, a large quantity
of them is dispatched to the Emperor and to the Court.

2'. The Great Gobi Desert (Takwopih :)^:^M}> *'so called
Shamo ^ ^, that is "sandy waste." — The Gobi Desert
occupies the greater part of Eastern Turkestan, and is divided
into two parts by the lower cours« of the Tarim River. The first,

31

580 BOOK II. OUTER DIPBKDKNCIBB.

situated to the East, is styled the Hachun-Gobi or Ilkhuma; the
second, to the West, is called Takla-makan.

The Hachun or Gashun-Gobt is composed of 2 regions : the
Northern, a dry and rocky waste, 4,000 feet above sea-level;
the Southern, a little lower, is covered with clay and sand, and
falls to an elevation of 2,500 feet near Kara-Nor.

The Tahla-mahan desert is larger, and no less arid than the
Hachun-Oobi. Its surface is broken up, and covered over with
clay, sand and gravel. It attains its highest elevation, 4,600 feet,
to the N.E. of Khoten. Its centre stands at a height of 4,000
feet, and its lowest part at an elevation of 3,300 feet above sea-
level. It is destitute of water and vegetation, and is an utterly
barren waste. Its rolling sand-dunes are even a danger for
the explorer.

3". The region »f the Turkeetan oaaee. — This region forms
a belt around the Great Gobi desert. It is verdant, fresh and
well irrigated, especially in Spring and Summer. Large towns
have sprung up there, the principal of which are :

Khcien or Hwotien Chow # ^ jHli called also Ilchi. —
Population, 26,000 inhabitants. The town, which is over a mile
long, extends in a W. E. direction, and comprises three parts :
the old town, the new town, and a group of houses connecting
both. It possesses rich bazars, and carries on an extensive
trade in carpets, linen, cotton-cloth and jade ornaments.

Tarkana or Soche Fu ^ ^ fff. — Population, 60,000
inhabitants. This town is situated in the largest and most
fertile oasis of Eastern Turkestan. It is a fortified place, and is
surrounded by walls and moats. Its industry and commerce
are also brisk. It has rich palaces, vast bazaars, mosques and
schools. It manufactures carpets and silk fabrics, cotton and
woollen goods. The houses of the town and the small streets
exhibit, however, a rather neglected appearance. The surroun-
ding country is exceedingly fertile, but the climate is unhealthy.

Kaahgar or Shufu hsien M ^ M- — Population, from
60,000 to 70,000 inhabitants. — A large commercial town, but
whereas Yarhand trades almost exclusively with India, Kashgar

CHAPTER III. CHIMESE TURKESTAN. 531

carries on business principally with Russian Turkestan. Long
rows of camels, conveying brick-tea from China, impart to it a
certain animation. Its bazaars, streets and shops are clean, and
indicate genuine prosperity. The surrounding country, verdant
and fertile, produces fruit in abundance.

To the N. of the Great Gobi lie several other towns of less
importance than the preceding, but well known however. The
principal ones are : Vcli-Twrfan or Wushih T'ing J^ ■ff- ^, Aksu
or WSnsuh Fu ^ ?t /i?F' ^^^ Kucha or K'ucM Cho-w ^^')i\.

Khoten, Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, Uch-Turfan, and Yangi-
hissar or Yingkihshaeul T'ing '^ 1§ ^p W J^» this latter to the
S. of Kashgar, form what is called the hexapolis. A 7'1^ town
is often added to them, Kargalyk, to the S.B. of Yarkand, thus
constituting a group of 7 towns, or heptapolis.

4°. 1t%e Turfan region. — This region lies, as we have
seen, in a vast depression, the bottom of a former lake, which
is partly covered over with {oess, and would be fertile, were it
better irrigated. The principal towns found there are the fol-
lowing :

Tvrfan or T'ulufan T'ing l!t # # j®. — Population, from
15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, in its two towns, one of which is
Chinese, and the other Turkis.

Karushar or K'ohlahshaeul 1$ ^ j^ If. — To the S.W.
of Turfan, a short distance from lake Bagrach.

5". Sumgaria. — Sungaria is a vast basin, partly dotted over
with lakes. Its altitude above the sea-level varies considerably,
thus it reaches 1,700 feet at Kuchen, 3,000 at Urumtsi, and
5,000 at Barkul. It is walled in on all sides, except on the
East, where it communicates with Mongolia. It is generally
of barren aspect, and the surface slightly undulated, except in
the W. and N. The N. and E. are in a state of chronic poverty;
the soil is stony, the wells afford but brakish water, and the
country is destitute of trees. The centre is not much better
favoured. The S., formed by the Northern slope of the T'ien-
shan Je (Ij range, has immense pasture-lands, and game is
found there in abundance.

532 BOOK II. ODTBR DBPEMDENCIB8.

The West is the most beautiful and the richest part. The
soil is fertile in several places, and numerous rivers irrigate the
country. The principal towns of Sungaria. are :

UrumtH or Wulumuhts'i ,% ^ ;^C H, also called Tih-htva
lU. jft ft jjf ■ — Population, 50,000 inhabitants. Urumtsi, or
the town of the 1 gates, was the ancient Capital of Sungaria. It
lies at the bottom of a valley, and is inhabited by Turkis,
Chinese, Manchus and a few Mongols ; the Turkis alone form
i of the population. The place has an important garrison, and
the Governor, or Fut'ai ^ 5 of Sinkiang, resides there in a
splendid palace. It is a very busy town, and carries on a large
trade especially in skins and furs.

Ktich'Sng i^ ^ or K'it'ai hsien ^ ^ ^. — An important
commercial town, holding constant communication with the
whole North-East of the Empire, but especially with Kalgan
and the Blue City (Kuku-Khoto, in Shansi [Jj "g). The caravans
bring from China: sugar, tea, porcelain, silks and other fabrics.
They return with skins, raisins, jade and other precious stones.
An important business is also carried on in selling cattle.

6". The Hi region. — The Hi region wedged in between
high mountains, is less accessible from China, except through
the Talhi-Pass. — Besides, it is rather impoverished since the late
Mussulman insurrection (1861-1878), and reckons only about
125,000 inhabitants. The summits of its mountains are covered
with snow and glaciers^ but further down on their slopes, there
are splendid forests, excellent pasture-lands and a great number
of fruit-trees. The valley is irrigated by the Hi River. Its chief
town is KtiMja or Ili Fu ^^^, which lies at an elevation of
2,000 feet above sea-level. Old Kuldja is deserted since 1870,
when the Tungani slew all the Chinese of the place. The hou-
ses are but wretched hovels, inhabited principally by Turkis.
Trade is entirely carried on outside the walls, in a suburb
inhabited by Chinese and Turkis. The population, including
that of the suburb, is about 10,000 inhabitants.

There is connexion at Kuldja with the Russian postal and
telegraph service. A line 3,000 miles long runs across the

CHAPTER 111. CHINESE TURKESTAN. 533

Gobi desert. The road from here proceeds to Jarkent, over an
easy pass, into the Russian Province of Semireckinsk, whence
it continues to Kokand, Samarkand, Bokhara and Persia.

Occupied by Russia in 1871, Hi was subsequently restored
to China in 1881, but Russia witheld a part of it in her posses-
sion [see p. 474 and 477).

I>opulation. — Sinkiang has an estreme- .

ly mixed population, composed ot Turkis, Mon- 1"^ _^t g

gols, Chinese, Manclius, Saris and Mindoos. _3 \/v !?

Sedentary agriculturists, to whom different na- . "5

mes have been given, make up the largest part,
as well as the most ancient stock of the] popula-
tion. Features, customs and dress are widely
divergent. In general, the men are of high sta- j

ture, their skin is tanned, and their beard thick, 4, .^^

its colour being either black or chestnut. Two ^ rW .i §

main elements seem to have contributed towards o" "W .^ «>

ce rj -^ ^

the formation of the present race of Chinese 3 i /* ■" 2"

Turkestan : a Turco-Mongol and an Indo-Buiro- g ^'Oi ^' ' ii J

pean element. 1 -^i § "e

Religion. — Mahomedanism is the pre- ^j —-- ^ 'S, Oj

vailing religion, even among the Chinese who 2 t— ~^ § °

have settled in the country. i-i •Jv <K '* o>

Ijaogaage. — Turhis is the dialect the ^ __ 'J .0

most commonly spoken in Sinkiang. Several iZ2 ^>? ^ S

others : Chinese, Mongol and Tibetan, are also W \x § §

pH ^i^ <a

employed, but to lesser extent. ^ * v ^ ■»

H

I

"fe.

I

Admlaiatratlon. — Sinkiang, o ^

or the New Dominion, depends on g
the Viceroy of Saneu -^ '^ and, «
Shensi ^ ||, who resides at Lan- ^
chow Fu ^ jWj ^, in Kansu. He —f^" |

deputes a Gitvennor (Fut'ai Hi §),
who resides at Urumtsi. A QranA
Treasurer resides at Tih-hwa Fu
jA {fc M> ^^° TiMrtara-Oeneral are
stationed, one in Hi, and the other

at Tarbagatat, while Taotfaie ^ ^ administer 4 circuits :
Urumtsi, Ningyuen hsien ^ Ja ^ (in Hi), Kashgar or Shufu
hsien ^ PU" H, and Aksu or W6nsuh Fu ^ ijg |jj. The most
important of these is Kashgar with a papulation of 700,000 or

534 BOOK II. OnTER DBPENDBHCIEB.

800,000 inhabitants. At Urumtsi, the Provincial High Judge,
or Nieht'ai J(^ §, performs the functions of Taot'ai.

Indnstry and Commerce. — Each oasis has its peculiar
mode of life, and its industries. Khoten manufactures silk-
stuffs, carpets and felt ; silkworms are raised at Hami and
Turf an; this latter city manufactures also cotton-cloth; Kashgar
has cotton dyeing-works; Kucha has leather-works; Aksu turns
out, copper and articles of metal, while Karashar is chiefly
engaged in saddle-making.

Commerce is important. The chief imports from Russia
are cotton, leather, sugar, matches, cloths and silk articles ;
from China : tea, silver, porcelain and opium ; from India :
brocades, dyes, tea and drugs. The chief exports to Russia are
silver, cotton, raw silk and carpets; to China : grapes and cotton.

A considerable number of horses are imported from Mongo-
lia, the pasture-lands of Chinese Turkestan being insufficient to
rear them.

lEIgliways of Commnnlcation. — Sinkiang is crossed
by three main roads : the Northern, the Southern, and a road
leading from Kansu ^ ^ Province to Turfan.

The rocuA from Kansu to Twrfmu — This road starts from
Su Chow ^ ;)tl, in N.W. Kansu, and passes via Yuhm^n 3E f^
(jade-stone gate), Ngansi Chow ^ H !Hi and Hami B^ |g.
Here, it bifurcates, one branch running N. to Barkul, Guchen
and Urumtsi; the other, skirting the S. of the Bogdo-ola, leads
to Turfan.

The Northern road. — This road already described as far
as Urumtsi, continues North-Westward, and passes via Manas,
Shilko, Jinkho, and finally reaches Kuldja or Hi.

The Southern roaa, starting from Turfan, proceeds South-
Westward on the fringe of the desert, through Karashar, Kurla,
Kucha, Aksu, Chilyan, Maralbachi, and terminates at Kashgar,
at the foot of the Pamirs.-— From Kashgar, a caravan route goes
N.W. to Russian territory, over the Terefe pass (12,500 feet
high); This was the pommoij land-route which formerly con-

CHAPTER III. CHimSE TUKKEBTAN.

S35

nected China with the West, and whereby trade was carried on
with Persia, Syria and the Roman Empire.

A much less important road starts Eastward from Kashgar,
shirts the S. of the Takla-makan desert, and passes via Yangi-
hissar, Yarkand, Khoten, Keria (from this place the desert may
be explored, several sand-buried cities being in the vicinity),
Cherchen, Lob-Nor, Sha Ohow, and returns to Ngansi Chow.
It was this route which the Buddhist monks. Fa Hsien and
HsiXen Chwang, followed when proceeding to India, the former
in A. D. 399 and the latter in 629. It was through it also that
the celebrated Venitian traveller, Marco Polo, came to China
A.D. 1271 [see p. 472).

The track, which crosses the Grand Gobi following the lower
Tarim, is little frequented. The inhabitants of the region are,
moreover, but semi-civilized, and live exclusively on fish, which
they eat fresh in Summer, and dried in Winter.

Historical Note. — Conqiiered and lost several times by China, SinMang was
subdued once more in 1789 by the Emperor K'ienlung |g K (1736-1796). A great
number of Mongol, Manchu and Chinese immigrants, from the Provinces of Kansu ft Jf
and Shensi f^ W, settled there at that time. — The revolt of Yakub-Beg (1862-1863)
detached this region for some twenty years from the Imperial sway. It was finally
reconguered in 1878, by the army of Tso Tsungt'aug ^ ^S, B^^ i" 1881 erected into
a Province. — Sungaria, its Northern part, was for long years a great and mighty
kingdom, which extended far beyond the limits which it occupies at the present day.

References

DatrenU de Bbins et Grenard. — Mis-
sion scientifique de la Haute Asie. Paris,
1898. (surtout Vol. 11: le Turkestan Chi-
nois et ses habitants).

SaesB. — Surface de la Terre, 1897-1903.

Gaelay . — Description de la Chine Occi-
dentale par un Voyageur. 1887.

Hoaer. — Irrigation dans I'Asie Centrale.

Bonvalot. — A travers le Thibet inconnu.
Paris, 1892. (Tour du Monde, 1891).

P. H. d'Orlfians. — De Paris au Tonkin.

De Decken. — A travers I'Asie. 1894.
(Missions Beiges, 1891-92).

Beclas. — NouveUe 66ographie Univer-
seUe. Vol. VII, Oh. III.

Sven Hedin. — A travers les glaces et les
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de, 1898).

Specbt.— Etude sur I'Asie Centrale d'apr6s
les Historiens Chinois. (Journal Asiati-
que. Oct. D6o. 1883).

bnbault-Huart.— Beoueil de Documents
sur I'Asie Centrale, d'apris les docu-
ments Chinois. Paris, 1831.

S^nart. — Un nouveau champ d'explora-
tion arohSologiijue : le Turkestan Chi-
nois. (Geographic. 15 D6c. 1905).

Pelliot P. — Sur les Civilisations Hin-
doue et Chinoise ancienues au Turkestan
Chinois. (Bulletin de Comltfi de I'Asie
Frangaise. DSo/ 1905, p. 459 Sq.).

536

BOOK 11 ■ OUTBIl DBPENDBtlCIKS.

Prince Kropotkin. — Turkestan. (Bnoy-

clopsBdia Britannioa, 1901).
Obrncheff. — Central Asia, North-China

and Nan-shan. 1899-1901.
Kosloff. — The Bussian-Tibet Expedi-
tion. 1899-1901.
HeJoT. — Beoueil du Turkestan. 1878-

1888.
Potanin. — Journey of 18S4-8S.
Boborovsby. — Expedition to Central

Asia, in 1893-95.
Dyfalvy. — ExpSdition dans I'Asie Cen-

trale, 1878-1880.
KDropatkin. — Eashgaria. Calcutta, 1882.
Futterer. — Duroh Asien. 1901.
WoeikoflT. — Klimate der Erde. 2 Vol.

1887.
WillianiE. — The Middle Kingdom. New

York, 1861. (Province of Koko-Nor, Ili,

Sungaria, Cities in the Southern Circuit.

Vol. I. Ch. IV. p. 170-188).
Gntzlair. — China opened. London, 1838.

(Government of Ili. Vol. I. Ch. VIII.

p. 244-261).
Winterbotbam. — View of the Chinese

Empire. London, 1795. (Country of Hami.

p. 191-195).
Grosier. — Besoriptiou of China. London,

1795. (The Country of Hami. Vol. I.

Book III. Ch. VI. p. 329-336).
ImbauH-Baart. — Le Pays de Hami or

Khama. Paris, 1892.
Amyot. — Notices du Boyaume de Hami.

(Mfimoires concernaut les Chinois. Vol.

I. p. 399-400).
RSmusat. — Histoire de la ville de Kho-

tan. Paris, 1820.
'Wathea W. B.>— Memoir on the TJzbeck

State of Ehokend (ancient Ferghana) in

Central Asia. (Jenrnal Asiat. Soc. Bengal.

Vol. III. 1834).
Wathen 'W. H. — Notices of Chinese

Tartary and Khoten. (Chinese Eeposit-

ory. Vol. XII. p. 225-235).
Raverty H. G. — Notes on Khokaud,

Kashgar, Tarkhand and other places in

Central Asia. (Journal A. Soc. Bengal.

Vol. XXVI. 1857).
Johnaon W. H. — Beport on a Journey to

Hchi, the Capital of Khoten. (J.K.A.
Sod. Vol. XXXVII. p. 1-7).
Hayward ©. W, — Journey from Leh to
Yarkaud and Kashgar. (J;li. Geog. Soc.
Vol. XL. p. 33-166).

Sbaw R. — Visits to High Tartary, Yar-
kand and Kashgar, and return Journey
over the Karokoram Pass. London, 1871.

StanntOB Q. T. — Narrative of the Chi-
nese Embassy to the Turgut Tartars.
London, 1821.

Bretsctaneider E. — Notices of the Med-
iaeval Geography and History of Cen-
tral and Western Asia. London, 1876.

Prejevalaky K. — From Knldja across
the T'ienshan to Lob-Nor. London, 1875.

Prejevalsky N. — Aux sources du
Hoang-ho. 1879-1880. —Fourth Journey.
1S86.

Iiittledalo G. H. — A Journey across
Central Asia. (Kashgar, Koko-nor, Ning-
hsia and to Hongkong. — Geogr. Journal.
London, 1!'94. Vol. XXIII. p. 445-475).

BoTver B. — A Trip to Turkestan. (Geogr.
Journal, 1895. Vol. XXV. p. 240-257).

RuDtington E. — The Mountains of Tur-
kestan. (Geogr. Journal, 1905. Vol. XXV.
p. 22-40; 139-158).

Crosby O. — Turkestan and a corner of
Tibet. (Geogr. Journal, 1904. Vol. XXIII
p. 705-722).

Schuyler B. — Turkistan : Notes of a
Journey in Khokand, Bukhara and Kul-
dja. 2 Vol. London, 1876.

Boalger D. — Central Asian Questions.
(China and Central Asia). London, 1885.

Boulger D. — England and Bussia in
Central Asia. 2 Vol. London, 1879.

Boulger D. — The Life of Yakoob Beg,
Amir of Kashgar. London, 1878.

Sren Bedin. — A Journey through the
Takla-makan desert. (Geogr. Journal.
London, 1896. Vol. VIII. p. 264-278; 356-
372).

Sren Bedin. — Three Years' Expedition in
Central Asia : Turkestan, Kashgar, Tibet.
(Geogr. Journal. London, 1903. Vol. XXI.
p. 221-260).

Stein M. A — A. Journey of GfBographical
Expedition in Chinese Turkestan. (Geogr.

' Journal. London, 1902. Vol. XX. p. 576-

, 610).

Stein M. A. — Sand-buried Euins of Kho-
tan. London, 1903.

Barrett Bamlltoa G. — Mammals ob-
tained by Captain Deasy in S. Chinese
Ttttkestan and W. Tibet. (Proceedings
of the!2obl(>gical Soc. Loudon, 1900).

CHAPTER III. CHINESE TURKESTAN.

537

Deasy H. — In Tibet and Chinese Tur-
kestan. London, 1901.

Tonnsbusband Sir F. — The Heart of
a Continent. (Travels in Manchuria, the
Gobi Desert and the Pamirs). London,
1904.

Little A. — The Far East. Oxford, 1903.
(The Dependencies ; Turkestan. Ch. XII.
p. 186-202).

Parker E. H. — China ; her History,
Diplomacy and Commerce. London, 1901.
(Trade Routes. Ch. IV. p. 67-81).

Mayers F. W. — The Chinese Govern-
ment. (Mongolia and Turkestan. Shang-
hai, 1886. Part XI. p. 80-96).

Ddring H. — Journey in Chinese Turkes-
tan. Shanghai, 1907.

CHAPTER IV.

TIBET OR SITSANG ffi M-

By Tibet is meant the whole geographical region bearing this name, and not
only the Southern and Western portions, which alone form the Kingdom of Tibet.
We shall therefore treat also in this chapter of Kuku-Nor and Tsaidam, although they
are under special administration, and their population differs racially from that of
Tibet.

Area. — 463,320 square miles. The greatest length of
the country is about 1,240 miles, and its greatest breadth 740
miles.

Popolatton. — 6,430,000 inhabitants, or 14 to the square
mile. But the greater part of the country is desert and the only
places inhabited are the valleys of the South and East. (The
population given above seems to be far superior to what it is in
reality, 2 or 3 millions at most, according to those who are
best acquainted with the country).

nrame. — The name Tibet is apparently unknown to the
Tibetans. It is however found in a Chinese author, who writes
it T'upeht'eh |g fg !|^. The Chinese call it Sitsang S M^
from the name of its largest Province. In Tibet, the inhabitants
call their country Bodgul or the Land of Bod.

Bonndarles. — Tibet is bounded on the

N. — By Kansu -g- ^ and Chinese Turkestan or Sin-

kiang gf ^,
W. — By Hindustan,

S. — By Hindustan, Nepal, Sikhim and Bhutan,
E. — By Yiinnan § ^, Szechw'an B9 j|| and Kansu

CHAPTER IT. TIBET. 539

Aspeet. — Tibet forms a vast mountain-mass, the largest
and the highest in the world. On the N. and N. W., are immense
table-lands with lakes and rivers having no outlet. Its S. and
E. are traversed by deep and well irrigated valleys, where vegeta-
tion is luxuriant, and the people relatively well-to-do. Difficult
of access, covered with snow and ice almost throughout the whole
year, jealously protected by the Lamas, the country remains, in
spite of all the expeditions undertaken of late years (in August
1904, an English expeditionary force entered Lhasa), one of
the most solitary, isolated and unknown regions of the world
Tibet is not lacking in wealth especially mineral, but has also
agricultural products. All the great rivers of India, Indo-China
and China, rise in this country. Tibet is an almost insuperable
bulwark which protects China on the S. W. far better than the
strongest defence works would do.

Geological constitotioo. — The geological oonstitution of Tibet is known
up to present only to little extent. Strata of the primary period seem to predominate
in the N. In the S., there are sedimentary rooks of more recent formation. Strata of the
secondary period especially are highly developed. The Himalayas themselves seem
to be composed of gneiss and mioa-schist, while the summits are granitic. Towards the
Centre, volcanic action must have been rather powerful. As remnants thereof hot
springs are still found at an elev;ation of 17,300 feet, and afford in Winter the extraor-
dinary spectacle of frozen geysers. Many of the numerous lake-beds of the country
owe very likely their origin to an upheaval of now extinct volcanoes.

Ort^frapliy. — Tibet forms in general an immense moun-
tain-mass, which attains an elevation varying from 13,000 to
16,500 feet in height. This mass is divided into two parts. To
the W. and N. lies the region of the table-lands and lakes; to
the S. and B., that of deep valleys and torrents.

1°. l%e table-land regUnu — This is bounded on the N. by
the JBL^uerUun ^ .^ mounto/bns, a gigantic chain covered with
snow, and rising to an elevation of 20,000 feet in Northern
Tibet, while it falls abruptly in terraces towards Chinese Tur-
kestan. In the West and Centre of Tibet, it is called the Altyn-
Taffh range. As it approaches Kansu "^ ;^, it takes the name
of Vaitrslwm ^ iJj towaHs the N., and is broken up into almost
parallel chains, the best known of which are the TmiMam,f

540

BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

CHAPTEH IV. TIBET. 541

Trejevalsky and Baian-Uara ranges. With the exception of
the peaks of the AUyn-Tagh and of the Nanrahan, these nume-
rous mountain chains rise but a few thousand feet above the
surrounding region. They run in a W.E. direction, diverging
more and more as they stretch away in the distance from the
Dapsangf Peaft (28,240 feet high), the principal elevation of
the Karokoram range. Several of these peaks have their
summits covered with immense glaciers, chiefly on the N.
The line of perpetual snow begins at an altitude of from 17,000
to 18,000 feet on the Northern slope, and at 19,500 feet on
the Southern. Between these chains extend in general wide
valleys, and at times, immense swamps and lakes. The vege-
tation of these regions is very scanty, and consists of patches
of stunted grass, while here and there are scarcely found a few
clusters of shrubs.

2°. The region of the valleys and torrents. — This lies to
the S. and E. of the preceding tract. On the E., it is compo-
sed of mountain crests, separated by the great rivers of China
and Tongking. These rivers, at first unimportant, shallow and
of little incline, run in deeper beds as they advance to the B.
or S., cutting up and dividing the country into peaks, crests,
gorges and plateaux, which afford to the eye a most beautiful
spectacle. On the S., the country is less broken up, the valleys
less steep, and the rivers less rapid. The valleys attain seldom
there a height of 11,000 feet above sea-level. On the Southern
frontier, rises the lofty and powerful Himalaya (Himala-shan
^ 3?l fe lU) chain, which attains in Southern Tibet its highest
elevation of 29,000 feet in M^ Everest (Ngohfahliehshit'eh-shan
M, f^ M ^ ^ ill)- ^^^ Himalaya mountains form a convex arc
towards the 8. between the Indus and the Brahmaputra, with
hut few and difficult passes between Hindustan and Tibet.

Olimate. — In this immense region of such broken surface and of various
altitudes, the climate differs so widely that it is difficult to give a general idea of it.
In the S. and E,, the influence of the S. W. monsoon is experienced. In the W., this
influence is little felt. In the W. and N., the climate is very dry, and little snow falls
there. During the most severe cold, in December, the thermometer registers on the
average 19° F. in^the morning, while during the greatest heat, in June, the average

542

BOOK II. OUTER DBPBMDEMGIBS.

recorded at 1 p. m. is 71° F. The Central region of the lakes has also a very dry
climate in Autumn, in Winter and in Spring, but in Summer rain falls abundantly.
In the S., the country is deluged with rain, hail or snow, the whole year round. In the
N., there are extremes of heat and cold in Summer and Winter. In March, the snow
lies still very deep in the Tsaidam passes. — The large watercourses are never frozen
over, but the minor streams are covered in Winter with a thin layer of ice.

The climate of Tibet, though rigorous, is nevertheless healthy. The danger
arises from the variations, which are considerable.

f|-

Kydn^rapliy. — The mountain-system of Tibet shapes
its watercourses. Upon the vast table-lands of the N., N.-W.
and Centre, nothing but lakes are found, and not a single im-
portant river. In the Eastern and Southern regions, the country
has numerous torrents and rivers, and also a few lakes.

SKETCH-MAP OF SOUTHERN TIBET.

CHAPTBB IT. TIBBT. 543

The principal laftes of the table-lands are the Iki-Namur
and the Pang-hung, both in the N.W. The latter is especially
important, and very large. It lies at an elevation of 14,000
feet above sea-level.

The Dangra, Zilling-tso and Tengri-Nor, all of much vaster
extent, are situated in the Central region. ITie Tengrir-Nor lies
at an elevation of 15,190 feet. It if^Q miles long, from 15 to
20 miles wide, and has an area of about 700 square miles.

The greater number of these lakes are salt or brackish.

As the water escapes with difficulty throughout all this
region, the soil is entirely saturated with it, and frozen over
during 8 months of the year, while it is muddy and almost a
quagmire in Summer. The few and meagre rivers which rise
there, flow into the lakes, and even these seem to diminish
constantly both in volume and depth.

The principal lakes of the Eastern and Southern region are:

On the N. E., the KtOm-Nor or Ts'inghai ff ^ (azure
sea).

On the South, lake PolM, also called Yamdok-tso, or Yum-
tso.

The T^ing-hai lies at an elevation of 9,970 feet, and is 65
miles long by 40 wide. Its waters are brackish, and it is frozen
from November till the end of March. Its depth diminishes from
E. to W., where the sands invade it. Its greatest depth in the
Southern portion does not seem to exceed 60 feet. It contains
five islets, upon one of which is erected a pagoda. The inha-
bitants living near its banks neither fish in its waters, nor
possess there any boats. Its waters, shallow throughout the
general run of the year, are still more reduced in volume and
depth in Summer. However, at this season, several rivers flow
into it. The most important of these is the Buchain-gol, which
enters it on the West. It is encircled by lofty mountains,
covered in part with pasture-lands. Throughout the whole
region, eagles, antiiopes and onagers or wild asses abound.

PtOU, or Yamdok lake, is 14,900 feet above sea-level. It
is situated to the S. W. of Lhasa, and its waters are connected

544 BOOK II. ODTBR DEPENDENCIES.

with the Brahmaputra or Tsang-po, the great river of Tibet.
The lake is about 160 miles in circumference.

The principal rivers of the South are the Indus (Yintu-ho
FD S M) *"d i*s tributary the Sutlej (8ehlich'i-ho -& M ^ M)
in Ngari.

JTie Tsang-po or Brahmaputra, (son of Brahma), also called
Yarutsangio (Yalutsangpu-kiang ^% 1^^ fl). — The Brah-
maputra rises in the N. of the Himalaya mountains, and is
the great river of Tibet. It traverses from W.-E. the whole
Southern region, and receives numerous affluents. Previous to
its receiving the Kyi or Lhasa river, it has already attained
considerable proportions, is of large volume, and more than 400
yards wide. Further down, it becomes navigable for a distance
of 100 miles, and flows through a region which becomes more
and more wooded. This tract is inhabited by a race of savage
cannibals, of whom but little is known up to present.

The principal rivers of the East are, proceeding from North
to South : the Hwang-ho ^ fpj or Machu ; the Guiahio or Ya-
lung-hiang M W iL ', ff>« Einsha-hiang ^ ?i? £[ or Upper
Yangtze-kiang ^ •^ ^ ; the Mekong or Lants'ang-kiang j^ ^
f£ ; and the Irrawaddy or Lutze-kiang j|j| ^ jX.-

All these streams are still but little known in the upper
portion of their courses, but become further down mighty
rivers. When the snow melts, they appear in Tibet as rushing
torrents with falls and rapids.

Fauna and Flora.— Throughout the lake and table-land regions, the fauna and
flora are extremely meagre, there being only here and there some pasture-lands covered
with scraggy grass, but buried under snow during a large portion of the year. Travel-
ling to the S. or advancing to the E. or S.E., juniper-trees, tamarisks, willows, pines,
firs, cedars and elms appear gradually. Then the forests grow denser, and the
varieties become more numerous. The beds of the valleys and their lower slopes yield
wheat, barley, rice, rhubarb, peas, grapes, apricots, jujubes and pomegranites. The
animals increase also in number'and are more diversified. Perhaps in no other country
of the world are wild animals so numerous. The principal are the yak, onager (locally
called ghva- or khur), antelope, gazelle, musk-deer, bear, monkey, tiger, leopard, lynx,
wolf, fox, eagle...

Agrlonltnral Wealth. — The agricultural wealth of Tibet
is abundant, especially in the South, and consists chiefly in

CHAPTER IV. TIBET. 545

cattle (tame yaks, asses, horses, goats, sheep) and forests, but
these latter are little worked. Fruit and vegetables are not
lacking, but cereals are insufficient to feed the people, and so
rice has to be imported from India. Furs, skins, musk and
yak-tails are the chief riches of the country.

IKIneral Wealth. — The mineral wealth of Tibet is little
known, but seems considerable, and consists principally in gold,
which is found in almost all the river-beds of the country.
Rock-crystal, iron, borax, mercury and salt are also found.

OoTemment and admlnlBtratlve divisions. — For

administrative purposes, Tibet is divided into two principal parts.
1° the kingdom of Tibet, comprising the greater portion of the
country ; 2" tJie Suku-Nor region, comprising the basin of the
Ts'inghai^:^,Tsaidam^ ^^,the basins of the Upper Hwang-
ho ^ ^ and of the Yangtze-kiang ^ ^ iL- Both are ruled
directly by China, of which they are considered as dependencies.
The former is administered by the Viceroy of Szechw'an 0 j||,
while the latter is governed by a special District Governor
residing at Sining Fu ^ ^ JjJ, in Kansu -^ ^.

1°. The Kingdom or Tibet. — Tibet is divided into four
parts or Pu ^ : 1" Eastern or Anterior Tibet (Ts'ientsang 1^ jg),
known also as K'a.ng ^ or Chamdo ^7(C ^ . and written by some
Geographers Kham (Portuguese transliteration) ; 2" Central Tibet
(Ohungtsang tf* ^), called also Wei ^, being the native sound
of U corrupted by the Chinese; 3" Ulterior Tibet (Heutsang
^ i|), properly called Tsang ^ or Dang; 4° Western Tibet or

Ngari psf ^.

The King, or Gialbo (in Chinese Tsanp'u ^ ^), is always
a iMtna, chosen alternately in the three great Buddhist monas-
teries of Lhasa (Depung, Sera and Galdan). He has beside him
two Bigh Commissioners, one called K'inch'ai ^'^ov Amban
(a Manchu word meaning high officer), and another called
Jibing % 'If (Secretary for Foreign Affairs). The king is
under the control of the first High Commissioner, also styled
Imperial Resident, ov fl/rst Amban (Ngangpai jg3)) who ratifies

35

546 BOOK II. ODTBR DBPBNDBNCIB6.

or rejects his election, approves the appointement of his Minis-
ters, of the high Officials and Superiors of the large monasteries,
and invests them with the imperial approbation necessary for the
discharge of their office. The Imperial Resident is also charged
with the defence of the frontiers, the inspection of the garrisons
and the superintendence of the finances. He alone can conduct
all relations with Foreign Powers.

Several principalities are governed by chieftains, who pay
tribute to China. Others depend directly upon the Secrelmry
for foreign, Affairs or Its'ing. The AtnJban and Secretary are
both subject to the control of the Viceroy of Stechw'an Q j||,
who indorses and adds his own observations to their official
correspondence. The Dedai-Lama, or Living Buddha of Lhasa,
occupies nominally a position superior to that of the Gialbo or
King, but in reality, although enjoying paramount moral and
religious influence, he is subject to him.

The King is assisted in the civil administration of the
country by 4 Kalons (Kablons, called in Tibetan Shapeh, i.e.
lotus-feet), or €kn*noiUors of State, three of whom are laymen and
one a Lama. The Council is advised by two or three members
chosen from each of the 16 or 17 colleges of the Capital and
environs.

Like China, Tibet is divided into Provinces, Prefectures
and Districts (Sub-prefectures). All officials, who are charged
with administrative, judicial, financial and even military func-
tions, are under the control of the Imperial Residents. In the more
serious conjunctures (as when the British Expedition approached
Lhasa in 1904), a national Assembly composed of laymen and
Lamas is convoked. It informs the Councillors of State or
Kalons, of its views and resolutions.

Theoretically speaking, authority lies with the Peking
Government acting through the medium of native Officials, who
are under the jurisdiction of China's Imperial Residents. —
Consequent on the British expedition to Lhasa, the Chinese
Government decided to send to Tibet, besides an Imperial Com-
missioner, a Tartar-General with 5 battalions of infantry, 4
regiments of cavalry, and 2 batteries of artillery.

CHAPTER !▼. TIBET. 547

2'. Knlni-iror. — The whole region of KuhunNor is divided
into 29 Banners or tribes, 19 of which are in the basin of the
lake, 5 in the Upper Hwang-ho ^fpj region, and 5 in the Tsaidam.
Those of the Hwang-ho ^ fp^ depend on the Governor of Sining
Fu W ^ ^' i'l Kansu. The others, divided into two groups of
12, are ruled by princes who have become vassals of China.

Popnlation. — The population is composed for the greater part of Tibetans,
Mosos and GMnese (officials and traders). In the S.E. dwell tribes more or less uncivi-
lized : the Lisus, Lutses, Lamajen, and Michemis. In the N.B., are found Sifans,
Sleuths or Kalmuks, and Tanguts. In the W. and S.W., there is a rather considerable
number of Nepalese (traders and mechanics), Bhutcmese and Kashmiris. Ihe Nepalese
are numerous and influential at Lhasa. — The number of Mongols in Tibet scarcely
attains a thousand.

The Tibetans belong to the Mongolian race. The head is round, the forehead
narrow, the ears large, the nose prominent, the eyes slightly oblique, the cheek-bones
large and protruding, and the beard scanty, while the complexion is of a light brown
inclining to a ruddy tinge. Those inhabiting the N., are largely nomads and generally
known as the Hor (Horpa) tribes. Those of the S. and S.W., are sedentary, and consider
themselves as the genuine Sod race. The Tibetans are weak and cowardly in presence
of superior force, but display an overbearing and cruel attitude when they have to deal
vrith those feebler than themselves. They are little given to habits of industry, are
deceitful, profoundly ignorant, andhighly superstitious. They bear with great endurance
the extremes of cold, fatigue, hunger and thirst, and are of a cheerful disposition.
They are also polite, and every traveller, who has been compelled to quit the country
on their demand, can testify to their civility. The Tibetans are sometimes divided
into 4 cla.sses : the aristocracy, the Kubilhans or the reembodied gentry (Avatars), the
clergy and the peasants.

The Mosos, who occupied a large portion of Tibet (see p. 345) before it was
subdued by China, are deceitful and cunning. The proverb saysi it takes 3 Chinese
to deceive a Tibetan, but 3 Tibetans are required to cheat a Moso. Their condition is
but semi-civilized.

The Tanguts, like the Bleuths or Kalmuks, resemble much the Mongol type.
They are partly sedentary and partly nomads.

Religion. — Buddhism is the prevailing religion of the Tibetans, and was
introduced into the country A.D. (j40, through intermarriage with a Chinese princess.
Indian Buddhism, however, after passing to Tibet, was transformed into Lamadsvi.
Lamaism adds to pure Buddhism the theory of the successive incarnations of Buddha.
Two principal sects : the red Lammas and the yellow Lavias, are distinguished from the
colour of their dress and their head-covering. The official sect, which is that of the
yellow Lamas or Oehik-pa (victorious Order which snatched the temporal power from
the red Caps), has the most numerous followers in Tibet. All others belong to the red
Lamas, also called Karma-pa (Order following the Karma doctrine), Sahja-jja (followers
of Sakya-Muni) and Nyingma-pa (unreformed red-caps founded by Padma-Sambhava,
a deified wizard monk known as the "Lotus-bom One").

Both sects admit the successive incarnations of Buddha in the body of certain
disciples, and render to these Avatars the same honours which they pay to 'Buddha

548 BOOK II. ODTEH DEPBNDRNCIBS.

himself. Originally, only one living Buddha was recognized, but at present each
lamasery has its own living Buddha, and sometimes several of them. The principal
one, officially recognized by the Emperor of China, is the living Buddha of Lhasa,
called the Dalai-Lama (Vast as the Ocean). He is always chosen from the Geluk-pa
sect. AU State matters of importance are transacted in his name. Of late years, China
generally murdered (in official parlance, exiled) all Dalai-Lamas, when they reached
the age of eighteen or twenty, so that her Regent might be all-powerful over the country.
Any who escaped were required to maintain as King or Gialbo the Regent who admin-
istered the country during their minority. The present Dalai-Lama has been rescued
from the tragic fate of his predecessors, by the national party, incensed at the continual
interference of China in the government of the country. When the British expedition
approached Lhasa, in 1904, the Dalai-Lama fled to JJrga (in Mongolia), and is actually
(July 1907) at Sining Fu H ^ jjF, in N.W. Kansu. The Emperor of China appointed
the Taahi or Panshen-Lama, who resides at Tashilumbo, to succeed him. In Dec.
1905, the Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales. The
Dalai-Lama's residence is at the Fotala monastery, a short distance to the W. of Lhasa.

Both sects hold also in common the doctrine of the transmigration of souls.

With the exception of these two tenets, La/maism possesses no unity. Each sect
and each monastery is completely independent in its doctrine, mode of government
and ritual. The Dalai-Lama has but merely an authority and prestige surpassing that
of the other Lamas.

The Bonbo, a quite distinct sect, recognizes as its principal divinity Kuntueongho,
that is "the Excellent" or "Supreme Good One." It is a pre-Buddhist indigenous
religion, which propitiates man-eating devils with offerings of blood, spirits, poisons
and tobacco. Its priests are the indigenous Black-Caps, who are professional wizards,
soothsayers and devil-worshippers.

The Lamas are very numerous, and are reckoned by some as reaching over
300,000. Lhasa is said to contain 10,000 of them in one of its monasteries, and 7,000 in
another. Several monasteries have 3,000, and those having 300 and 400 are common.
They wield considerable influence, as they are immensely rich, engage in trade, resort
to usury, and carry on banking transactions. With a few exceptions, they are pro-
foundly ignorant, corrupt, and exhibit all the signs of a degrading sensual life.

The religion of the Mosos, as well as that of the other savage or semi-civilized
tribes, isfetichdsm. Mahomeda/msm reckons also a few followers,

Iiangaage. — Tibetan is the most widely diffused language of the country, and
is understood everywhere. It is monosyllabic, but employs numerous suffixes which
help to form nouns. In the VII"" century, a Sanscrit alphabet was introduced from
India, It is composed of 30 letters, which fulfil at the same time the functions of
vowels and consonants. Tibetan is written from left to right, and has various forms.
There are but slight modifications in the pronunciation from one extremity of the
country to the other. Tibetan literature is mainly religious.

SPECIMEN OF TIBETAN WRITING

izi]*n-a3^^'^z;'tv?[;^^*rp;':i]^*i^y

Om IJma-ni pad-me Hung.

(Hail I Jewel [Grand Lama\ in the Lotus-flower).

Buddhist invocation.

CHAPTER IV. TIBET. 549

The Mosos, and the other tribes, speak their own dialects which differ widely from
one another. The Mosos have no written language properly so-called, but make use
of hieroglyphic symbols for their superstitious rites. Their language, which differs
from both Chinese and Tibetan, is very difficult to learn.

Ta-xation, tribute and currency. — An annual poU-tax is imposed upon
each freeholder.

Every 3 years, the Dalai-Lama has to send tribute to the Emperor of China.
This consists of presents in kind, amounting in value to 5,000 taels. The tribute is borne
to Peking on the backs of 300 camels, escorted and protected by 300 horsemen.

Coins bear en one side the superscription of the reigning Emperor of China, and
on the reverse, the characters 0 Jl| Szechw'an.

Army. — The Tibetan army consists nominally of 6,000 regulars with a militia
and levies amounting theoretically to 60,000 infantry and 14,000 cavalry. Of the regu-
lars, 1,000 are stationed at each of the 3 large towns, Lhasa, Shigatse and Gyantse, and
the remainder in fewer numbers at the small forts throughout the country, and along
the frontiers. A strong garrison is maintained at Tengri-Nor to stop foreigners
advancing to the Capital from the N.

Towns and Principal Centres. — A great part of Tibet,
and nearly the whole region of the table-lands and lakes, is
uninhabited. Even in other places, the towns are of little
importance, and the population very scattered. Many of the
habitations are isolated from one another. In the central portion,
between the fertile valleys and the snow-clad table-lands, is found
a nomad population constantly shifting its tents, in accordance
with the needs of the season and the promptings of personal caprice.

The principal ttnvns of Tibet are :

1°. In JSgari or Western Tibet : Rudok and Gartok.

Mudok or Lotok'oh ch'ing ^ ^ ^ ^- — A small town
picturesquely situated on the slopes of a hill isolated in the
midst of a plain, and on the highway from Lhasa to Kashmir.
Its elevation is 13,120 feet. It monopolizes the whole trade of
Tibet with Leh or Ladah (Laht'ahk'oh ^ ^ jS), a town of
Kashmir. On the summit of the hill are a vast palace and
several monasteries.

Oartok (Kotah'oh). — A hamlet with about a dozen miserable
hovels, and situated at an elevation of 15,200 feet. By the Pe-
king Convention, signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened as a
trading mart. In Winter, little business is done, but in the
Summer season a brisk trade is carried on with India.

550 BOOK II. O0TBH DEPBMDBMCXB8.

2°. In Taang ^ or Dang, also called Vtteriior Tibet :

SMgatme, — Population, 9,000 inhabitants, not reckoning
the monks. The town is one of the most important of Tibet.
It is situated at an altitude of 12,000 feet above sea-level, and
near the junction of the Nyang-chu and Tsangpo (Brahmaputra).
To the S.W., is the famous monastery of TasMlurnbo [f^ fl-
■j^ ^) or the "mountain of blessings". This monastery, sur-
rounded by a wall one mile in circumference, contains several
richly adorned shrines. It possesses also great treasures, and
shelters 3,300 monks. It is the seat of the JPans/ien j[£ jj^
Xanui (from the Indian Pandita, "Precious Teacher"), one of the
joint Pontiffs of Tibet, a personage held in still more veneration
than the Dalai-Lama, as being less contaminated by worldly cares
and influences. It is he who succeeded to the dignities of the
Dalai-Lama, when the latter fled to Urga (in Mongolia), August,
1904, at the approach of the British Expedition to Lhasa. A
fortress, under the control of a Brigadier-General or DepQn, and
garrisoned by 1,000 Chinese regulars and 400 Tibetan soldiers,
defends the place. Between the town and the monastery extends
the great market-place. — The soil in the plain adjoining
Shigatze is rich and fertile.

Gyantae. — A flourishing town situated to the S.E. of
Shigatse, and as large as it. It lies at an elevation of 13,200
feet, and is built on the Nyang-chu. It is 145 miles from
Lhasa, 125 from the Ohumbi valley, and 95 from Phari. It has
several famous shrines, and a fortified Lamasery, inhabited by
600 red-capped monks. Its fortress built on a rock, 500 feet above
the river, is garrisoned by 50 Chinese regulars, under a Lieuten-
ant, and 500 Tibetan soldiers, under 2 Majors. Gyantse is the
great distributing trade-centre with Bhutan, its market being
the third largest in Tibet, coming next after Lhasa and Shigatse.
It is famous for its manufactures, especially woollen goods,
carpets, saddle-rugs and its tiny mule-bells. By the Peking
Convention signed April 27, 1906, it has been opened to foreign
trade on the same conditions as Gartok.

CHAPTER IV. TIBET. 551

Janglatse. — A small town situated to the S.W. of Shi-
gatse, and on the road from Lhasa to Rudok. It lies at an
elevation of 13,600 feet, and possesses a fortress and monastery.

Khamba-Jong. — Population, 1,000 inhabitants. A hamlet
situated to the 8. W. of Gyantse. It lies at an elevation of
13,800 feet, and is the Tibetan military station nearest to India.
A road connects it with Gyantse, but no care is taken to keep
it in good repair.

To the S.E. of Khamba-Jong lies the rich valley ofChumbi,
at an elevation of 9,800 feet. It is watered by the Ohumbi
River, which attains here a width of 1,400 yards, and teems
with fish. The valley produces in abundance, corn, barley and
fruit, and possesses excellent pasture-lands. It is perhaps the
most fertile portion of Tibet.

Fhari or Fltagri-nTong, — Population, 2,000 inhabitants.
This is the principal town of the Chumbi valley. It is situated
on a table-land, at an elevation of 14,570 feet, and dominates
the great trade route to Darjeeling. The place and inhabitants
are filthy in the extreme. It is defended by a strong fortress
erected on a hillock 60 feet high. Phari is connected with
Gyantse, by a road which leads through the Tangla pass, 14,950
feet high. Another road connects it on the 8. with Darjeeling,
from which it is distant 110 miles. A little beyond Yatung,
this road traverses the Jelep pass at an altitude of 14,390 feet.

TaHmff or Dadonff. — This is but a hamlet situated at the
Southern entrance to the Chumbi valley. It was opened to
foreign trade in 1897, but owing to Chinese obstructiveness, did
not realize the anticipations entertained as to its success.

3°. In Wei % or Central Tibet :

LHASA ^ gi- — The Capital of Tibet. It is situated at an
elevation of 12,300 feet, and is surrounded by snow-capped
mountain chains. Near by, runs the Kyi River (Kyi-chu), a large
tributary of the Tsangpo, or Upper Brahmaputra, watering a well
cultivated and wooded plain. Embankments and canals protect
the towQ from iauadatioas. The permanent population is about

552 BOOK II. OUTER DEPENDENCIES.

20,000, exclusive of the 3 monasteries of Depung, Sera and
Galdan. Of this population, 7,000 are Tibetans, 2,000 Chinese,
800 Nepalese, 50 Mongols and 50 Bhutanese. The floating popu-
lation (pilgrims and traders) numbers from 1,000 to 2,000.
Lhasa is an important commercial town, as well as the home
and centre of Lamatsm. The houses are built of stone, to two
and three storeys high, whitewashed and with flat roofs. The
streets are narrow, unpaved and filthy. A large road (linghor)
encircles the town, and is thronged all day with strings of pilgrims
whirling prayer-wheels and counting their beads. A mile to
the W. of the town stands the Dalai-Lama's palace, or Potaia
•0 ^ &' called also the Red Palace. It is an imposing mass
of lofty buildings, solidly constructed, and combining at the
same time a monastery, palace, fortress and shrine. The Dalai-
Lama resides there in a four-storied building, 320 feet high,
culminating in a dome entirely covered with plates of gold. It is
said to contain immense treasures, and has accomodation for no
less than 10,000 monks. The Lamas who reside there, and in
the large monasteries of the suburbs, number about 20,000.
After the Potala, the most famous of these monasteries is the
Depung, which has a monastic university and contains more
than 7,000 students.

Friar Odoric visited Lhasa about A.D. 1330, and the Jesuit
Grueber in 1656. The Capuchin Friars, Joseph de Asculi and
Francico de Tour, erected a Church there in 1706. The Jesuits
Desideri and Freyre entered it in 1716, the former sojourning
there 13 years. The Capuchins were expelled in 1790, under
K'ienlung |g |^. In 1846, the Lazarist priests. Hue and Gabet,
visited it, and tarried there a month. Henceforth a policy of
exclusion was adopted by the Dalai-Lama, the Amban and the
Viceroy of Szechw'an, and lasted till the English Expedition
entered the town, August 4, 1904.

4<*. In Kham, j^ or Anterior Ttbet:

Cluimdo ^ MC ^- — Population, 7,000 inhabitants, of
whom 2,000 are Lamas. Nearly all the inhabitants are Tibetans,
500 only being Chinese. The town is governed by a Lama who

CHAPTER IV. TIBET. 553

is in the pay of Peking. The Chinese Government maintains
there also a civil functionary and a military official. The trade
of Chamdo reaches £ 80,000 sterling per annum. Silk fabrics,
cotton piece-goods, and household articles are brought there,
and exchanged for deer horns, musk, gold and silver.

The N.E. region of Tibet has no important town.

Industry and Commerce. — The industry of Tibet is
little developed, and consists chiefly in woollen-cloths, shawls,
earthernware, iron articles, copper utensils and Buddhist sta-
tues. The best workmen are the Nepalese^ renowned as gold-
smiths and skilful dyers.

J^ade is carried on with Kashmir, through Rudok ; with
India, through the Ohumbi valley: with Szechw'an 0 j||, through
Tatsienlu ^ tl Mi ^^^ '^i*'^ Kansu -g" ;^, through Sining Pu
H W ^- The imports are cotton piece-goods, silks, woollen
goods, tea, rice, grain, horses, firearms, coral and porcelain.
The eoeports are musk, wool, living animals, furs, rhubarb, salt,
yak-tails, drugs and articles of Buddhist worship. The Indian
trade with Tibet in 1905-06 was about £ 290,000.

Higbways of Communication. — In Tibet, the roads
are few and generally bad. There are no bridges to cross the
rivers and torrents. There being no other means available,
ropes are used for this purpose, as well as light ferry-boats
made of yak-skins. The principal highways are :

1°. ITie road starting from Sining Fu "g ^ Jj^p, in Kansu
•^ J^. This road passes via Donkyr, runs ^. of Kuku-Nor,
crosses the Tsaidam, the Shuga and Odontala plateaux, the
Tangla pass, and after reaching Napchu, debouches at Lhasa.
The journey may be performed in 50 or 54 days.

2°. The road starting from Tatsienlu ff ^ jg, in Western
Szechw'an 0 j||. This is the most important and the most
frequented highway leading from China to Tibet. It passes via
Chamdo ^ :?t; ^, Lit'ang ^ |f , and Batang or Pat'ang fo ||.

3". The road starting from, JUJeiang Fu ^ftM^ '" Yiinnan.
This road was formerly much more frequented than it is at the
present day.

554 BOOK II. OTTTBR DEPBNDENCIBB.

40. The rood frmn HarietMng (o Utamiu The distance
between these 2 places is 330 miles (see p. 551).

5°, The roaa from. JLeh or Ladak in Kashmir.

Transport is almost wholly effected by caravans of yaks.
Travellers ride on horseback.

Postal communication is-rapid. Couriers cover a distance
of 75 miles in a day. They travel night and day, changing
their horses at the Chinese post-stations.

Open Trade-marts. — Tibet has 3 marts open to foreign
trade : Ttitung, Oyantse and Qartok.

Historical Note. — Tibet was conquered by China between A. D. 1698 and
1703, and was then divided into regions. The tracts bordering on Yunnan S %
and Szechw'an 01 jl|, were attached to these Provinces. This explains how there are
found in these two Provinces small Principalities still administered by Tibetan chief-
tains although under the control of the Chinese Viceroys.

Several countries lying to the S. of Tibet were formerly subject to China, thus
Nepal, SikMm and Bhutan.

Nepal was conquered by the Gurkhas in 1767, and paid tribute to China from 1792
to 1868. At this latter date, it came under the sphere of influence of British India. It
has a population of about 3,000,000 inhabitants, 600,000 of whom are Buddhists. The
Tibetans who have settled in the country are few. Nepal is governed by a Maharaja who
is a Sisodiya Rajput (Hindoo) . A British political Agent resides at Katmandu, the Capital.

At the same time, SikMm, a small state situated between Nepal and Bhutan,
severed its connection with China, to which it had been tributary, and acknowledged
in 1890 the British protectorate. It has a population of 12,000 inhabitants, 2,000 of
whom are Tibetans.

Bhutan is Tibetan in race, language and religion. It was organized 300 years
ago by Tibet. Since 1865, it has been annexed to India. It has a population of 400,000
inhabitants, the majority of whom are Tibetans. The Government is dual in form
with a spiritual chief, the Darma Raja ; and a temporal chief, the Deb Eaja. There
is no British resident.

British Expedition to I<hasa (1903-1904). — Under the Anglo-Chinese Sikkim
convention of 1890, a trade-mart was opened at Yatung beyond the Sikkim frontier.
Another commercial convention was signed in 1893. Owing to the failure of the
Tibetans to observe these Conventions, and the continual obstructivenese placed in the
way of trade between Tibet and Hindustan, Great Britain decided to send a political
mission with a military escort to Lhasa. The poUtioal mission was entrusted to Sir
Francis Younghusband, who left Kamba-Jong in July, 1903. The military escort
consisted of 2,800 soldiers (Sikh pioneers and Gurkhas with one company of mounted
infantry, and 2 companies of Bengal and Madras Sappers), and was under the control
of General Macdonold. He set out December, 1903, and passed the .Jelep pass into the
Ohumbi yaUey. After a very arduous march, and sharp fights at Tuna (here 300
Tibetans were killed) and Gyantee, Lhasa was reached August 3, 1 904. Before their
arrival at the Capital, the Dalai-Lama had fled to Urga in Mongolia, and having left
his seal with the Regent, appointed him to take his place. A new Convention was

CHAPTBR IV. TIBRT.

555

signed, September 7, with the Eegent and his Council, in the Palace of Potala. The
end of the mission having being thus attained, it left Lhasa, September 23, and returned
to India. The ConTention provided for the erection of boundary pillars between Sik-
Mm and Tibet (art 1) ; for the establishment of trade-marts at Gyantse and Gartok, as
well as at Yatung, and for unrestricted traffic by existing routes according to a tariff to
be agreed upon (art 2) ; for the appointment of British and Tibetan Agents at the trade-
marts (art 5) ; and for payment of an indemnity of £ 500,000 (reduced to £ 167,000),
pending which the Ghumbi valley would be occupied (art. 6 and 7). The Tibetans
pledged themselves not to alienate any territory, or grant concessions to or permit the
intervention of any foreign power without the consent of Great Britain (art. 9). By
the Convention of Peking, signed April 27, 1906, China agreed to the terms of the Con-
ventions of 1890 and 1904, sanctioned telegraph lines to the trade-marts, and declared
that no foreign State should interfere in Tibet, while England also undertook not to
interfere in the administration of Tibet, or annex territory. — The Chinese Emperor
appointed the Tashi or Panshen Lama to succeed the Dalai-Lama. In Dec. 1905, the
Tashi-Lama visited India and was received by the Prince of Wales.

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Campbell A. — Notes on Eastern Tibet.
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De Koeroefs O. — Geographical notice of
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Morrison R. — The System of Govern-
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Topography of Tibet. — (Chinese Reposi-
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Prinsep H. T. — Tibet, Tartary and
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Turner S. — Embassy to the Court of
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Strachey H. — Physical Description of
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XXIII).

556

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GrosLer. — Description of China. London.
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Wintertmtham. — View of the Chinese
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Williams. — The Middle Kingdom. New
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Boulger D. — Central Asian Questions.
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p. 67-98.

Lin

of the Prefectures and Sub-prefectures (Departments
and Districts) in tlie 18 Provinces.

INDICATIONS.

F. — Fu Kf or Prefecture.

C. — Chow M or Department (independent).

c. — Chow jHI „ (dependent).

T. — T'ing & (independent).

t. — T'ing @ (dependent).

h. — Hsien ||^ or District,

I. — CHEKIANG air iL ("Ohe") * .

igiJH Hangchow F.
§^^ Ts'ient'ang h.
^%i J6nhwo 3b.ot h.
^If Haining
^^ Fuyang
^^ Yiihang
g|4^ Linngan
]^^ Yiits'ien
f^li Sinch'^ng
^-ffj Ch'anghwa

^^ Eiahsing
^^ Kiahsing
f|7jC Siushui
^^ Kiashan
^H Haiy6n

c.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

F.

h.
h.

h.
h.

;EfP^ Shihm6n h.
ip^ P'inghu h,

T'unghsiang h.

fSSW Huchow
.^5g Wuch'feng
^^ Kweingan
^S^ Ch'anghsing
^^ Tehts'ing
^^ Wuk'ang
^g Ngankih
^^ Hsiaofung

nm Ningpo F.

5ti Shihp'u t.

SI5 Kin h.

lilg: Tz'ek'i h.

^ft Funghwa-. h.

^f^ Ghenhai h.

^{Ij Siangshan h.

^m Tinghai T.

t^U Shaohsing F.

[ill^ Shanyin h.

Hwei(kwei)ki h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

ill Siaoshan
II g Chuki
Yiiyao
Shangyii
Sh6ng
Sinch'ang

±

m^

* Abbreviation adopted by the Imperial Post Office, and the Imperial Telegraph
Administration in China, 1907.

CH^KIANa (GONTINUBd). — CBIBLI.

559

■§ffl T'aichow

F.

mw K'achow

F.

^M Yungkla

h

^f@ Linhai

h.

■gf^ Singan

h.

iQ-^ Shuingan

h

^^ Hwangy6n

h.

tlW Lungyeu

h.

^^ Lohts'ing

h

JZ-^ T'ient'ai

h.

iLlU Kiangshan

h.

2p|^ P'ingyang

h

tiling Sienku

h.

l^llj Ch'angshan

h.

^jlg T'aishun

h

fSM Ninghai

h.

^-ffe K'aihwa

h.

±2^ T'aip'ing

h.

mm Ch'uchow

P

^ffl YSnchow

F.

^7]C Lishui

h

^% Kinhwa

F

^;^ Kienteh

h.

^BB Ts'ingt'ien

h

^^ Kinhwa

h.

i^^ Shunngan

h.

i^^ Tsinyiin

h

^^ Lank'i

h.

mm T'ungiii

h.

fed Sungyang

h

y^M Tungyang

h.

^^ Suingan

h.

^S Suich'ang

h

MM Iwu

h.

^g Showch'ang

h.

M^ Lungts'iien

h

TkB Yungk'ang

h.

^7X F^nshui

h.

M^ K'ingyuen

h

K«Wui

h.

^^ Yiinhwo

h

^iL P'ukiang

h.

S^ Wfinchow

F.

^^ Siienp'ing

h.

^^ T'angk'i

h.

2]^ Yuhkwan

t.

^^ Kingning

h.

Territorial Intendancles or Oiroaits administered by a Taot'ai jg 5-

ChSkiang has 5 Territorial lutendancies or Taot'aiships :

1° Wdacbow r. ■^m Jff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over WSnohow Fu
and Ch'uchow Fu ^ ffl Iff, ^^^ ™ charge of custom dues collected along the waterways.

2° K'actao-vr F. ffi ^ fl?F. — Civil jurisdiction over Kinhwa F. ^ ^ Kf, K'ii-
chowF., YSnchow F. gj ffl ^; and in charge of custom dues collected along the
waterways.

3° Ningpo F. ^ & flf . ~ Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ningpo F., Shao-
hsing F. m S6 ^ and T'aichow F. "a ^ Mi in charge of custom dues coUeoted
along the waterways; keeps watch over the coast-line.

4° Kiabsing F. ti M^ ftf- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hangchow F.
^ #1 !ff, Kiahsing F. and Huchow F. |9 #1 )fiF; and in charge of the coast-line.

5° Hangcho'^v F. ^ ffl ifl^. — In charge of the Provincial rice revenue, and
the transport of the rice-tribute to Peking.

II. — CHIHLI H ^ ("Chi").

M^ Shunt'ien F\fm
(PEKING 4t #) (1) |i^

^m. Tahsing h.|jtv{p,

^^ Yuenp'ing h.j^ijj;
H^ Lianghsiang h.i^fpj-
@^ Kungan h.lgqs

TfcJi Yungts'ing
M^ Tungngan

h.!g

Hsiangho

T'ung
Sanho
Wuts'ing
Paoch'i
Ningho
Ch'angp'ing c
Shuni h

Mihyiin h

mm
m

B

Hwaijeu

Ohoh

Fangshan

Pa

W^nngan

Tach'^ng

Paoting

Ki

P'ingkuh

h.
c.
h.
c.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.

(1) Peking Jji, jff, or Shunt'ien Fu M ^ Iff (city obedient to heaven), being
the metropolitan Prefecture, has a particular organization, with a Governor or Fuyin

560

CHIHLI (continued).

^it Ts'unhwa C

3gQ Yuht'ien h.

^^ Fungjun h.

f*;£ Paoting (2) F.

jf^ Ts'ingyuen h.

■^m Manch'6ng h.

^M Ngansuh h.

^^ Tinghsing h.

jgrM Sinch'eng h.

Ji T'ang h.

-ffl^ Pohyfi h.

^^ Wangtu h.
h.

Yungch'eng

Hwan h,

Li h.

Hsiung h.

K'i c,

Shuhluh h,

Ngan c,

Kaoyang h,

7C

mi

^ I c.

X^Of. Laishui h.
^ g Kwangch'ang h.

Jlc® Ch'engteh P.

^:^ Weich'ang t.

^^ Lwanp'ing h.

2p^ P'ingts'iien c.

^4fc Lunghwa h.

^*g Fungning h.

ffp^ Oh'ihfung h.

U§lt Ch'aoyang F.

^S Kiench'ang h.

^Iglf Feusin h,

^Hji Kienp'ing h. §,2p Feup'ing h.

Lwanch'fing h.

F. fr^ Hsingt'ang h.

h- M^ Lingshow h.

h. ^llj P'ingshan h.

h. TCK Yuenshi h.

h. ^^ Tsanhwang h.

c. ^ Tsin c.

h. ^;g| Wukih h.

h- *JS Kaoch'Sng h.

Sinloh h.

7^^ Yungp'ing
"^H Lulung
1^ Ts'ienngan

^^ Funing
"i^ Gh'angli

J^ Lwan

1^^ Loht'ing

^% Linyii

JplF^ Hokien F.

fl^F^ Hokien h.

jil Hsien h.

%^ Feuch'6ng h.

IfW Suhning h.

ft^ J6nk'iu h.

^JSJ Kiaoho h

%^ Ningtsin h.

^ King c

^;^ Wuk'iao h.

•JSi^ Kuch'eng h.

%,% Tungkwang h.

-^W T'ientsin F.

5^^ T'ientsin h.

^ Ts'ing h.

^% Tsinghai h.

j| Ts'ang c.

^;^ Nanp'i h.

II [Ij Y^nshan h.

igg K'ingyiin h.

iES Chengting F.

jES Chfengting h.

^j^ Hwohluh h.

^1^ Tsinghsing h.

t^

ESS

%

Ei

Nankung

Sinho

Tsaok'iang

Wuyih

Hfingshui

Chao

Sianghsiang

Lungp'ing

Kaoyih

Linch'eng

Ningtsin

Shen

Wuk'iang

Jaoyang

Nganp'ing

c.

h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

C.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

c.

h.
h.
h.

Ting C.

K'iiyang h.

Shfintseh h.

Shunteh
Hsingt'ai

F.
h.

1^ fl^, who ranks above ordinary Prefects He is assisted by a Governor Adjoint
(Kienyin ^ ^) and a Vioe-Governor (Fuoh'feng H^ fi). He is also independent
of the Viceroy of Chihli, and is directly subordinate to the Emperor. His jurisdiction
extends over 21 Districts (Hsien !^), 1 independent Chow (Chihli Chow ji[^jfN)i and
5 dependent ones (San Chow ffc ;H1). The Prefect of Mukden (ancestral home of the
reigning dynasty), or Pungt'ien ^ ^ ^. holds power and rank similar to those of
the Governor of Peking.

(2) Provincial Capital of Chihli. The Viceroy resides there during part of the
year, and during the remainder at T'ientsin ^ ^.

CHIHLI (continued).

mTTi

mm
mm
m^

mm

Shaho

Nanhwo

P'inghsiang

Kwangtsung

Kuluh

T'angshan

Neik'iu

Jen

Kwangp'ing

Yungnien

K'iihchow

Feihsiang

Kitseh

Kwangp'ing

Hantan

Ch'engngan

m
±^

mm
Km
Mm
m

Wei h.

Ts'ingho h.
Tz'e c.

Taming

Taming

Yiiench'*ng

Nanloh

Ts'ingfung

Tungming

K'ai

Ch'angyiien

Siienhwa F.
Siienhwa h.
Oh'ihch'eng h,
Wants 'iien h,

561

P^ Lungmen h.

335 Hwailai h.

Wei c.

Sining h.

jg-^ Hwaingan h.

MM Y6nk'ing c.

^^ Paongan c.

M^O Changkia-
k'ow(Kalgan)T.

m^O Tuhshih-
k'ow T.

^UWW Tolunnoh-
eul (Dolonor) T.

Chihii has 10 Intcndancies, each administered by a Taot'ai ^ ^ :

r T'ung Ohow il #|. — Eeports directly to the Throne. Civil and Mili-
tary control over the Imperial or Grand Canal (Yiin-ho £ J^f) at T'ung Chow. Superin-
tendent of agriculture, controls the rice-tribute going to the Capital and the waterways
of Yungp'ingF. ^^J^, T'ung Chow, Ki Chow |S iW and Tsunhwa Chow ^ -(Ifc ^.

2° Jebol ^ for or Ch'Sngteh F. 7|; @ fl?f . — Civil and Military control over
the territory beyond Kupeh-k'o^v "S ;|b P and over the town of Jehol, where he has
his residence.

3° Ch'an^p'ing Cho-w ^ ^ ffl. — Residence in this town. Intendant of grain
and of agriculture, controls the Government postal service and the rice-tribute going to
Peking. Civil jurisdiction over Pa Chow ^' iHI and Ch'angp'ing Chow.

i" Paotin^ F. fit ^ /Sf- — Controls the Tats'ing River (Tats'ing-ho ^ Jf Jof ).
Civil juris'liction over Paoting P., and Chtogting F. IF. '& Hf-

5° T'ientsin F. 3? ji^ ^. — Reports directly to the Throne. Superintendent
of Customs; controls the mint for new-model coins.

6° T'ientsin F. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'ientsin. F., Hokien F.
W ^^ fff ^^"-t ^"d controls their rivers.

7° T'ientsin F. — Intendant of the salt revenue for the Ch'anglu ^ S circuit.

8° Suenh*va F. ^ -ffc flip (to the S. of Kalgan). — Civil and Military jurisdic-
tion over Siienhwa, P., and the 3 T'ingg H of Changkia-k'ow 5g ^ fl (Kalgan), Tuh-
sliih-k'ow S S P, and Dolonor^ i^sSW- He does not reside permanently at
Siienhwa F., but to the N. of Kalgan.

!)° Turning F. "ji ^ M- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Taming F.,
Shunteh F. )I!H ® Jflp, Kwangp'ing P. J| ■? ^ and their rivers ; also in charge of
water communications,

10° Kungan h. @| 3c ^- — Intendant of the Yungting ^ ^ river.

36

562

FOKIEN.

III. — FOKIEN m m ("F»").

m

Foochow

Min

Heukwan
iSfg Kut'ien
P^ P'ingnan
fH^ Mints'ing
-g^ Ch'angloh
^f£ Lienkiang
^M. Loyuen

Yungfuh

|g^ Fuhts'ing

:^W Ts'iienchow
^iL Tsinkiang
^^ Nanngan
^^ Hweingan
^•^ Ngank'i
1^^ T'ungngan

^^ Kienning

^■^ Kienngan
M^ Ngeuning
m^ Kienyang
^■^ Ch'ungngan
•MM P'uch'eng
^Tfa Ohenghwo
PiM Sungk'i

^^ Yenp'ing F.

^2p Nanp'ing h.

jjilil Tsiangloh h.

^ Sha h.

±^ Yiuk'i h.

jl^g Shunch'ang h.

^^ Yungngan h.

frW T'ingchow F.

|^?X Ch'angt'ing h.

^it Ninghwa h.

±j^ Shanghang h.

^^ Wup'ing h.

^^ Ts'ingliu h.

^^ Liench'eng h.

SCtft Kweih-wa h.

^^ Yungting h.

i^^ Hsinghwa F

li^H P'ut'ien h.

WW Sienyiu h.

^^ Shaowu F.

:gI5^, Shaowu h.

;Jt# Kwangtseh h.
h.

T'aining
Kienning h

ii^W

^^

Changchow F-

Lungk'i h.

Changp'u h.

Nantsing h.

Ch'angt'ai h.

P'inghwo h.

Chaongan h.

Haich'eng h.

Fuhning F.

Hsiap'u h.

Fuhting h.

Fuhngan h.

f^ Ningteh h.

^^ Sheuning h.

mm

Tungch'un C.

Tehhwa h.

Tat'ien h.

Lungyen C.

Changp'ing h.

Ningyang h.

Fokien has 5 Intendaneies, each administered by a Taot'ai ^ ^ :

1° Tdnp'ins P- ffi -^ )ff- — Civil jurisdiction over Y?np'ing P., Kienning F.
gs ^ fl5P and Shao\™ F. Jfli g^ Iff.

2° Changcho-w V.j^ ^ Kf. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Changchow
F., T'ingchow F. jj iW )fif, and Lungy&n Chow t| Iffi ffl ; also Maritime Tntendant.

^^° Amoy or Hsiamdn gf P^. — Military, Postal and Coast Inteudant over
Hsinghwa F. ^ it M, Ts'iienchow F. ^j^)^ and Yungch'un Chow' ^ # #| ; als^o
Paymaster to the troops and General Maritime Inteudant.

4" Foochow F. jl ffl ^. — Intendant of the salt reveu^ie and of the Poochow
naval-yard.

y Foochow F. — Provincial Grain Intendant, Civil jurisdiction over Foochow
and Fuhning F. ijiS tS flSp ; also in charge of the Government postal service and of
water communications.

HON AN.

563

IV. — HONAN M^ ("Ho").

mm

MR

mm

mm

K'aifung

Siangfu

Ch'enliu

K'i

T'unghsu

Weishi

Weichw'an

Y^nling

Chungmeu

Lani

Yii

Mih

Sinchfing

m Chgng
^g Yungtseh
^lif Yungyang
fS:^ Szeshui

B'M Ch'enchow F

M'M Hwaining h

^7j< Shangshui h

^^ Sihwa h
J^I^Hsiangch'fingh,

■^SU Shenk'iu h,

±^ T'aik'ang h.

^i^ Fukeu h.

Hsu C

Linying h,

Siangch'eng h.

Yench'eng h,

-g:^ Ch'angkoh h.

gf ^ Kweiteh F.

^^ Shangk'iu h.

^l^ Ningling h.

;^g. Luhyih h.

^g Hsiayih h.

^^ Yungch'fing h.

^jfj^ Yuch'fing h.

m Sui c.

^^ K'aoch'6ng h.

fgi^ Ch^ch'eng h.

mm

^^ Changteh

^H? Nganyang
i^lt T'angyin
elj^ Linchang
^ Lin
pj^ Neihwang
H;^ Wungan
^ Sheh

^Sl Weihui
Kih

Sinhsiang
Hwohkia
K'i
Hui

Yfintsin
J^ Siin
•j-^ Hwah
0iS& Fungk'iu

^^ Hwaik'ing

^^ Honei

^J)g Tsiyuen
#.^ Yiienwu
f^^ Siuwu
S^l^ Wuchih
^ Meng
S Wen

Yangwu

fpjl^ Honan
^^ Lohyang
fUBifi Yenshi
^ Kung
j£j^ Mengtsin

S^ TSnglung
TkfS Yungning
jSf^ Sinngan
MM MingchM
; Sung

F

h

h

h

h

h.

h.

h.

F

h.

h

h.

h.

h.

h.

h.

h.

h.

F.

h.

h.

h

h.

h.

h.

h.

h.

F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

m

mSn

its

Shen C

Lingpao h.

Wenhsiang h.

Lushi h.

mm
m)\\

m

Nanyang

Nanyang

Nanchao

ChSnp'ing

T'ang

Piyang

T'ungpeh

Teng

Neihsiang

Sinyd

mn

fffH

#11

Juning

Juyang

Chengyang

Shangts'ai

Sints'ai

Sip'ing

Suip'ing

K'iohshan

Sinyang

Loshan

F-
h.
h-
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.
h.

Sihchw'an T.

Yii c.

Wuyang h.

Sheh h.

F.
h.

h.
1>.
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.

Kwang C.

Kwangshan h.
Kushi h.

Sih h.

Shangch'^ngh.

Ju

Luahan
Kiah
Paofung
lyang

c.

h.

h.
h.
h.

564

HONAN (continued). HUNAN.

Honan has 5 Intendancies, each admiuistered by a Taot'ai j^ ( :

1° K'aifung F. 03 JJ ^. — Provincial Intendaut of the salt revenue, of the rice-
tribute and of water communications, in the region S. of the Yellow River. Civil juris-
diction over K'aifung F., Kweiteh F. ^ ^ flf, Ch'Snchow F. Hi ^ ^ and ]Isii Chow

2° K'aifung F. — Adjoint Civil and Military Intendant for the region S. of the
Yellow Kiver; jurisdiction 'over K'aifung F., Kweiteh F., Chfing Chow ^ JH and Hsii
Chow ; also in charge of the rivers.

3° Wuchih h. it ft IS- — Military jurisdiction over Changteh F. "^ ^ 1^
Weihui F. ^ M Iff and Hwaik'ing F. ^ S ^. ™ fie region N. of the Yellow Eiver
In charge of the tribute, of lawsuits, of works on the Northern bank of the Yellow
Kiver and of waterways.

1° Sinyans ObO'tv ^ f^ )^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanyang
F. ^ K ^, Juning F. }fc ^ Mf and Kwang Chow jfc )W ; in charge of water com-
munications, of the tribute and of lawsuits.

b" ShenChovr gj j>H. ~ Adjoint Civil Intendant over Honan F. Jif ^ flSF>
Shen C, and Ju C. ^ ^ ; in charge of the Government postal service, of water
cori^munications and of the mint ; controls lawsuits.

V. — HUNAN m m ("Hun").

^a? Ch'angsha

F.

^Wi Nganfuh

h.

^^ Ch'angsha

h.

^^ Yungting

h

^{{2 Shanhwa

h.

^^ Siangt'an

h.

^jt Paok'ing

F

^^ Siangyin

h.

^j^ Shaoyang

h.

^^5 Ninghsiang

h.

jgrft Sinhwa

h

Sflll L'uyang

h.

^p Oh'engpu

h

mM l-'l'ng

h.

^^ Wukang

c

Slit Yihyang

h.

ff^ Sinning

h

jSfaUP Sianghsiang

h.

^ Yiu

h.

^si'H Hgngchow

F

5£flj Nganhwa

h.

ISfIt Hengyang

h

■^^1^ Oh'aling

c.

T^^ Ts'ingts«iien

h

;^llj H6ngshan

h

-gffl Tohchow

F.

^1^ Leiyang

h

[n ^ Paling

h.

^"^ Cli'angning

h

gjfg Linsiang

h.

4c iZ Nganj6n

h

^^ Hwayung

h.

fg Ling

h

2pj|X P'ingkiang

h.

#11 Kweiyang

C

ii Li

c.

^j^ Linwu

h

;5Pg Shihmfin

h.

^lll Lanshan

h

$^K Nganhsiang

h.

^^ Kiahwo

h

mm Tz'eii

h.

H^. Ch'angteh F.

Tj^^ Wuling h.

i^M T'aoyiien h.

Illir Lungyang h.

IXiL Yuenkiang h.

mm Ch'gnchow F.

&i:^ Yuenllng h.

^i;^ Luk'l h.

mm Ch'6nkM h.

ij-it Siip'u h.

ILJi, Funghwang T.

^^ Yungsui T.

^'M K'ienchow T.

M')i\ HwangchowT.

'i^'M Yiienchow F.

£{1 Ohikiang h.

itii K'ienyang h.

Mayang h.

HUNAN (continued). HUPKH.

505

•ikiNI Yungchow

F.

m Tsing

C

i^^ Kweitung

h

^^ Lingling

h.

^jp) Hweil'iing

h.

1151^ K'iyang

h.

iiM T'unglao

h.

^M Yungshun

F

^TJC Tungngan

h.

m"^ Suining

h.

^|l|g Yunysliiin

h

m Tao

c.

flllj Lungshan

h

'^jg: Ningyiien

h.

m Ch'en

c.

f^^ Paolsing

li

:^Bq Yungming

h.

TJC^ Yunghsing

h.

^^ Sangchih

li

iL0 Kianghwa

h.

'Jl^ Ichang

h.

gfBB Sint'ien

h.

(Ht^ llsingning
;^|^ Kweiyang

h.
h.

^•)i\ Nanchow

T

Hunnn has 5 Intendiincies, each admiuisterid by aTnot'ai i£. ^ :

1° Fiinghwang T. Sk '1 K- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'&n-
chow F. Jg #1 «Sp, Yiienchow P. jjic '>H Iff, Yungshun F. ^ M jff, Tsing Chow i^ ffl,
Funghwang T., YuMgsui T. a« S9 K and K'ienchow T. ^ jHI &..

2° Li Cho-w V^. iHI. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yohchow F. Jg
!H1 fl^, Ch'angteh F. ^ ^ fliF and Li Chow; also in charge of the Government
postal service at Paling h. E ^ If .

3' Ch'nngishn F. -^ yS> M — I'rovincial Iiitendant of the salt revenue; civil
jurisdiction over Ch'angsha F., and Paok'ing F. 5(SW; in charge of water cora-
monications.

■1° Ch'angsha F. — Provincial Intendant of the grain tribute.

5° H^iigchow F. ^ ^ Iff— Civil and Military jurisdiction over H6ngchow
F., Yungchow P. ^ M 1^, Ch'*n Chow ^ jHI and Kweiyang Chow ^4 H !N1 ; also
in charge of the Government postal service at Heng Chow.

VI. — HUPEH m 4fc ("Hup").

1^1

m

1^

^^

mm

IJil

•?5lt

Wuch'ang
Kianghsia
Wuch'ang
Kiayii
P'uk'i
Hsienning
Oh'ungyang h
T'ungch'eng h
Hsingkwoh c
Taye h

T'ungshan h,

ImOj

mn

Hanyang

Hanyang

Hanchw'an

Hsiaokan

Hwangpei

Mienyang

Nganluh F.

Chungsiang h.

Kingshan h.

Ts'ienkiang h.

T'ienmen h.

Kingmen C

Tangyang h.

Yiienngan h.

mm

3fcfk

Siangyang

Siangyang

Ich'eng

Nanchang

Tsaoyang

Kuhch'eng

Kwanghwa

Klin

iPH Yuenyang F.

IR Yiien h.

M Fang h.

Yflb Ohuhshan h.

ttlS; Chuhk'i h.

fS0 Paok'ang h.

gg^ Yuensi h.

^« Tehngan F.

^1^ Nganluh h.

p^ Yunmfing h.

SM Yingch'eng h.

^ Sui c.

M\U Yingshan h.

^;H1 Hwangchow b'.

^|5g Hwangkang h.

^^ Hwangngan h.

50G

HUPEH (continued). KANSU.

^7j»: K'ishui

h.

^m Kienli

h.

^^ Ch'angloh

h

^H Lot'ien

h.

^^ Sungtze

h.

mm Mach'eng

h.

;|^^ Chikiang

h.

M^ Shinan

F

m K'i

c.

giPItu

h.

MM Ngenshi

h

Jtl^ Kwangtsi

h.

^,|l Siienngen

h

^^ Hwangmei

h.

^g Ich'ang

F.

^1. Laifung

h

^JSJ Tunghu

h.

^'^ Hsienfung

h

#!lW Kingchow

F.

If Kwei

c.

flJJH Lichw'an

h

^1^ Kiangling

h.

^^ Ch'angyang

h.

^jt& Kienshi

h

^^ Kurigngan

h.

fl|Jj Hsingshan

h.

;5f- Shihsheu

h.

e^ Patung

h.

mm Hohfung

T

Uupeh has G Intendiincies, each administered by a Taot'ai jM S :

1° HoMung T'ing ^ ^ IE. — Civil and Military jurisdiction ovtr Shinan F.
Jfe ^ Jd and Hohfung T'ing.

2° Sliashi ^ ij}. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in Upper Kinguao, over the
Prefectures of Kingchow F. ^Ij #| /(J and Ich'ang F. g g ;^; also in charge of water
communications.

3° Siangyong F. it l@ H^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nganlnh F.
$ 1^ fflP, Siangya'.g F., Yiienyang F. HJ! H lU and KingmfSn C. ^J P^ ^ ; also in
charge of water commuuicatious.

4° Hank'ow fJS P. — Civil jurisdictioji over Hanyang F. ^ I® fl^, Hwang-
chow F. ^ ^ fl9F and Tehugau P. ^ ^ flf ; also in charge of water communications.

5" Wuch'ang F. ^ H 1^: — Intendant of the bait revenue for the Province
of Hupeh ; civil jurisdiction over Wuch'ang F.

6° Wuch'ang F. ^ g Iff'. — Grain Intendant for the Province of Hupeh.

VII. — KANSU -fl- m ("Kan").

jiitti Lanchow F.

^^ Kaolan h.

^ Kin h.

Jlt'l Tihtao c.

l^M Weiyiien h.

^jg Tsingyiien h.

^ Ho c.

^?^ P'ingliang F.

2^^ P'ingliang li.

^^ Hwat'ing h.

^^ Tsingning c.

1^^. Lungteh h.

@;^ Kuyiien C

ip^ Pnngyiien h.

^m Haich'eng h.

it^)\\ Hwap'ing
chw'an

^

King C.

Oh'ungsin h.
J^W, Chenyiien h.
g^ Lingt-ai h.

^g Kungch'ang

Hffi Lungsi
^^ Nganting
#^ Hweining
^f}!j T'ungwei
^ji: Ningyiien
{^^ Fuhk'iang
Wft Sihwo
lIR Mip
^^ T'aoohow

Pi

^5

F.

h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

h- JEm

c,

t.

Mm

Kiai

W6n
Ch'eng

Ts'in

Ts'inngan

Ts'ingshui

Li

Hwei

Liangtang

K'ingyang

Nganhwa

Hohshui

Hwan

Gh^ngning

Ning

C.
h.

h.

C.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

F.

h.
h.
h.
h.

KANS

u (continued).

KIAN6SI.

567

WX Ninghsia

F.

izW Tat'ung

h.

'H'W Kanchow

F

^■g Ninghsia

h.

5l|g Changyih

h

^^ Ningshoh

h.

^W Liangchow

F.

jilfl- Shantan

h

^M P'Jnglo

h.

^^ Wuwei

h.

^ Ling

c.

^^ Ch6nfan

h.

1- Suh

C

tf»^ Chungwei

h.

;^g Yungch'ang
■^^ Kulang

h.
h.

liSS Kaot'ai

h

mm Sining

F.

i|># P'ingfan

h.

^W l^gansi

(-;

"H^ Sining

h.

^jl^ Tunhwang

h

|gfg Chanpeh

h.

aiP^ Yuhm6n

h

Kitnsu has 7 Intendancies, each administered by a Tnot'ai M. S :

1° Ts'inohow ^ flf — Civil jurisdiction over Kvmgch'aug F. 3^ g fl5^, Ts'in
Chow, Kiai Chow |® ffl etc.. Intendaut of the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture
lands (horse-reariug) and of agriculture.

2° Ninghsia F. ^ S Jjff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ninghsia; in
charge of water communications on the E. and "W. banks of the Hwang-ho; controls the
revenue of the brine wells and the salt trade.

3° P'ingliang F. ^ ?^ ;fl=. — Intendant of the salt revenue. Civil and Military
jurisdiction over P'iugliang F., K'ingyaug F. R ffi fl5F, King Ohow jS #|, Kiiyiien
Chow @ ^ ;m and Hwap'ingchw'an T -ffc 2p ill ffi,.

4° linncho-w F. Si ffl )ff. — Civil jurisdiction over Lanchow F. Intendant of
the tea revenue, of the Imperial pasture lands and of agriculture.

5° Sining F. H ^ !ff. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Sining F. Intemlant
of the Board of Pacification.

e^SnhOho-w^ ffl. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ngansi Chow 3c W'>H,
Suh Chow etc.. Intendant of agriculture and of the Board of Pacification for border
tribes.

7° LiangchO'w F. J^ ffl )j!f. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kanchow F.
"H" ffl fl?f and Liangchow F. Intendant of the Board of Reorganizat'on for P'ingliang F.
^ ^, ^, Yungch'ang h. ^ g «i, ChSnfan h. ^S # Jg and Fuht'iang h, fj^ ^ Jf.

VIII. — KIANGSI tr W ("Ki")-

^g Nanch'ang

^g Nanch'ang
§gf^ Sinkien
»|^ Fungch'6ng
H^ Tsinhsien
^3Jf Fungsin
]^^ Tsingngan
jg;^ Wuning

F.

^>)i\ Jaochow

F.

^^ Kwangsin

F

h.

i5It P'oyang

h.

J:^ Shangjao

h

h.

j^^ Yiikan

h.

5|jJ Yiihshan

h

h.

^2p. Lohp'ing

h.

-\^ Yihyang

h

h.

J^^ Feuliang

h.

"S^'^ Kweik'i

h

h.

^^ Tehhsing

h.

^(II K'ienshan

h

h..

^t Nganj6n

h.'

^^ Kwangfung

h

h.
c.

^^ Wannien

h.

^^ Hsingngan

h

568

KIANftSI (COKTINUED). KIANBSU.

^m Nank'ang F.

^^ Singtze h.

■|P^ Tuch'ang h.

^g Kiench'ang h.

^^ Ngani h.

JliL Kiukiang P.

^^-ffc Tehhwa h.

:g,^ Tehngan h.

^^ Shuich'ang h.

jgga Huk'ow h.

f^^ P'ungtseh h.

i@ Kiench'ang

•^i^ Nanch'6ng h.

.^:^ Sinch'eng h.

^^ Nanfung h.
Jig Kwangch'angh.

?im Luk'i h.

11:1+1 Fuchow F.

jJljlj Linchw'an h.

^^ Kink'i h.

^t Ch'ungj^n h.

J[^ Ihwang h.

^^ Lohngan h.

Tunghsiang h.

mm

.\m

Linkiang

Ts'ingkiang
Sinkan
Sinyii
Hsiahkiang

Shuichow F.

Kaongan h.

Sinch'ang h.

Shangkao h.

^')^ Yiienchow F.

^^ Ich'un h.

^g Fen-i h,

^0 P'ii>ghsiang h.

MM "Wantsai h,

^^ Kihngan F.

t.

;fg Lienhwa

0M Liiling h.

^f] T'aihwo h.

^7X Kihshui h.

|<i Yungfung h.

^jjig Nganfuh h,

H^ Lungts'iien h.

H^ Wanngan h.

:^ff Yungsin h.

^% Yungning h.

^m Kanchow
^ Kan
9M Yiitu
^g Sinfung
fflg Hsingkwoh
-g-g Hweich'ang
^^ Nganyuen
^^ Ch'angning
H^ Lungnan
^^ Tingnan

^f|5 Ningtu
^^ Shuikin
5JiS Shihch'eng

^4g Nanngan
^IIC Tayii
^J^ Nank'ang
J:^ Shangyiu
#^ Ch'ung-i
^^ K'iennan

F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
t.

C.

h.
h.

F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
t.

Kiangsi has 4 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ai M K :

1° Kanctiow F. H ffl flf . — Civil and Mihtary jurisdiction over Kihngan F.
'a 3e flf, Nanngan F. ^ ^ flf , Kanchow F., and Ningtu Chow ^ tP ffl ; also in
charge of the Government postal service and of water communications.

2° Kiukiang F. A il fl^- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Kwangsin F.
M ^ ^: Jaochow F.^ M Hft Kiukiang F., and Nank'ang P. 'JM M 1^ ■ also in
charge of water communications. Customs Superintendent for the port of Kiukiang.

3° Nanch'ang F. ^ ^ ^. — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for
Kiangsi. Civil jurisdiction over Shuichow F. 3f^ jtH ^, Yiienchow F. ^ W ^ and
Linkiang F.^ it Iff.

i° Nanch'ang F. ]^ fi flf . — Provincial Grain Intendant. Civil jurisdiction
over Nanoh'ang F., Fuchow F. JS ffl ^ aud Kiench'ang P. ^ B Jjf ; also in charge
of water communications.

IX. — KIANGSU iL m ("Ku").

iL% KiangningF.(l)

(NANKING if :ft)
JlTC Shangyuen h.

JQ^ Kiangning h.
-fijg Kiiyung h.

\%-f^ Lihshui h.

iLM Kiangp'u
A?-^ Luhhoh
]^^ Kaoshun

h.
h.
h.

(1) Capital of Kiangnan (Kiangsu and Nganhwei).

KIANftSU (continued).

569

Bm Soochow F.

(1)

nm Ch'angchow F.

^jW Yangchow

F.

±m T'aihu

t.

m.m Wutsin

h.

i£^ Kiangtu

h.

^ Wu

h.

mm Yanghu

h.

ti'M Kants'iien

h.

-g^ Ch'angchow

h.

M^j Wusih

h.

^ii Icheng

h.

TCft Yiienhwo

h.

^^ Kinkwei

h.

1^^ Kaoyiu

c.

^iJj K'uenshan

h.

ttH Kiangyin

h.

Mit Hsinghwa

h.

WlB Sinyang

h.

'fT^ Ihsing

h.

ffH Paoying

h.

tm Ch'angshuh

h.

flj;^ Kingk'i

h.

^ T'ai

c.

Bg^ Chaowdn

h.

i^iL Tsingkiang

h

y^^ Tungt'ai

h.

^a Wukiang

h.

M^ Ch6ntseh

h.

MtL Chenkiang
:P^^ Tant'u

F.

h.

Mf^ Haimen

T.

-kik T'aits'ang

c.

nm Tanyang

h.

^i T'ung

C.

^p^ Ohenyang

h.

^Jg Kint'an

h.

iU^ Jukao

h.

^^ Ch'ungming

h.

?lll Lihyang

h.

^^ T'aihsing

h.

SS K!iating

h.

^llj Paoshan

h.

ft^ Hwaingan

F.

^,ffl Suchow

F.

\\j^ Shanyang

h.

^[ij T'ungshan

h.

fete Sungkiang

F.

^^ Peuning

h.

m Siao

h.

jll-^j? Chw'ansha

t.

lii^ Yench'eng

h.

^lU T'angshan

h.

^^ Hwat'ing

h.

^^ Ts'ingho

h.

m. Fung

h.

^^ Funghsien

h.

-^"^ Ngantung

h.

m P'ei

h.

^ Leu

h.

^U T'aoyuen

h.

m P'i

c.

#llj Kinshan

h.

^M Suhts'ien

h.

±?ft Shanghai

h.

m Hai

c.

PtW Suining

h.

^fg Nanhwei

h.

^S Kanyii

h.

t-jt Ts'ingp'u

h.

?;tl# Shuhyang

h.

Kiangsu has 7 Intendaacies, each administered by a Taot'ai ^ ^ :

1° Ptiphnw F. ^ >H J^— Civil and Military jurisdiction over P'i Chow JR ^^,
Suhts'ien h. ^ S ^, T'ungshan h. ^ Uj 1^, Fung h. g g and T'aoyuen h. ^ ^
Up ; also in charge of waterways.

2° Hwaingan F. Jg ^ fl5=. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hwaingan F.,
Yangchow F. ^ ffl ii^ and Hai Chow i$ jfH; in charge of waterways; controls the
transport of the Impeiial rice ti'ibute; salt and maritime Intendant.

3° Ch'ansshnh b. ^ ^ ^. — Grain Intendant for Soochow F. j^ Wl Ji5=, Sung-
kiang F. ^ iL M, Ch'angchow F. f^ 'M }^, Ghfinltiang F. IS ft ;f and T'aits'ang
Chow ;k M i^- Civil jurisdiction over Soochow F.; controls water communications.

4° Kiangning f • tC ^ (flF (Nanliing). — Grain Intendant over the 10 Prefec-
tures of Kiangning F., Ngank'ing F. $ S if, Hweichow F. ® ffl fl\f , Ningkwoh F.
<M S !^, Ch'iohow F. j'fi m fif, T'aip'ing F.± ^ 1^, Liichow F. if jl'H J^, Fungyang
F. JM,fS B, Hwaingan F. ?t 3c flf and Yangchow F. ^ ^^ f^.

5"= Kiangning F. (Nanking). — Intendant and Reorganizator of the salt reve-
nue for the Kiangnan (Kiangsu and Ngaiihwei) circuit. Civil jurisdiction over Kiang-
ning F. (Nanking) ; controls water commimications.

(1) Provincial Capital of Kiangsu.

570

KIANOSU (continued). KWANGSI.

6° Sbanghal h. J; )$ !S- —Civil and Military jurisdiction over Soochow T.M
m Hf, Sungkiang ¥. iS; iL Hf and T'aits'ang Chow if ■$[■ Hi. Superintendent of
Customs.

7° Ch6nkiang F. fit tt ^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Cb'angchow
F. ft #1 ^, ChfinMang F., T'ung Chow S ^, Haim^n T'ing Jf P^ Ketc; controls
rivers and waterways.

X. — IWANGSI M IB ("Si").

i^n Kweilin F.

|fr;g Linkwei h.

^^ Hsingngan h.

gjll Lingchw'an h.

^^ Yangshoh h.

^^ Yungning c,

:^KS Yungfuh h.

^^ Ining h.

^ Ts'iien c.

m^ Kwanyang h.

^')ii Liuchow
,^^ Map'ing
:g|g Lohyung
jpisft Loch'6ng
Liuch'eng

F.

h.

h.

h.

h.

^^ Hwaiyiien h
5^^ Laipin h.

M Yung h.

^ Siang c.

Bi^ K'ingytien F.

5|fllj Ishan h.

^^ T'ienho h.

f^flfe Hoch'i c,

SS Szengen h

J^M Tunglan c,

'IfM Hsinch'6ng h.

^■^ Nan tan c

^J^ Na (no) ti c

,g,i! Szengen F

KB Wuyuen h

^ Pin c

^iL Ts'ienkiang h

_t|f; Shanglin h

Wfi Pehseh T.

B^ Ngenlung h.
.®l^^ Ngenyang-

fen c.

MM Szech'gng F.

^g Lingyun h.

If ^ Silin h.

11^ Silung c,

^m P'ingloh F.

iptSS P'ingloh h,

^M Kungch'eng h.

gjll Fuchw'an h,

5 Ho h,

M^ Lip'u h.

^iZ. Siujen h.

Hgijs Chaop'ing h.

^4t Yungngan c.

tgjfH Wuchow

#|g Ts'angwu
m T'^ng
gt Yung
^^ Oh'6nk'i
^ll Hwaitsih

i>^ Tiihlin
fll^ Pohpeh
4ta Pehliu
^J|| Luhchw'an
HH Hsingyeh

i^j'li Stinchow
;^£|s Kweip'ing
^^ P'ingnan

F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

c.

h.
h.
h.
h.

F.
h

-^ Kwel h.

J^^ Wusiien h.

m^ Manning F.

^flj Siienhwa h.

^^ Sinning c.

^$ Lungngan h.

^^ Hung c.

:^),H Yungshun h.

^^ Kweiteh c.

^^-ft Kwohwa c.

,^, Chung c.

^apT'aip'ing F.

H^ Lungchow t.

^^ Ch'ungshan h.

^^ Yangli c.

:^ Tso c.

:^J^ Yungk'ang c.

^^

EM

mm

MM

Shangsze '
Loyang 1

Wanch'6ng
Szeling
Ningming
P'ingsiang
T'aip'ing
Nganp'ing
Mingying
Kiehngan
Kihlun
Lungying
Tukieh
Kiang
Sze

^ Shanghsia-
tung

KWANGSI (continued). KWAN&TUNfl.

571

Kweishun C-
Oh6npien h.

H^ ChSnngan F.
TiiH: T'ienpao h.

f ® Hsialei c.

^g Fungi
iftlff^i Hsiangwu
M^ Tuk'ang

K-wangsl has 4 Intendnncies, each administerud by a Taot'ai jt '^ :

r liunschow F. Bl #1 fl^ — Civil and Military jurisdiction over T'aiping F.
:* -^F ;f , Shangsze T'ing J: g ^„ Kweishun Chow ^ jlR #| and Chenngan F, git

2° Llurho-w- F. ^ ttl Jft^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over the Prpfecturca
of Liuchow F., K'ingyiien F. g ^ Jf , Szeugen F. g Jg. )^, Pehseh T'ing W & ^;,
SzfPh'6ng P- JPS tS? (ISFi and the Departments of Pin Chow 5f #1 and Silung Chow

3° Nanning; F. ^ ^ f^. — Civil aud Military jurisdiction over Nanuing P.,
Siinchow F. ^ iHI ^. Yiihlin Chow ^ # flSF and Shangsze T'ing t S- ^■■

4" K-weilin F. :^ ;tH fl^^. — Divil jurisdiction over Kweilin F., P'ingloli P.
-¥■ Mi If and Wuchow F. i^ ffl (lif. Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for
Kwangsi.

XI. — KWAN6TUN6 M « ("Tung").

^j^ Kwangchow F.

tlllj Hohshan

h.

l^M. Nanhsiung

C

(Canton).

^,^ Tehk'ing

c.

it&^ Shihsing

h

Its Nanhai

h.

Ifjll Fungchw'ar

1 h.

#^ P'anyu

h.

Pg^ K'aikien

h.

MM Hweichow

F

'j^^ Shunteh

h.

If ^ Kweishan

h

M'^ Tungkwan

h.

m^ Loting

c.

tfJl Pohlo

h

;^'fti Ts'unghwa

h.

^^ Tungiigan

h.

^^ Oh'angning

h

II P^ Lungmen

h.

|g^ Sining

h.

^^ Yungngan

h

frW Sinning

h.

mm Haifung

h

iti^ Tsengch'eng h.

^HM Fuhkang

T.

^^ Luhfung

h

§[Ij Hsiangshan

h.

fijll Lungchw'ar

> h

5gf-f- Sinhwei

h.

#M Chihk'i

T.

^2p Lienp'ing

c

-.7[t Shanshui

h.

fpfiK Hoyiien

h

^^ Ts'ingyiien

h.

M Lien

c.

%^ Hwop'ing

h

^$ Sinngan

h.

^llj Yangshan

h.

IS Hwa

h.

^iHI Ch'aochow

F

M\il Lienshan

T.

^1^ Haiyang

h

mm Chaok'ing

F.

^Ig Fungshun

h

1^^ Kaoyao

h.

18^ Shaochow

F.

M^ Ch'aoyang

h

B^ Szehwei

h.

^^ K'iihkiang

h.

Jf ^ Kiehyang

h

■SrfB. Sinbsing

h.

^^ Lohch'ang

h.

^ip Jaop'ing

h

^^ Yangch'un

h.

tfli Jenhwa

h.

Mik- Hweilai

h

]§nfl Kaoming

h.

fLDi Juyiieii

h.

±m Tapu

h

,il^ Ngenp'ing

h.

^jjf. Wungyiien

h.

•^m Ch'enghai

h.

^1t Kwangning

h.

^^ Yingteh

h.

=i^ P'uning

-h.

Pg^Ji K'aip'ing

h.

572

KWANGTUN& (CONTINUED). KWEICHOW.

S!i Kiaying C

^KH Gh'angloh h.

IJ'll^ Hsingning h.

■^P-M l"ingyuen h.

f^t^ Ohenp'ing h.

%fy Tienpeh h.

■gg Sin-i h.

-ffc Hwa c.

^;i| Wuchw'an h.

;g:^ Shihch'eng h.

j^jW Lienchow

^M Ilohp'u
g|lj Lingshan

SJC K'in

|5^*S Fangch'eng

F.

h.
h.

C

h.

®'Hi Leichow
fg^ Haik'ang
^•^ Suik'i
■0m Siiwen

pa Yangkiang

F
h
h
h

T

-^j^ Kaochow

j^^ Meuming

F.
h.

H'jtl K'iungchow
^[Ij K'iungshan

F
h

f^jH Ch'fingmai h.

^^ Tingngan h.

"^^ Wench'ang h.

•^Ih) Hweit'img h.

IJS^ Lohhwei h.

Slj^ Linkao h.

it Tan c.

M Yai C

^^ Kanngen h.

^■(l; Ch'anghwa h.

^7jC Lingshui h.

M Wan h.

K^vnng'tiins has G Intenrlancies, each administered by a Taot'ai j£ ^'•

1° Olinok'ing F. til S jj^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the region W.
ot the hi,i,'h ridges, over the Prefectures of Chaok'ing P., and Loting Chow ^ ^ ffl-

2° il'n-cioho'w F. iS 'i'l'l /|if. —Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hweichow F.,
Ch'aochow F. jfi ffl flf and Kiaying Chow ^ i® #1-

3 Kw^angelww F. ^ )^ J^ 'Canton). — Provincial Grain Intendant for
Kwangtung; in charge of taxes on land cultivated by the people and by soldiers; con-
trols water communications.

4° Shaoclww F. tS #1 Jjf . — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Nanhsiung
Chow ^ £S W, Shaochow F., and Lien Chow ^ )W ; controls water communications.

5° K'lungcho^v F. ^ )N1 J^. — Civil and military jurisdiction over K'iungchow
F., and Yai Chow H Wl-

6° Kaochow F. ^ ^ 1^. — Civil and Milita-y jurisdiction over Kaochow F.,
Lienchow F. M ^ fl?", Leichow F. S ffl )f and Kin Chow |fc ffl.

XIL — KWEICHOW :t ffl ("Kwei

;tlt Kweiyang

F

f;-^ Kweichuh

h.

flM. Lungli

h

^^ Kweiting

h

^^ Siuwen

h

i K'ai

c

^# Tingfan

c

^jl|| Kwangshun

c

,gj^H Szechow

F

3E^ Yiihp'ing

h

Tff^ Ts'ingk'i

h

,gg Szenan F.

^ft Nganhwa h.

^)|| Wuchw'an h.

Epcr. Yinkiang h.

^^ Chenytien F.

^jg| Ohenyiien h.

MM Shiping h.

Rl^ T'ienchu h.

^^ Hwangp'ing c.

^tT'ungjen
mt T'ungj6n

F.

h.

feM Sungt'ao T.
^^ Lip'ing F.

^^ K'ait'ai h.

^^ Kinp'ing

hsiang.
7l<^ Yungts'ung. h.

KWEICHOW (continued). NGANHWEI.

573

^M Nganshun

F.

^^ Tuyiin

F.

:k^ Tating

F

^£ P'uting

h.

/\^ Paiichai

t.

7K:^ Sliuich'6ng

t

H^ Chfinning

c.

^^ Tuyiin

h.

^^ P'ingyiien

0

^'^ Yungning

c.

^B& Mahoh

c.

f^H K'iensi

c

JJIII Ts'ingchen

h.

^llj Tuhshan

c.

j|!^^ Weining

c

^£p Nganp'ing

h.

^qs Ts'ingp'ing

h.

$0 Pihtsieh

h

llPtS' Langtai

t.

^jffi Lipo

h.

mm Tsun-i

F

mm Hsing-i

F.

^M P'ingyueh

c.

^^ Tsun-i

h

^H Hsing-i

h.

•^iff Meit'an

h.

fllH$ T'unglze

h

^g P'ungan

h.

^^ Wungngau

h.

Uli Suiyang

h

^^ Ngannan

h.

^a Yiik'ing

h.

JE^ Cliengngan

c

^s. Chengfung

c.

^5PT Shihts'ien

F.

'fZ'^ J6nhwai

h

^$ P'ungan

T.

11^ Lungts'uen

h.

fia J§nhwai

T

Kweicho'w has 3 Inteiidanoies, each administered by a Taot'ai j§ ^t :

1° Lip'ins F :S ^ W' — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the ICastern portion
of Kweichow, over the Prefectures of Lip'ing F., Tuyiin F. IK ^ ^i C'hfinyiien F. fB
^ ;ff, Szechow F. g. W »ff, T'ungjfn F. ^ -fr ^ff and Sungt'ao T'ing ti M E.

2° K^veiyang F. Si H^ flf • — Inti-ndant of rice tribute for Chinese soldiers.
Military jurisdiction over Kweiyang F., P'ingyueh Chovi' ^ ^ ffl, Shihts'ien F. (q |If
f^ and Jgnhwai T'ing -fc ® ®,.

3° Pihtsieh hsien ^ |B (K- — Civil and Military jurisdiction, in the Western
portion of Kweichow, over Kweiyang F. '^ I® MP, Nganshun F. ^ |llH Hf, Szei;an F.
,g W Iff-, Tating F. A ^ Iff, Tsun-i F. ig ^ flff, Hsing-i F. M g MF. Wfining Chow
gi, ^ ^.| and P'ungan T'ing # ^ ©,.

XIII. - NGANHWEI ^ ^ ("An").

^a Ngank'ing

ijg^ Hwaining
;fK:S T'ungch'eng
^llj Ts'ienshan.
±i) T'aihu
jjgj^ Suhsung
ggtl "Wangkiang

;^;H1 Hweichow
W^ Hih
ffc'if Hsiuning
^iS Wuyiien

F.

%m K'imfin

h.

ilb'IH Ch'ichow

F

h.

^ I

h.

^'i^ KwHch'i

h

h.

mm Tsihk'i

h.

fflig- Ts'ingyang

h

h.

^li T'ungling.

h

h.

^iiH Ningkwoh

F.

ji\if, Shiht'ai

h

h.

"b^j^ Siiench'fing

h.

^^, Kientph

h

h.

^g Ningkwoh
m King

h.
h.

:^y5£ Tungllu

h

F.

:i;qi T'aip'ing

h.

±^ T'aip'ing

F

h.

fti-|Tsingteh

h.

^•^ Tangt'u

h

h.

f^m Nanling

h.

^^ Wuhu

h

h.

lif^ Panch'ang

h

574

NftANHWEI (CONTINnED). SHANSI.

a:fH Lflchow F.

-^^ Hohfei h.

0_fl_ Liikiang h.

^^ Shuch'fing h.

M^ Wuwei c,

^ Ch'ao h.

iaH Fungyang F.

M.1^ Fungyang h.

•^^ Hwaiyiien h.

Sit Tingyiien h.

# Sheu c.

^4 Fungt'ai h.

;jg Suh c.

^^ Lingpih h.

mm Tingchow F.

J|.^ Feuyang h.

M± Yingshang h.

^£[5 Hwohk'iu h.

^ Poh c.

(1^^ Koyang h.

jlfi^\i T'aihwo h.

^M M6ngch'6ng h.

^^ Kwangteh C

^^ Kienp'ing h.

m Ch'U C.

■^i^ Ts'uentsiao h.

^^ Laingan h.

ft Hwo C.

■^lll Hanshan h.

7a:$ Luhngan C-

i^l\\ Yingshan h.

^llj Hwohshan h.

m Sze C

WfHf Hsii-i h.

^:& T'iench'ang h.

SfpJ Wuho h.

Nganh'wei has 3 Intendancies, each administered by a Titot'ai jg 5 '■

1° Kungyang ®i 1^ flf . — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Fungyang F.
and Yingnhow P. sH iHI iff, extended also to Luhngan Chow '^ ^ W and Sze Chow

m «■

2° Ngan'i'ing V. $ ^ J^. —Civil jurisdiction over Ngank'ing F , Liichow P.
IE #1 W, Ch'U Chow iK #1 and Hwo Chow ?P #1.

3° Wuhu hsien iS iW Ii6- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Hweichow F.
® ffl flf , Ningltwoh F. ^ a W, Ch'ichow P. iHl ffl ;ff, T'aip'ing F. >k 2|I ;f and
Kwangteh Chow JS ^ )W- Superintendent of Customs.

XIV. — SHANSI Oj W ("Sha").

it?Jc
S

T'aiyiien

Yangk'iih

T'aiyiien

Yiitz'e

T'aikuh

K'i

Siikeu

Kiaocii'^ng

Wenshui

K'olan

Lan

Hsing

zpjg P'ingting

^ Yii

mf^ Sheuyang

F.

h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.
h.

Hsin

Tingsiang
Tsingloh

Tai

Wut'ai
Kwoh
Fanchi

Paoteh
Hok'iih

P'ingyang
Linffin
Hungtung
Feushan

C.
h.
h.

C.

h.
h.
h.

c.

h.

F.
h.

h.
h.

^^ Hsiangning
^1^ Yohyang
EftSt K'iihwoh
%^ Yihch'fing
±^ T'aip'ing
^1^ Siangling
?9'll F6nsi
^ Kih

Hwoh

Ohaoch'^ng

^^ Lingshih

fiW P'uchow

:^9| Yungtai
E^@ Lintsin

c.

h.
h.

F.

h.
h.

SHANSI (continued).

575

,^^ Yiihsiang
Hfpf Yungho
^^ Wants'iien
^K Tshi

f^ Hsiai
^g, Nganyih
^ Hsia
■<p^ P'ingluh
Juich'eng

m Kiang

Yiienk'iih
f^ Wenhsi
^ Kiang
?^llj Tsihshan
}SI^ Hotsin

m sih

;/cW Taning
j^^ Yunghwo

iS?^ Lungan
^f^ Ch'angchi
-ft^ Ch'angtze
Tg^ T'unliu
^jg Siangyiien
11:^ Luch'eng
gP Hukwan
^M Lich'eng

h.
h.
h.
h.

C.
h.
h.
h.

h.

c.

h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

C.

h.
h.
h.

F.

h.
h.
h.

h.
h.
h.
h.

KM

mm
mm
m)i\

fui

F§nchow

Ffenyang

Hsiao-i

P'ingyao

Kiaihsiu

Shihleu

Lin

Yungning

Ninghsiang

Ts'in

Ts'inyiien
Wuhsiang

Tsehcho^

Fungt'ai

Kaop'ing

Yangch'6ng

Lingchw'an

Ts'inshui

Liao

Hwoshun
Yiishfi

Tat'ung

Tat'ung

Hwaijfin

Hwunyiien

Ying

Shanyin

^lij Yangkao h.

yiM T'ienchfin h.

Kwangling h.

LingkMu h.

IMi^ Ningwu

F

%^ Ningwu

h

"lliilll P'ienkwan

h

S^M Shench'i

h

^H Wuseh

h

M¥ Shohp'ing

F

:&5 Yiuyiih

h

M Shoh

c

^g Tsoyiin

h

^# P'inglu

h

Sf fl: Kweihwa

T

%\U^m Hwolin

-

koheul

T

m^^m Sahlahts'i

T

I7JCM Ts'ingshui-

ho

T

*Eigft T'ohk'oh-

t'oh

T

^it Ningyuen

T

M%\ Hsinghwo

T

|!^i* T'aolin

T

fftjil Wuchw'an

T

5>!?> Wuyiien

T

5n«ansl has 4 Intendanoies, each administered by a Taot'ai j^ ^ :

1° Suiyiien ch'6ng^^^ (a town subordinate to Shohp'ing F. |^2p;|^)._civil
and Military jurisdiction over Kweihwa ch'Snp; ^ fl; ihl and Suiyiien oh'Sng. Military
Superintendent controlling the affairs of Chinese Bannermen and of Mongols; in charge
of the Government postal service.

l" Tai Chow ft ffl. — Military jurisdiction over Tat'ung F. :/c ^ Jff-, Shoh-
p'ing F. ^ ZP )ff, Ningwu F. ^ S flSp, Hsin Chow ft '>H, Tai Chow f^ ffl and
Paoteh Chow fie ffi ffl ; in charge of water communications.

Keeps watch over .S important passes : Yenmftnkwan JB P^ M (%vild-goose gate-
barrier), Ijungch'i-k'ow ff '/tfe CI (dragon-pool pass), and Shahhu-k'ow Wl 1^ iJ (tiger-
slaying pass).

3" T'aiyiien V- dk 1^ M- — Civil jurisdiction over T'aiyiien F., Fflnohow F.
^ ^M, Imngan F. ijg ^ ifl^, Tsehohow ¥.^m M, Liao Chow -^ ^, Ts'in Chow
^> ^ and P'ingting Chow ^ ^ !>N; in charge of water communications. Controls
also the Government postal service and the tribute.

576

SHANSI (continued). SHANTUNG.

4° Yiin ch'dng ^ M- — Military jurisdiction, in the region E. of tbe Yellow
River, over P'ingyang P. 2p |^ ;f , P'uchow F. M ^ >^, Hsiai Chow )9I )W, Kiang
Chow J^ #l,HwohChow^ iMI and Sih Chow ^ iHI ; in charge of the Government
postal service and of water communications. Intendant of the salt revenue for the
Piovinces of Shansi, Shensi and Honan.

XV. — SHANTUNG [Ij M ("Sung";

mn Tsinan

F.

WftgTs'ingch'6ngh.

MM Yunch'eng

h

jg;^ Lihch'6ng

h.

^fpf Shangho

h.

J^. Shan

h

#g5 Ohangk'iu

h.

isgg^ Oh'engwu

h

IP^ Oheup^ng

h.

^m Yenchow

F.

^^ Tirigl'ao

h

i§J|| Tzechw'an

h.

mm Tzeyang

h.

ig^ Kiiye

h

^\\l Oh'angshan

h.

ftf- K'iihfeu

h.

m^ Sinch'eng

h.

^if Ningyang

h.

M^ Tungch'ang

F

^}pf Ts'iho

h.

g|5 Cheu (Tseu)

h.

^M Liaoch'eng

h

mM Ts'itung

h.

fjg7X Szeshui

h.

^g T'angyih

h

^1# Tsiyang

h.

m T'6ng

h.

ti^ Pohp'ing

h

^ Teh

c.

III! Yih

h.

^qS Ship'ing

h

;^,2p Tehp'ing

li.

mm Yangkuh

h.

iffq^ Ts'ingp'ing

h

MM Yiich'Sng

h.

^■^ Sheuchang

h.

0 Sin

h

ggg, Linyih

h.

fkjl Wenshang

h.

S . Kwan

h

^Jg^ P'ingyiien

h.

ftpi Kwant'ao

h

^ Ling

h.

^^ Tsining

C

,©, Ngen

h

-J4)^ Ch'angts'ingh.

l^isyji Kinhsiang

h.

itlj^ Kaot'ang

c

^^ Kiasiang

h.

m'k T'aingan

F

^ J Yiil'ai

h.

iipni^ Lints 'ing

c

^^ T'aingan

h.

^M Wuch'eng

h

;^2}i Tungp'ing

h.

'J/fil'H Ichow

F.

M.W Hsiatsin

h

^?SI Tungho

h.

]^llj Lanshan

h.

^ .K'iQ

h

qi^ P'ingyin

h.

■^l^ftg T^anch'eng

h.

ilfil Sint'ai

h.

A P'i

h.

^ttl Ts'ingchow

F

MM Laiwu

li.

g Kii

c.

MM Yihtii

h

lifiJ^ Feich'eng

h.

W^'JC Ishui

h.

t^lil Pohshan

h

^1^ Mengyin

h.

fs.'i^ Lintze

h

jEii^E Wuting

F.

gB^ Jihcliao

h.

!i,?^ Pohhsing

h

Mi^ Hweirnin

h.

M^i Kaoyiien

h

Hit Yangsin

h.

WW Ts'aochow

F.

^^ Lohngan

li

^^ Haifung

h.

fiifP Hots eh

h.

^5h Sheukwang

h

^|J|^ Lohling

h.

W Ts'ao

h.

g^ Ch'angloh

h

•1 Pin

c.

m P»h

c.

E^Hfj] Linkii

h

fljijf: Litsin

h.

|£ Pan

h.

^£(5 Ngank'iu

h

^'ffc Chanhwa

h.

^^ Kwanch'eng

h.

^;^ Ghuch'6ng

h

mm p'ut'ai

h.

^M Chaoch'eng

h.

SHANTUNG (CONTINUED). SHENSI.

577

^iWl Tgngchow F.

^^ P'englai h.

^ Hwang h.

ipllJj Fuhshan h.

^3 Sihsia h.

^^ Chaoyiien h.

^^ Laiyang h.

"^^ Ninghai c.

iC^ W6nt6ng h.

^W. Yungch'6ng h.

^^ Haiyang h.

Mi^ Laichow F.

M Yih h.

^Jg P'ingtu c.

m Wei h.

^g, Ch'angyih h.

m Kiao C

ilf^ Kaomih h.

IP^ Tsihmeh h.

Shantung has 4 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ai jl 2 :

1° Laicho-vr F jg ffl flf. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over TSngohow F.
§ ffl W, Laichow F., Ts'ingohow P. H ttl Mf and Kiao Chow S§ '>l'l ; in charge of water
communications, controls the Maritime Reorganization Board.

2° Tsinan F. ^ ^ ^. — Civil jurisdiction over Tsinan F., Tungoh'ang F. ^
B W , T'aingan P. ^ $ if, Wuting P. ^ S ;ff and Lints'ing F. Eg If flf; in char-
ge of the Government postal service and of water communications within his circuit.
Controls also the afEairs of Kaot'ang Chow 'i^ ^ ffl, Puh Chow iR ffl and Tungp'ing
Chow :t 2p ^i,|,|.

3° Teh Chow #.#!. — Grain Intendant, Overseer of the granaries, controls the
payment of the tribute in the Department of Teh Chow and the districts of Ch'ang-
ts'ing h.-^^m, Wnyih h. gg g 5i and Ts'ingp'ing h. Jf 2p fg.

4° Y^ncho'W F. ^ #1 jff . — Civil and Military jurisdiction over YSnchow P.
^ #1 flrf, lohow P. ^ ttl )^, Ts'aochow P. W H\ }^ and Tsining Chow B f^ ^ ;
in charge of water communications, of the Government postal service and of the con-
servancy of the Yellow River etc.

XVI. — SHENSI 1^ W ("She").

M^ Singan

F.

Wi Shang

c.

n K'ien

c

^^ Hsiao-i

t.

^^ Ohenngan

h.

®;j!| Wukung

h

^1^ Ningshen

t.

^^ Lohnan

h.

^^ Yungsheu

h

^^ Ch'angngan

h.

llj|§ Shanyang

h.

j^lt Hsienning

h.

^^ Shangnan

h.

f?|5 Pin

C

j^^ Hsienyang

h.

jr:7||C Sanshui

h

^3p Hsingp'ing

h.

iHliHI T'ungchow

F.

f^f-fc Shunhwa

h

gl/t Lint'ung

h.

:kM Tali

h.

^t^ Ch'angwu

h

^^ Kaoling

h.

'igM T'ungkwan

t.

m Hu

h.

f^g Chaoyih

h.

M^ Fungsiang

F

^03 Lant'ien

h.

^m Hohyang

h.

a^ Fungsiang

h

•M^ Kingyang

h.

^MOh'engch'enj

?h.

|i^[|j K'ishan

h

;^^^ Sanyiien

h.

if 1^ Hanch'eng

h.

Vm Paoki

h

^JS Chcuchih

h.

^?I<, Pehshui

h.

^M Fufung

h

5i^ Weinan

h.

ip Hwa

c.

11? Mei

h

§ q^ Fup'ing

h.

^1^ Hwayin

h.

m^ Linyiu

h

mU Lits'iien

h.

mm P'uch'Sng

h.

•i'fl:|t K'ienyang

h

IgJ-g T'ungkwan

h.

HI Lung

c

M Yaochow

c.

37

578

SHENSI (continued). SZECHW'aN.

n

M'¥ Hanchung F-

1^^ Fuhp'ing t.

^it Tingyiien t.

^M Liupa t.

^^ Nanchdng h.

^^ Paoch'^ng h.

Ch'fingku h.

Yang h.

Sihsiang h,

;Ki Fung h.

p^ Ningk'iang c.

^ Mien h

H^^ Liohyang h.

M^ Hsingngan F

ilH Hanyin t.

^^ Ngank'ang h.

mm

P'ingli

Siinyang

Pehho

Tzeyang

Shihts'iien

T§nng9n

Fushi

Nganseh

Kants'iien

Paongan

Ngan ting

Ichw'an

Yfinch'ang

Y^nchw'an

Tingpien

Tsingpien

h.
h.

h.
h.

h.

F.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

m)\\

mm

***

m

Fu C.

Lohchw'an h.

Ghungpu h.

Ikiin h.

Suiteh C

Michi h.

Ts'ingkien h.

Wupao h.

Yiilin

Yiilin

Shenmuh

Fukuh

Kiai

Hwaiyvien

F.
h.
h.
h.
c.
h.

Sbenai has 5 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ai jS g :

1° Singan F. W ^ M- — Intendant of the rice tribute, with civil jurisdiction
over Siugan F., K'ien Chow $g #|, Fu Chow Sg *l, T'ungchow F. g #| ^j^Fetc;
also in charge of water communications.

2" T'ungkvran T'ing ^ ^ fi. — Civil and Military juriadiotion over T'nng-
kwan T., and Shang Chow ^ #1.

3° Fungsiang F .R ^ f^. — lutendant of the salt revenue, with civil jurisdic-
tion o_ver Fungsiang F., and Pin Ohow ^ #1 ; also in charge of water communications.

4° Yiilin F. i||j # ifi^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over YSnngan F. J£ ^
JSP, Yiilin P., Suiteh Chow ifS ^ ')H etc. Intendant of the salt and tea revenues.

5° Hanctanns F. ^ iji fl^. — Civil and MiKtary jurisdiction over Hanchung P.
and Hsingngan P. ft ^ iS^ ; also in charge of water communications.

XVIf.

^115

Ch'engtu

^m

Ch'engtu

^^ Hwayang

H^ Shwangliu

iS.^ Wenkiang

#f

Sinfan

^1

Kint'ang

^IP

Sintu

%

P'i

m

Kwan

%

P'6ng

%%

Oh'ungning

n

Kien

mm

Oh'ungk'ing

—

- SZECHW'AN m Jll

F

h.

h.
h

Jtj^ Sintsin h
;g| Han c
j\-i}f> Shihfang h

II >

h.
h.
h.
h.
h.

V,

* Tze C

t^ J6nsh8u h
^^ Tzeyang h
^W Tsingyen h
^^ Neikiang h

11.
h.
h.
c.
c.

^ Mien C
m Tehyang h
^ Ngan h
lltjr Mienchuh h

i$?t Tzet'ung
JPiH Lokiang

h.
h.

1^ Meu C.

gtjil W6nchw'an h.

^^ Lifan t.

^ji Ningyiien F.

If ^ Sich'ang h.

^fS Mienning h.

^ij| Y^nyuen h.

^M Hweili c.

Jl^ Yuehtsiien t.

szechw'an (continoed).

579

filW Paoning F

^pf» Langchung h.

^^ Ts'angk'i h.

'^% Nanpu h.

^jQ Kwangyiien h.

Bgffc Chaohwa h.

a Pa c.

5iil T'ungkiang h.

J^fL Nankiang h.

]|3 Kien c.

MBt Shunk'ing F.

^36 Nanch'ung h.

iS% Sich'ung h.

M P'6ng c.

^llj Yingshan h.

mm Hung h.

^^ Kwangngan c.

1^;;^ Linshui h.

^fte Yohch'i h.

^W Suchow F.

,||^ Mapien t.

±^ Ipin h.

M^ K'ingfu h.

tM Fushun h.

^^ Nank'i h.

^% Ch'angning h.

Jg Kao h.

^M Yiinlien h.

J* Kung h.

^^ Hsingw6n h.

^g Lungch'ang h.

^llj P'ingshan h.

^7lc Suyung T.

jjcW Yungning h.

®^ Leipo t.

g^ Ch'ungk'ing F.

iLiil Kiangpeh t.

a Pa h.

^^ Kiangtsin h.

:^# Ch'angsheu h.

:^<jl| Yungchw'an h.

^g Yungch'ang h.

^aC K'ikiang h.

^jl| Nanchw'an

h

^ Hoh

c

\^ Feu

c

^^ T'ungliang

h

:*tj£ Tatsuh

h

^iJj Pihshan

h

^^ Tingyiien

h

1"^ Tiuyang C

flllj Siushan h.

S^^ K'ienkiang h.

^jfC P'fingshui h.

,^ Chung C.

gifP Fungtu h.

^fL Tiehkiang h.

g6[l] Liangshan h.

®jtt| Kw'eichow F.

9-W Fungtsieh h.

M\h Wushan h.

mB Yiinyang h.

M Wan h.

m K'ai h.

izl^ Taning h.

;5|£ Shihchu T.

16^ Suiting F.

^ Tah h.

M^ Tunghsiang h.

^^ Sinning h.

il K'u h.

:)zft Tachuh h.

^2p T'aip'ing h.

Jsga Ch'fingk'ow t.

115 Lungngan F.

2p5e P'ingwu h.

^fli Kiangyiu h.

;5;^ Shihts'iien h.

^B^ Ghangming h.

mm Sungp'an T.

^iJHT'ungchw'anF.

;^g Sant'ai h.

JH^ Shehung h.

H;^ Yfint'ing h.

4"^ Ohungkiang h.

3^^ Suining h.

^^ P'6ngk'i h.

^^ Lohchi h.

^■Q Nganyoh h.

M Mei C.

^;g Tanleng h.

lylU P'fingshan h.

"f^jp^ Ts'ingshen h.

^i£ Kiating F.

MM Ngopien t.

llllj Yohshan h.

MM Ngomei h.

gtH Hungya h,

^tC Kiahkiang h.

fj|;@ Kienwei h.

^ Yung h.

M^ Weiyiien h.

31S K'iung
;>ca Tayih
Jiflt P'ukiang

C.

h.
h.

ii Lu G.
:K1&±pi Kiusing

T'usze

^^ Nahk'i h.

^Q, Hohkiang h.

f£^ Kiangngan h.

^M Tachow F.

31:^ Yangan h.

^^ T'ients'iien c.

^Uj Mingshan h.

^m Yungking h.

^llj Lushan h.

Jft^ Ts'ingk'i h.

tr^M Tatsienlu T.

iiM^ Tsingsi-

kwan t.

580

SZECHW'AN (continued). YtJNNAN.

SzechTc'an has 6 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ai jS S '

I'LuOhO'w ifi W. — Civil jurisdiction, in S. Szechw'an, over Suchow F. ^
ffl f^, Lu Chow, part of Tze Chow ff ttl and Siiyung T'ing ® 7Jt ^•

2° Oh'uDSk'ing; F. S S W'- — In charge of the Government postal service, in
Eastern Szechw'an, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'ungk'ing F., Kw'ei-
chow F. m Wl ff, Suiting F. i^ ^ W, Chung Chow X W, Yiuyaug Chow M H ffl
and Shihchu T'ing ^S ^ ISi.

3° PaoiriQg F. •K ^ ;IS^.— Civil and Military jurisdiction, in N. Szech'wan, over
PaoningF., partof T'ungohw'an F. }S )\\ ;f and Shunk'iug F. d S ^•

4° Yacho'w F. f^ #1 fl^. — In charge of the Government postal service in the
extreme S., with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Yachow F., Ningyiien F. ^M'fl'i
Kiating F. 3g ^ flf, Mei Chow M ffl and K'iung Chow US ^1-

5° Ota'dnstu F. ^ ^ J^. — Civil and Military jurisdiction over Ch'gngtu F.
Mien Chow f^ 'Hi, T'ungohw'an F. ^ M flSf, Lungngan F. M 3f ^. Meu Chow SJ
Wl, part of Tze Chow ^ H] and Sungp'an T'ing JJS Bl E ; also in charge of water
communications.

6° Oh'dngtu F. — Provincial Intendant of the salt and tea revenues of Szechw'an;
also in charge of the Government postal service.

XVIII. — YUNNAN m ^ ("Yun").

S^ Yunnan

F.

P^^ Omi (Ami)

c.

^Ji Kingtung

T

^BJi K'uenming

h.

It Ning

c.

■g^ Fumin

h.

its T'unghai

h.

J^^ Kwangnan

F

®H Iliang

h.

fpj"^ Hosi

h.

•^ Paoning

h

^Hfl Sungming

c.

St^ Sihngo

h.

#^ Tsinning

c.

^ g Mfingtze

h.

;^H K-wangsi

c

Si; Ch'fingkung

h.

gjB^ Shitsung

h

^^ Nganning

c.

^^ Ch'uhsiung

F.

^•Jit K'iupeh

h

P^ Lotz'e

h.

3g^ Ch'uhsiung

h.

mm Mileh

h

ISM Luhfung

h.

gjg: Tingyiien

h.

glir K'uenyang

c.

5'^ Shihkao

h.

Ji^ Shunning

F

^P1 Imen

h.

m^^ Hehyfintsing

MM Shunning

h

m Yao

c.

^ Yiin

c

:^31 Tali

F.

&9# Pehyfintsii

ig

-jls^Tfa T'aihwo

h.

jt^ Nanngan

c.

A^ K'uhtsing

F

m Chao

c.

^^ Chennan

c.

^^ Nanning

h

^^ Yunnan

h.

^jI Kwangt'ung

h.

#^ Chanyih

c

f[5)l| Tfingch-w'an

c.

icM Tayao

h.

§j'5> Luhliang

c

jg^ Langk'iung

h.

^^ Lop'ing

c

^j|| Pinchw'an

c.

ittt Ch'§ngkiang

F.

.^^ Malung

c

^fl Yiinlung

c

fpf^ Hoynng

h.

^§1 Siintien

c

^Jl| Kiangchw'anh.

qj# P'ing-i

h

^1^ Linngan

F.

if^ Sinhsing

c.

^^ Siienwei

c

^7j< Kienshui

h.

E^^ Lunan

c.

;Ef^ Shihp'ing

c.

YUNNAN (continued).

581

la:^ Wuting

c.

iSL%^ T'alang

t.

^;i| Tungchw'an

F

TCSS? Yuenmeu

h.

^"^ Weiyiien

t.

#^ Hweitseh

h

## Luhk'iien

h.

Mit Menghwa

T.

J35g5 K'iaokia

t

MtL Likiang

F.

^i/c Chenyiien

T

MiL Likiang

h.

:^g Yungch'ang

F.

HJI Hohk'ing

c.

f^llj Paoshan

h.

nail Chaot'ung

F

^jjll Kienchw'an

c.

7J<^ Yungp'ing

h.

M-^ Ngenngan

h

mM T'fingyueh

t.

^^ Yungshan

h

yttC Tiienkiang

c.

^H Ch6nhsiung

c

if¥ Sinp'ing

h.

7J<4b Yungpeh

T.

M^^B Chenpien-

^m P'ueul

F.

PI ft K'aihwa

F.

fu-i

T

%'m Ningeul

h.

^llj W^nshan

h.

iB^ Szemao

t.

Yiinnan has 6 Intendaneies, each administered by a Taot'ai jg ^ :

1° Tali F. ;>C ^ ^. — Military Intendaat of the Government post stations in
W. Yiinnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over Tali P., Ch'uhsiung F. @ i^ IjSf,
Yungch'ang F. jjc g Iff, Likiang F. M tt #, M6nghwa T'ing ^ -ffc SS and Yunfj-
peh T'ing ^ ;ft 11.

2° Tiiaiiao F- S^ 1^- — Provincial Intendant of the salt revenue for the pay
of Chinese soldiers.

3° Siintien CbO'n^ f§ ■^ tt|. — Military Intendant of the Government post sta-
stions in E. Yiinnan, with Civil and Military jurisdiction over K'iihtsing F. ^^ jff,
Tungchw'an F. M )\\ iff, Chaot'ung F. Bg ji fl^, Ch'Sngkiang F. iJ ^ iff and
Kwangsi Chow ^ M ffl .

4° P'ueul P. ^ iH! iff.— Civil and Military jurisdiction in the S., over P'ueul F.,
Ch6nyiieu T'ing ^ jjc E, Yiienkiang Chow yu tt W, Kingtung T'ing Jg ^^ ^„ Shun-
ning F. d ^ iff- and Chonpienfu-i T'ing St ^ Jfe # IS-

•5° Mdngtze hsien ^ § jR. — Civil jurisdiction over Linngan F. ^ S iff,
K'aihwa F. ^ ■({; iff and Kwangnan F. ^ ^ iff. Superintendent of Customs.

6° Yamian F. S 1^ iff. — Provincial Grain Intendant for Yiinnan. Military
Intendant of the Government post stations, with Civil jurisdiction over Yiinnan F., and
Wuting Chow |^ ^ #(-; also in charge of agriculture and water communications.

LIST

of the

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures

of ManchurJa ("Man").

I.

SHENGKING ^ « ("King").

^Ji Fungt'ien F-

^fZ Hsingjen h.

^^ Oh'engteh h.

M% Liaoyang c.

^ p Yingk'ow t.

(Newchwang).

%^ Haich'fing h.

^i^ Kaip'ing h.

;g Fuh c.

^^ Kinchow t.

K'aiyiien h.

\^ T'iehling h.

^ffl Kinchow
^ Kin
W^ Ningyuen
^ff» Suichung

F.
h.

c.
h.

^^ Kwangning h.

mm Hailung F.

%^ Tungp'ing h.

-^» Sifung h.

^^ Singan h.

;|d)pjii[- Liuho h.

^K Sinming F.

^^ Ohfinngan h.

^^ Changwu h.

an Ch'angt'u F.

%^ Hwaiteh h.

^fl; Funghwa h.

J^ip K'angp'ing h.

^jjgi Liaoyuen

Funghwang T.

Siuyen c.

Ngantung h.
(Antung).

Kw'antien h.

lift

lit

Hsingking

T'unghwa
HwaijSn
Lingkiang
Tsihngan

T.
h.
h.
h.
h.

T'aonan F.
Tsingngan h.
K'ait'ung h.

Sbdngking h&s 3 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ai jS S -

1° Fangt'ienF. ^^ M (Mnkden). — Civil jurisdiction over Mukden; in charge
of the Government postal service in the Central and Northern portions of Sh&ngking
Province.

2° Fungh-trang Oh'4iig IE S, jffi- — Civil and Military jurisdiction over the
Eastern portion of ShgngMng Province.

3° Yingk'o-wT'tag^ P ^ (Neweh-wanje). —Military jurisdiction over
Mukden, Kinchow F. ifi tt! M and Shanhaikwan U) ^ IS (this latter within Chihli
Province), etc. Superintendent of Customs.

MANCHURIA : KIRIN.

HEHLUNOKIANa.

583

n. — KIRIN ^ # ("Kir").

^tt Kirin P.

■^0 Oh'angsheu

h.

^W Pinchow

T

^^ It'ung c.

fll^Shwangch ' eng t .

mm Sinch'fing

F.

6611 Ilan

F

^•^ Wuch'ang t.

(Petuna).

:kM Tat'ung

h

^ft Tunhwa h.

^j^ Yiishu

h.

M'M T'angyuen

h

^^ Yenkih t.

^fL Linkiang

c

^# Suifen t.

:g^ Ch'angch'un

F.

fSC^ P'anshih h.

^^ Nungngan

h.

Kirin has 1 Intendancy administered by a Taot'ai '[^ £, who has jurisdic-
tion over Kirin F., Ch'angch'un F. :g # W', Wuch'ang T'ing 3i ^ £„ YfenkihT'ing
M * B, Suit^n T'ing ^ ^ B and Pinohow T'ing 3t W B-

III. — HEHLUNGKIANG (AMUR) m M iL ("Hei").

HHttM Hehlung-
kiang ch'§ng
(Aigun).

^;^ Hehshui t.

^^ Talai t.

Hehlnn^kians has 2 Intendancies, each administered by a Taot'ni iff ^ :
1° Suih-wa V.fg -ft f?f . — Military jurisdiction over Hulan F. Of B8 fl^f , Sai-

hwa F., and Hailun T'ing ?§ 1^ B-

2° Tsitsihar 5 ® Hn W- — Civil jurisdiction over Tsjtsihar, Talai T'ing -^ ^

K and Hehshui T'ing iS ;|t |g ; fulfils the office of Provincial High Judge.

Igft; Suihwa

F

7^:^ Muhlan h

1^0 Yuk'ing

h.

m^ Hailun T

i^llf Hulan

F.

#1^ Ts'ingkang h

Bit Pay6n

c.

^If Lansi

h.

-■_A J T - rm .4i_? iVr ^

584

SINKIANG.

Prefectures and Sub-prefectures
of Chinese Turkestan

or Sinkiang ("Sin").

if M.

jift Tih-hwa F.

(Urumtsi).

jAft Tih-hwa h.

^■^ K'it'ai h.

g§ Ch'angkih h.

J^^ Feuk'ang h.

^^ Peuyiien h.

^^ Suilai h.

mm Yenk'i F.

(Karashar).

ff2p Sinp'ing h,

^^ Shikwang h.

^■A Lunt'ai h.

§|}§ Shanshan h.

mm Shuleh F.

BitPfl- Shufuh h.

(Kashgar).

^BiP K'iashi h.

[od^ Pach'u c,

g-:^ Soch'e F

(Yarkand).

^^ Yehch'eng h.

J^llj P'ishan h.

la^ Wensuh F.

(Aksu).

^^ Wensuh h.

pfj^ P'aich'6ng h.

^* K'uch'e C

(Kucha),

^fl Shaya h.

*K Hwotien F.

(Khoten).

^'^ Yiitien h.

^^f Lohp'u h.

^^i^H Yingkih-

shaeul T
(Yangi-Hissar).

.^fl- Wushih T.
(Uch-Turfan).

HH ChSnsi

n^^ Hohmih
(Kami).

|it## T'ulufan
(Turfan).

T.
T.

K'u-

eulk'ohlah WusuT.
(Kurkara-Usu).

^m Hi F.

^^ Suiting h.

WM. Ningyu^n h.

i^M Tsingho T.

T'ahch'eng T.
(Tarbagatai).

Sinkians has 4 Iirtendanctes, each administered by a Taot'ai ^ ^ :

1° Wdnsub F. J& ® ii^ (Aksu or Oksu). — Military jurisdiction over Aksu ; in
charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits. Intendant of the Board of
Pacification for Mongol tribes ; checks the invasions of the Bonrouths fli ® ^ (a
vagrant Mahomedan tribe bordering on Kashgar). Inspector of Customs.

2° Shufu h. JS6 f& ip (Kashgar). — Military jurisdiction over Kashgar ; in
charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute and lawsuits ; political and commercial Agent
controlling foreign trade ; administers the Bourouth territory ; Inspector of Customs.

SINK.IANG (continued). 585

3° Ningyiien h. ^ ^ JS- — Military jurisdiction over Hi F. ^ |g j^ and
T'ahch'eng T'ing i^ JSJ B (Tarbagatai) ; in charge of waterways, agriculture, tribute
and lawsuits ; political and commercial Agent controlling foreign trade ; Inspector of
Customs.

4°Tih-hwaF. ^ ^ Iff- (Urumtsi). — Eeorganizator of Palik'uen B JB. i^;
Grain Intendant; fulfils the office of Provincial High Judge. Military jarisdiotion
over Chensi T'ing ^ M IE, Tih-hwa F., Hami T. B^ ^ B, Turfan T. »t ® # iB,
Kurkara-Usu T. ^ M l?f ill J& IS ^ and Muhlei-ying tJC ^ ©.

Alphabetical List

of

the Cities and Towns of China.

DIRECTIONS
On the manner of using and finding a name in this Alphabetical List.

First CsLse. — The reader knows the name of the city or
town but wants fuller details, thus "Shanghai". On referring
to the "Alphabetical List," he will find in the first column the
rank of the town, a hsien (h) or district town; in the second
column the equivalent Chinese characters for the same place; in
the third column the Province in which it is situated, and in the
fourth or last column the Prefecture to which the town is
subordinate, Sungkiang F.

Second Case. — The reader is acquainted with the Chinese
characters or ideographs, but wants to find in the list the names
which correspond to them, thus _h f^. Each Chinese character
contains a certain number of strokes, and these must be first
counted, thus _t has 3, and then on referring to the character
list of 3 strokes, its pronunciation "Shang" may be easily found,
and so on for all the other ideographs. This method entails a
great deal of drudgery and loss of time, but the Chinese
language having no alphabet, it is the system generally adopted
throughout the Empire.

Many cities and towns have, besides their ordinary names,
literary and archaic appellations ; in this list, we shall give only
the ordinary names.

8TLLABART OR KBT.

587

SyUahtu^ containing the first character of Chinese towns
with their corresponding phonetic equivalents. The classification
is based on the number of strokes in each character.

II strokes

JE OhAng

«Ming

;^ Shuh

^ Kin

■^ Kan

^ Ngan

^Siu

:?: King

:ft,Kiu

535 K'iao

■g" Peh

il^Tih

^K'o

A Pah

6 Peh

W Si

IP Tsih

m Ku

4t Peh

E Sze

li? Ts'in

^ K'uen

III strokes

i^ P'i

m T'ung

iJfc W6n

1^ Kwan

ip P'ing

jy- T'u

^Wu

^ Kwo

J|| Ohw'an

;H Shih

^ Ts'iien

j^Wu

#J Lai

f Hsia

Hi Sien

EP Yin

35 Wu

M Liang

H San

4TTa

«tYiu

«:Lin

\l\ Shan

m T'a

VII strokes

M Yiu

a£ M6ng

± Shang

-f^ Tai

?JC Yiien

lIlRMln

:k Ta

•A T'ai

# Oh'ih

par 0(A)

-tYih

ff T'ing

M Oh'6n

VIII strokes

Jg P'ei

^ Yu

5 Tso

J*!. Oh'fing

mpi

« Yiu

M Ch'6ng

^ Ch'ang

?P Shao

ly strokes

jjc Yung

I5J Pang

g Ch'ang

^Shi

5 Yiih

^ F6n

^ Ohao

?5^ Shuh

4" Chung

tfe Fu

Jl^ Ch'ang

m Siu

^ F6n

VI strokes

ffe Fuh

±£ Chi

fe Sung

ft Hwa

■g- Han

i^Chi

S Ting

H Jeh

^ Ch'eng

^ Hsiao

^ Chow

# Ts'ing

^ Kiai

M Oh'i

^ Hsin

Jg, Chung

:t Tung

^ Kung

'ff Chuh

5f|i$ Hsing

;g Fang

^ Yen

i^ Luh

^ Fuh

^ Hwan

BEFei

^ Yoh

ft Nei

^ Hoh

fFf I

_% Feu

S Yu

41 Niu

1^ Hsiang

«Kih

^ Fung

J^ Yii

(New)

# Hsing

«K'i

flSfFu

% Yiien

G Pa

f* Hsiu

Hd^K'i

^ Hang

ff- Shih

#1

^ Kiah

MHo

IX strokes

^ Shui

ffi J6n

ilK'ia

llf Hsii

± T'ai

f^ Ju

j| Kiiin

1^ Hu

Bg Chao

^ Tan

iD Ju

fIJLi

:f6 Hwa

*5 Ch6

5c T'ien

^ K'ao

^ Liang

^ Hwo

^ Ch^ng

^ Tsing

*Kih

^ Mien

fil

^ Ch6ng

t6 T'un

5: Kiang

iRNa

^I

*S Ch'6ng

3^ W6n

^ Kiao

fgPeh

?lJu

^ Ch'ung

5. Wu

0^5 K'iung

?» P'ei

(5^ Jui

?£ Fan

* Yiu

tt K'uh

^15 Ping

^K'i

^ Fung

7C Yiien

* Kwang

^ Sha

SRK'i

^Heu

^Lei

filj Shan

^Kih

B& Hoh

V strokes

^ Mi

efc Shen

^ K'iu

^H Hoh

588

SYLLABARY OR KEY.

^ Hsiang

|jj Hsiah

m Chang

^ Suh

Hg Kwoh

^ Hsien

ij Hsiah

:^ Chang

$!^li T'an

M Lai

m Hung

^ Hwang

S Oh'ang

^ T'ang

Ji,Lan

^ Kien

1^ Kao

^ Ch'ao

^ Tsiang

^ Lung

\jf K'ien

Mk Kao

|!t Ch'fin

;^ Tsing

m Mei

j^Ku

^1 King

i^ Oh'fin

Jff Ts'ing

lili Mei

^ Kung

•M King

^ Choh

;{^ Ts'ung

^ Ning

S Kwan

#K'u

jg Ch'u

ii T'ung

S P'6ng

*iP ^^"

J* Kung

# Ch'ung

-f$ Tze

?^ P'ing

^ Loh

!^ Kwei

f* Feu

?g Tze

If Poh

^ Mei

jg Lang

fj: Hsu

^ Wang

^ P'u

^ Meu

15 Lang

ff Hwai

M Wei

# Shan

^ Nan

^Li

m^

i^g Wu

^ Shan

gpai

^ Lien

m K'ang

M Yai

1^ Shao

|5|Pao

^ Ling

^K'i

MY6n

iK Shu

gPeh

^ Liu

^ K'ien

^ Yih

# Shu

MP'"S

BMa

gKii

# Yu

}g(^) Shun

^ Shi

^ Ming

^ K'uen

# Yii

jll Shun

^Shi

^Nei

^ Kung

^ Slang

^Sin

M Ngen

jjj Kwoh

XII strokes

■Jft Siang

M Sing

llggNgo

^ Lai

^Sun

^Siu

^ Poh

^ Leu

fg Ghao

# T'ang

m Sii

# Sang

S Li

M Chao

^ T6ng

g Siien

M8h6

^ Liang

^ Ch'ao

$ Tsao

f^ Siien

P Sheh

'it Liang

* Pei (P'i)

if Ts'ao

k T*ao

Tjhil Shen

DP Liao

HHeh

M Tsin

jftTih

|i5ljv Shen

ft Ling

m Ho

i5Tu

in Tsih

^ Shi

^ Lioh

J^ Hsiang

ff Tun

^ Ts'uen

^ Shoh

^Luh

;^ Hsiung

M Tze

ft Wei

#Su

^ Luh

SS Hu

^Tze

^Wei

^T'ai

iStMa

IP Hwa

M Wan

# Yang

M T'ang

a Mien

^ Hwang

Ii Wei

^feYao

#fcT'ao

1^ Mih

M Hwei

@ Wei

^ Y^n

§ Tsin

^Ngo

JH Hwun

a W6n

^ Ying

^ Ts'in

^ Pih

IB K'ai

^ Wu

^ Yii

*^ T'ung

^P'i

PgKiai

ii wu

Jg Yiien

^ Wung

S P'ien

# Kiang

« Ya

^ Y6n

^ Shang

jg Kieh

«Yang

X strokes

S Yih

^ Shen

^ Kieh

Ii Yang

^ Yiien

fgaii)8hun

tICK'in

^ Y6n

^Ch'a

^ Yiien

?KSih

JiKing

S Y6n

^Chi

»Yung

p Siang

ik Ko

MYiieh

jfPeu

M Sin

li'i Ko

g Yiin

SHai

XI strokes

^^ So

% K'ii

fp Yiin

S Hsia

^Su

-^ Kwei

SYLLABARY OR KEY.

589

XIII strokes

H Yeh

# Tz'e

^Tsih

^ Chung

(Sheh)

M Tz'e

Jf Ts'ien

% Fan

SP Cheu

ItYii

Br^ W^n

m T'ung

^ Hsia

m Ch'oh

^Yii

1^ Wu

# Wei

^ Hwan

^ Oh'u

^^ Yu

i|i Yin

:^ Wei

# Hwei

JliCh'u

IR Yuen

^ Yin

115 Y6n

^ Hwoh

t Fu

^ Yiien

jt Yiien

if^ Yoh

M Ki

f^ Hsiai

^ Yung

^U Lin

1^ Hsiang

XIV strokes

^51' Yung

XVI strokes

MMi

jf- Hwah

H Poh

# Hwei

^ Chang

XV strokes

f$ Chan

m sih

«I

m Chang

^ Chu

a Siang

^ Jui

^' Chao

^ Chan

# H^ng

H Siao

j^Kan

li Chao

?|g Ch'ao

M Hsih

J^ Siiin

M Kiai

;i|5 Fu

a OhSn

^ Hsing

^ Tsi

^ Kien

HFuh

tP Ch6ng

S Hung

^Tsih

^ K'ien

a Fung

if Ch'^ng

^ Hwoh

il Wei

IMKii

:! Han

M Oh'eng

«Ki

SYih

^ Kw'an

115 Hu

«Fu

^ K'ien

m Ying

# Kwei

MKai

*Fu

HKin

^ Ying

ft Lei

*K'i

m Hui

JlLi

^ Yung

iiLi

BKia

« I

WLu

M Lien

^ Kien

P Kiao

^Lii

XVIII

«:Ling

^Kuh

^J Kien

11 Lung

strokes

§& Lu

1^ Lih

M K'ing

m Ming

P,i Ma

^ Loh

«g K'ioh

m Pih

fl Chen

^ Ning

aSi Luh

S Kung

?i P'ing

M Fung

jg Nung

fi Man

;^ Kwang

11 Sui

f$i

# P'an

^ Meng

11 Lang

m Tseh

^ Kao

^ Sheh

fa Min

^Li

^ Ts'ien

iiKi

(Yeh)

*Pin

iH Lien

M Ts'ien

^ Kien

m Sh^ng

IB P'o

^Loh

H Tsih

It Kwei

ir Sin

jf P'u

# Lu

-^ Tsin

^ Lan

m suh

IS Shao

ULun

W Tsing

m Li

Bisui

# Sheu

H Mien

^ Tsun

iU Liu

i^sui

(Show)

il Ngeu

® Tuh

gi Sah

M Sui

jf Sih

^ Pao

ffl W6n

'^ Rhwang

M Sung

•itSu

M P'6ng

li Wu

J§ T'ah

^ Tah

i|S Shan

l!li Yih

XIX strokes

■B Tang

5g T'ang

}# Siin

I^Yii

it Tao

M Tieh

It Tan

III! Yung

'1^ Hwai

Ig Tien

^ Ts'ang

^ Teh

il K'iung

it Ts'ang

^ Ts'i

f|5 T'6ng ;

SVII strokes

M Li

^ Tsing

iS Tsing

H T'6ng

^Lo

n Tze

m T'ung

M Ts6ng

^Cheu

MLu

590

STLLABAKT OB KEY.

M Lung

l|S«

^Pa

m L-wan

XXVI strokes

M T'eng

«g T'6ng

m T'fing

S Y6n

^ Tsan

JiYao

m T'ieh

^ K'ii

SY^n

XXIY strokes

XX strokes

XXII strokes

XXI strokes

^ Kan

XXVII

Wi Hsien

i[Li

fi Ling

strokes

^K'i

tl Hoh

^Li

^-Jao

XXlll

XXV strokes

XXVIII

Wi Ling

ISKi

strokes

strokes

M. Lu

M Kwan

tg Kwan

«Pao

^ Lan

ULin

t Yiih

Alphabetical List

of

the Cities, Towns and open Ports

of China (*).

INDICATIONS.

P. — Fu Kf or Prefectia-e.

C. — Chow jH) or Department (independent).

c. — Chow iW „ ■ (dependent).

T. — T'ing B (independent).

t. — T'ing B (dependent).

h. — Hsien j^ or District.

oh. — ChSn fl Market tovm.

hs.— Hsiang^ Village.

ts. — Tsing ^ Brine well.

Name, Romanised.

Name, <

Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Aksu see W6n-

A.

suh F.

m.

#

Sinkiang

Ami (see Omi c).

n

^

Yunnan

Linngan

F.

Amoy (see Hsia-

in6n).

M

P^

Fokien

Ts'uenchow

F.

Antung(see Ngan-

tung).

«

%

Sh^ngking

Funghwang

T.

(*) This list is made out principally from the " Govemment Red Book " or

TsinshSn Luh ^ 1^ Mk' April, 1907, and also from the Tais'ing Hweiiien (collected
Institutes of the Tats'ing or present reigning dynasty), approved by the Emperor

592

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese

Province.

Subordinate to.

Canton (see

KwangchowF.)

Ch'aling c.

Chanhwa h.

Ohanpeh h.

Chanyih c.

Changyih h.

Changchow F.
Ohangkia-k'owT.

(Kalgan).

Ohangk'iu h.

Ohangming h.

Ohangp'ing h.

Ohangp'u h.

Changteh F.

Changwu h.

Ch'angchow F.

Oh'angchow h.

Ch'angchi h.

Ch'angch'un F.

Ch'anghsing h.

Ch'anghwa h.

Ch'anghwa h.

Oh'angkih h.

Ch'angkoh h.

Oh'angli h.

Ch'angloh h.

Oh'angloh h.

Oh'angloh h.

Ch'angloh h.

Ch'angngan h.

Oh'angning h.

Ch'angning h.

Oh'angning h.

Ch'angning h.

Gh'angp'ing c.

Ch'angsha F.

Oh'angsha h.

Oh'angshan h.

Ch'angshan h.

Oh'angsheu h.

^ m

m it

m re

m ^

ft w

1 ft

1 it

1 W

^ m

ft w

ft m

^ Oj

Kwangtung

Hunan

Shantung

Kansu

Yiinnan

Kansu

Fokien

Chihli

Shantung

Szechw'an

Fokien

Fokien

Honan

Shengking

Kiangsu

Kiangsu

Shansi

Kirin

Ch6kiang

Ch^kiang

Kwangtung

Sinkiang

Honan

Chihli

Shantung

Kwangtung

Fokien

Hupeh

Shensi

Hu,nan

Kiangsi

Szechw'an

Kwangtung

Chihli

Hunan

Hunan

Ch6kiang

Shantung

Szechw'an

Ch'angsha

Wuting

Sining

K'iihtsing

Kanchow

Tsinan

F.

Lungngan

F.

Lungygn

0.

Changchow

F.

Sinmin

F.

Soochow

F.

Lungan

F.

Huchow

F.

Hangchow

F.

Yai

C.

Tih-hwa

F.

Hsii

C.

Yungp'ing

F.

Ts'ingchow

F.

Kiaying

C.

Foochow

F.

Ich'ang

F.

Singan

F.

H6ngchow

P.

Kanchow

F.

Siichow

F.

Hweichow

F,

Shunt'ien

F.

Ch'angsha

F.

K'iichow

F.

Tsinan

P.

Ch'ungk'ing

P.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

593

Name, Komaniseb

Name, Chinese.

Pkovince.

Subordinate to.

Ch'angsheu

h.

^

*

Kirin

Kirin

P.

Gh'angshuh

h.

"^

m

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Oh'angt'ai

h.

fi

m

Pokien

Ohangchow

P.

Ch'angteh

P.

n

m

Hunan

Oh'angt'ing

h.

^

n

Fokien

T'ingohow

P.

Oh'angts'ing

h.

^

«

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Ch*angt'u

F.

1

m

Shfingking

Ch'angtze

h.

^

i^

Shansi

Lungan

P.

Ch'angwu

h.

&

^

Shensi

Pin

G.

Ch'angyang

h.

^

m

Hupeh

Ich'ang

P.

Gh'angyih

h.

g

a

Shanlung

Laichow

F.

Ch'angyiien

h.

g

m

Ghihli

Taming

P.

Chao

G.

m

Ghihli

Chao

c.

Yunnan

Tali

P.

Chaoch'fing

h.

M

m

Shansi

Hwoh

0.

Ohaoch'eng

h.

m

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

F.

Chaohwa

h.

Ba

fli

Szechw'an

Paoning

F.

Ghaok'ing

F.

*

M

Kwangtung

Chaongan

h.

m

^

Fokien

Ghangchow

P.

Ghaop'ing

h.

BS

¥

Kwangsi

P'ingloh

P.

Ohaot'ung

F.

m

!fi

Yiinnan

Ghaowen

h.

m

■^

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Chaoyih

h.

m

&

Shensi

T'ungchow

F.

Ghaoyiien

h.

m

m.

Shantung

T6ngchow

P.

Ch'ao

h.

M.

Nganhwei

Liichow

P.

Gh'aochow

F.

m

m

Kwangtung

Gh'aoyang

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Gh'aochow

P.

Gh'aoyang

F.

m

m

Ghihli

' Chefoo (Ghifu)

s

^

Shantung

T6ngchow

F.

Chech' 6ng

h.

m

m

Honan

Kweiteh

P.

Chenfan

h.

m

#

Kansu

Liangchow

P.

Ghenhai

h.

m

m

Ghekiang

Ningpo

P.

Ghenhsiung

c.

m

m

Yiinnan

Ghaot'ung

P.

Ghenkiang

F.

m

iL

Kiangsu

Ghfennan

c.

m

1^

Yiinnan

Gh'uhsiung

P.

Ch6nngan

F.

m

^

Kwangsi

Ohfinngan

h.

m

^

Shensi

Shang

G.

Gh6nngan

h.

m

5

Shengking

Sinming

P.

Ghenning

c.

m

m

Kweichow

Nganshun

P.

Ghenpien

h.

m

m

Kwangsi

Kweishun

G.

Gh6npienfu-i

T.

mmmm

Yiinnan

Ghenp'ing

h.

m

¥

Honan

Nanyang

P.

Ghenp'ing

h.

m

¥

Kwangtung

Kiaying

0.

*

Trea

ty Ports and Op

en Marts underline

i

38

594

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Peovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Oh^nsi (Barkjil) T.

m

w

Sinkiang

Oh^ntseh

h.

m

%

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Chfinyangr

h.

m

#

Kiangsu

T'aits'ang

G.

Ch^nyiien

h.

m

f

Kansu

King

G.

OhSnyiien

P.

m

Kweichow

Ch6nyuen

h.

m

M

Kweichow

Ohfinytien

• F.

Chfinyuen

T.

m

l7t

Yunnan

Ch'gn

0.

m

Hunan

Oh'enchow

F.

m

W

Honan

Ch'tochow

F.

m

%

Hunan

Ch'6nk'i

h.

m

%

Hunan

Ch'enchow

F.

Oh'^nk'i

h.

^

Kwangsi

Wuchow

F.

Ch'finliu

h.

m

@

Honan

K'aifung

F.

ChSng

0.

iis

Honan

Ohfingfung

c.

M

m.

Kweichow

Hsing-i

F.

Ohenghwo

h.

i0c

^

Fokien

Kienning

F.

Gh^ngngan

c.

JE

^

Kweichow

Tsuni

F.

Oh6ngning

h.

JE

m

Kansu

K'ingyang

F.

Ohfingting

F.

JE

%

Chihli

Oh^ngting

h.

iE

%

Ohihli

GhSngting

F.

ChSngyang

h.

iE

%

Honan

Juning

F.

Gh'§ng

h.

^

Kansu

Kiai

C.

Ch'6ngch'eng

h.

m

M

Shensi

T'ungchow

F.

Gh'6nghai

h.

m

%

Kwangtung

Ch'aochow

F.

Oh'6ngkiang

F.

m

n.

Yiinnan

Ch'fingk'ow

t.

m

D

Szechw'an

Suiting

F.

Oh'6ngku

h.

m

@

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Ch'fingkung

h.

M

m

Yiinnan

Yiinnan

F.

Oh'6ngmai

h.

m

M

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

F.

Ch'engngan

h.

^

$

Ghihli

Kwangp'ing

F.

Ch'6ngpu

h.

m

^

Hunan

Paok'ing

F.

Ch'dngteh

F.

*

(i

Ghihli

(Jehol)

Ch'fingteh

h.

*

^

ShSngking

Fungt'ien

F.

Oh'6ngtu

F.

^

n

Szechw'an

Oh'6ngtu

h.

^

n

Szechw'an

Ch'engtu

F.

Oh'6ngwu

h.

m

E

Shantung

Ts'aochow

F.

Cheu (Tseu)

h.

m

Shantung

Y6nchow

F.

Gheuchih

h.

m

M

Shensi

Singan

F.

Gheup'ing

h.

m

^

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Gheuts'un (Ch

ow)

m

m

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Chifu (Ohefoo)

it

%

Shantung

Tfingchow

F.

Ohikiang

h.

£

iL

Hunan

Yiie nohow

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

595

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovinoe.

Stibobdinate to.

Chikiang

h.

^

tL

Hupeh

Kingchow

F.

Ch'ichow

F.

m

n

Nganhwei

Ch'ihch'^ng

h.

#

M

Chihli

Siienhwa

F.

Gh'ihfung

h.

#

Chihli

Ch'6ngteh

F.

Ch'ihk'i

T.

#

m

Kwangtung

Choh

c.

m.

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Ch'ohk'iang

h.

i^

M

Sinkiang

Y6nk'i

F.

Chuch'fing

h.

n

M

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Chuki

h.

m

¥

Chikiang

Shaohsing

F.

Chuhk'i

h.

It

m

Hupeh

Yiienyang

F.

Chuhshan

h.

Hr

liJ

Hupeh

Yiienyang

F.

Ch'u

0.

m

Nganhwei

Ch'uchow

F.

m.

W

Chekiang

Ch'uhsiung

F.

^

m

Yunnan

Oh'uhsiung

h.

%

m

Yiinnan

Ch'uhsiung

F.

Chung

C.

^

Szechw'an

Chung

c.

,«,

Kwangsi

Nanning

F.

Chungkiang

h.

+

iL

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

F.

Chungmeu

h.

+

*

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Ohungpu

h.

+

i^

Shensi

Fu

C.

Ohungsiang

h.

m

m

Hupeh

Nganluh

F.

Ohungwei

h.

+

^

Kansu

Ninghsia

F.

Ch'ung-i

h.

#

m

Kiangsi

Nanngan

F.

Ch'ungjdn

h.

m

t:

Kiangsi

Fuchow

F.

Oh'ungk'ing

F.

s

M

Szechw'an

Oh'ungk'ing

c.

#

m

Szechw'an

Ch'6ngtu

F.

Oh'ungming

h.

S

m

Kiangsu

T'aits'ang

C.

Ch'ungngan

h.

^

Fokien

Kienning

F.

Ch'ungning

h.

H

m

Szechw'an

Ch'6ngtu

F.

Ch'ungshan

h.

i

t

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

F.

Oh'ungsin

h.

m

1b

Kansu

King

C.

Ch'ungyang

h.

U5

n

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

F.

Ghw'ansha

t.

ill

^

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

Fak'umAn

^*P^

F
Shfingking

Fan

h.

^

Shantung

Ts'aochow

P.

Panch'ang

h.

g

Nganhwei

T'aip'ing

F.

Fanchi

h.

%

iF

Shansi

Tai

C.

Fang

h.

m

Hupeh

Yuenyang

P.

Pangoh'6ng

h.

K

m

Kwangtung

K'in

0.

Fangshan

h.

m

lU

Chihli

Shunt'ien

p.

596

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA,

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Feich'^ng

h.

BE

m

Shantung

T'aingan

F.

Feihsiang

h.

jie

m

Chihli

Kwangp'ing

F.

Ffinchow

F.

m

m

Shansi

F6n-i

h.

^

a

Kiangsi

Yiienchow

F.

Ffinshui

h.

^

*

Chekiang

Y6nchow

F.

FSnsi

h.

^

w

Shansi

P'inyang

F.

Fenyang

h.

&

m

Shansi

F6nchow

F.

Feu

0.

\^

Szechw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

F.

Feuch'fing

h.

m

Ohihli

Hokien

F.

Feuk'ang

h.

$■

m

Sinkiang

Tih-hwa

F.

Feuliang

h.

J?

m

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F.

Feuning

h.

-f-

m

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Feup'ing

h.

-t

£^

Ohihli

Ch6ngt'ing

F.

Feushan

h.

J?

\h

Shansi

P'ingyang

F.

Feusin

h.

J.

m

Chihli

Oh'aoyang

F.

Feuyang

h.

^

m

Nganhwei

Yingchow

F.

Feuyiien

h.

^

m

Sinkiang

Tih-hwa

F.

Fopchow

F.

m

M

Fokien

(Fuhchow)

Fu

C.

0

Shensi

Fuchow

F.

m

m

Kiangsi

Fuchw'an

h.

t

)\\

Kwangsi

P'ingloh

F.

Fufung

h.

^

M

Shensi

Fungsiang

F.

Fukeu

h.

^

fli

Honan

Ch'6nchow

F.

Fukuh

h.

#

Shensi

Yiilin

F.

Fumin

h.

w

Si

Yiinnan

Yiinnan

F.

Funing

h.

m

m

Ohihli

Yungp'ing

F.

Fup'ing

h.

t

^

Shensi

Singan

F.

Fushi

h.

m

m

Shensi

Ydnngan

F.

Fushun

h.

t

m

Szechw'an

Siichow

F.

Fuyang

h.

t

OhSkiang

Hangchow

F.

Fuh

c.

m

'M

ShSngking

Fungt'ien

F.

Fuhchow

F.

m

W

Fokien

(Foochow)

Fuhkang

T.

H

U

Kwangtung

Fuhk'iang

h.

at

%

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Fuhngan

h.

m

H

Fokien

Fuhning

F.

Fuhning

F.

f§

m

Fokien

Fuhp'ing

t.

m

jf

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Fuhshan

h.

m

111

Shantung

T6ngchow

F.

Fuhshan

ch.

i^}i\m

Kwangtung

(Fatshan)

Fuhting

h.

m

^

Fokien

Fuhning

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

597

Naub, Bomahised.

Name, Chinese.

Peovince.

Sdbobdinate to.

Fuhts'ing

h.

m

^

Fokien

Foochow

F.

Fung (F^ng)

h.

Mi

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Fung

h.

m

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

Fungch'fing

h.

m

M

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

F.

Fungohw'an

h.

^

;ii

Kwangtung

Chaok'ing

F.

Funghsien

h.

m

1^

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

Funghwa

h.

M

it

Sh^ngking

Ch'angt'u

F.

Funghwa

h.

m

'ffc

Oh6kiang

Ningpo

F.

Funghwang

T.

E

jii

Hunan

Funghwang

T.

Mi

JH

Shengking

Fung-i

0.

m

m

Kwangsi

Gh6nngan

F.

Fungjun

h.

M

m

Ohihli

Ts'unhwa

C.

Fungk'iu

h.

m

i$

Honan

Weihui

F.

Fungning

h.

9

m

Ohihli

Gh^ngteh

F.

Fungshun

h.

. m

m

Kwangtung

Gh'aochow

P.

Fungsiang

P.

E

m

Shensi

Fungsiang

h.

E

m

Shensi

Fungsiang

F.

Fungsin

h.

m

^

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

P.

Fungt'ai

h.

E

m

Shansi

Tsehohow

P.

Fungt'ai

h.

Mi

s

Nganhwei

Fungyang

P.

Fungt'ien

F.

m

%

Shengking

(Mukden)

Fungtsieh

h.

m

m

Szechw'an

Kw'eichow

P.

Fungtu

h.

m

n

Szechw'an

Ghung

C.

Fungyang

P.

E

n

Nganhwei

Fungyang

h.

E

m

Nganhwei
O

Western Tibet

Fungyang

F.

Gartok (Kotak'oh)

Gyantse

Ulterior Tibet

Hami (Hohmih)T.

^

^

Sinkiang

Hai

0.

m

Kiangsu

Haich'6ng

h.

m

m

Fokien

Changchow

F.

Haich'Sng

h.

m

m

Shengking

Fungt'ien

P.

Haich'^ng

h.

m

Kansu

Kuyiien

0.

Haifung

h.

m

g

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Haifung

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Hweichow

P.

Haik'ang

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Leichow

F.

Haik'ow (Hoihow)

m

p

Kwangtung
Hehlungkiang

K'iungchow

P.

Hailar (Khailar)

Hailun

T.

m

«

Hehlungkiang

S98

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese

Pbovincb.

Shbokdinate to.

Hailung

F.

m

m

Sh^ngking

Haimfin

T.

m

p^

Kiangsu

Haining

c.

m

m

Ohekiang

Hangchow

F.

Haiyang

h.

m

w>

Shantung

Tengchow

F.

Haiyang

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Oh'aochow

F.

Haiyfin

h.

m

m

Ohekiang

Kiahsing

F.

Han

c.

m

Szechw'an

Oh'6ngtu

P.

Hanch'6ng

h.

n

Shensi

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599

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m^

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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA..

601

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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

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CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

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t

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604

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

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m

m

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m

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s

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h.

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m

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s

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h.

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h.

M

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F

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F

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

605

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovinoe.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

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h.

M

m

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0.

Kiating

F.

m

%

Szechw'an

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h

M

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fl5

Shansi

Tat'ung

F.

Lingling

h.

m

m

Hunan

Yungchow

F.

Lingpao

h.

m

«

Honan

Shen

C.

Lingpih

h.

m

Nganhwei

Fungyang

P.

Lingshan

h.

m

LU

Kwangtung

Lienchow

F.

Lingsheu

h.

m

m

Chihli

Ohfingting

P.

Lingshih

h.

^

Shansi

Hwo

0.

612

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomaniseb. Name, Chinese.

Peovince.

SUBOKDINATE TO.

Lingshui

h.

m

tK

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

P.

Lingt'ai

h.

m

m

Kansu

King

C.

Lingyiin

h.

m

s

Kwangsi

Szech'fing

F.

Liohyang

h.

m-

^

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Liuch'6ng

h. ;

m

m

Kwangsi

Liuchow

P.

Liuchow

P. .

^

M

Kwangsi

Liuho

h. /

M

m

Sh^ngking

Hailung

F.

Liupa

t.

m

m

Shensi

Hanchung

P.

Liuyang

h.

HI

1^

Hunan

Ch'angsha

P.

Loch'6ng

h.

M

Kwangsi

Liuchow

P.

Lokiang

h.

%

fL

Szechw'an

Mien

C.

Lop'ing

c.

w

¥

Yiinnan

K'iihtsing

P.

Loshan

h.

^

llj

Honan

Juning

F.

Lot'ien

h.

m

ffl

Hupeh

Hwangchow

P.

Loting

0.

1

S

Kwangtung

Lotz'e

h.

i

^

Yiinnan

Yiinnan

P.

Loyang

h.

w

m

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

P.

Loyiien

h.

m.

Fokien

Poochow

P.

Lohch'ang

h.

i

Kwangtung

Shaochow

P.

Lohchi

h.

m

3s

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

P.

Lohchw'an

h.

m

)\\

Shensi

Pu

C.

Lohhwei

h.

m

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

F.

Lohling

h.

m.

IS

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Lohnan

h.

m

m

Shensi

Shang

C.

Lohngan

h.

m

^

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

P.

Lohngan

h. .

m

*

Kiangsi

Puchow

P.

Lohp'ing

h.

m

215

Kiangsi

Jaochow

P.

Lohp'u

h.

m

•it

Sinkiang

Hwotien

F.

Loht'ing

h.

M

?

Chihli

Yungp'ing

P.

Lohts'ing

h.

m

m

Chekiang

Wenchow

P.

Lohyang

h.

^

u

Honan

Honan

P.

Lohyung

h. '

m

m

Kwangsi

Liuchow

P.

Lu

0.

i

Szechw'an

Luch'6ng

h.

u

m

Shansi

Lungan

P.

Luk'i

h.

i

Kiangsi

Kiench'ang

F.

Luk'i

h.

M

m

Hunan

Ch'^nchow

P.

Lulung

h.

t

m

Ghihli

Yungp'ing

F.

Lunan

c.

^

m

Yiinnan

Ch'fingkiang

F.

Lungan

P.

m

^

Shansi

Lushan

h. ,

i

(ij

Honan

Ju

0.

Lushan

h.

iij

Szechw'an

Yaochow

P.

Lushi

h.

t

K

Honan

Shen

c.

Lqbchw'an

h.

;ii

Kwangsi

Yuhlin

0.

CITIK8, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

613

Name, Romanised. Name, Chinese

PllOVINCE.

SUBOEDINATE TO.

Luhfung h.

Luhfung h.

Luhhoh h.

Luhk'iien h.

Luhliang c.

Luhngan C.

Luhyih h.

Llichow F.

Liikiang h.

Liiling h.

Lunt'ai h.

Lung c.

Lungch'ang h.

Lungchow t.

Lungchw'an h.

Lungk'i h.

Lungli h.

Lungling t.

Lungmen h.

Lungmen h.

Lungnan h.

Lungngan F.

Lungngan h.

Lungp'ing h.

Lungshan h.

Lungsi h.

Lungteh h.

Lungts'iien h.

Lungts'iien h.

Lungts'iien h.

Lungyang h.

Lungyen C.

Lungying c.

Lungyiu h.

Lwan c.

Lwanch'6ng h.

Lwanp'ing h.

1^ m

fi )\\

m m

m M

fii PI

HI I"l

fi it

ti ^

m ^

m \u

m. w

m fi

m M

si M

m m

m w

m m
m ¥

Kwangtung

Yunnan

Kiangsu

Yunnan

Yunnan

Nganhwei

Honan

Nganhwei

Nganhwei

Kiangsi

Sinkiang

Shensi

Szechw'an

Kwangsi

Kwangtung

Fokien

Kweichow

Yiinnan

Kwangtung

Chihli

Kiangsi

Szechw'an

Kwangsi

Chihli

Hunan

Kansu

Kansu

Kiangsi

Kweichow

Ohekiang

Hunan

Fokien

Kwangsi

Ch6kiang

Chihli

Chihli

Chihli

Hweichow

Yiinnan

Kiangning

Wuting

K'iihtsing

Kweiteh

Shangsze

K'iichow

Yungp'ing

OhSngting

Ch'fingteh

F.
F.
F.
0.
F.

F.

Llichow F.

Kihngan F.

Yenk'i F.

Fungsiang F.

Siichow F.

T'aip'ing F.

Hweichow F.

Changchow F.

Kweiyang F.

Yungch'ang F.

Kwangchow F.

Siienhwa F.

Kanchow F.

Nanning F.

Chao C.

Yungshun F.

Kungch'ang F.

P'ingliang F.

Kihngan F.

Shihts'ien P.

Ch'uchow P.

Ch'angteh F.

T.
F.
F.
F.
F.

M

Macao (Ngaomen)
Mach'6ng h.

Mahoh c,

m I'l

Kwangtung

Hupeh

Kweichow

Hwangchow
Tuyiin

F.
F.

614

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

Name, Eomaniskd.

Name, Chinese.

Pkovince,

Sdboedinate to.

Malung

c.

W,

m

Yunnan

K'uhtsin

F.

Mapien

t

m

m

Szechw'an

Siichow

F.

Map'ing

h.

m

¥

Kwangsi

Liuchow

F.

Mayang

h.

M

m

Hunan

Yiienchow

F.

Maimai ch'eng

IKM

Mongolia

(Kiakhta)

Manch'fing

h.

m

M

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Manhao

m

U

Yiinnan

P'ueul

F.

Mei

h.

m

Shensi

Fungsiang

F.

Mei

0.

m

Szechw'an

Meit'an

h.

m

n

Kweichow

P'ingyueh

0.

Meu

0.

n

Szechw'an

Meuming

h.

n

«

Kwangtung

Kaochow

F.

Mgng

h.

%'.

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

Mengch'eng

h.

w

M

Nganhwei

Yingchow

F.

M6nghwa

T.

w

fl:

Yiinnan

M6nglsin

h.

^

m

Honan

Honan

F.

M6ngtze

h.

w.

&

Yiinnan

Linngan

F.

M6ngyin

h.

m

m

Shantung

Ichow

F.

Michi

h.

M

in

Shensi

Suiteh

0.

Mileh

h.

m

m

Yiinnan

Kwangsi

C.

Mih

h.

^

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Mihyiin

h.

^

9

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Mien

h.

m

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Mien

0.

m

Szechw'an

Mienchuli

h.

m

n

Szechw'an

Mien

C.

Mienning

h.

n

Szechw'an

Ningyiien

F.

Mienyang

c.

•Ji^

m

Hupch

Hanyang

F.

Min

h.

m

Fokien

Foochow

F.

Min

c.

UlR

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Minchw'an

h.

•7*

)\\

Szechw'an

Meu

C.

Mints'ing

h.

m

m

Fokien

Foochow

F.

Mingch'i

h.

m

m

Honan

Honan

F.

Mingshan

h.

«

\ii

Szechw'an

Yachow

F-

Mingying

c.

^

s

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Muhlan

h.

*

m

Hehlungkiang

Hulan

F.

Mukden

F.)

*

^

Shfingking
Kwangsi

(Pungt'ien

Nati (Noti)

c.

M

m

K'lngyiien

F.

Nahk'i

h.

m

m

Szechw'an

Lu

C.

Nanchang

h.

m

m

Hupeh

Siabgyang

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

615

Name, Romanised,

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SCBOBDINATE TO.

Nanch'ang

F.

^

1

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

h.

m

g

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

F.

Nanchao

h.

m

s

Honan

Nanyang

F.

Nanch6ng

h.

m

m

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Nanch'fing

h.

m

m

Kiangsi

Kiench'ang

F.

Nanchow

T.

m

'M

Hunan

Nanchw'an

h.

m

)\\

Szechw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

F.

Nanch'ung

h.

s

1

Szechw'an

Shunk'ing

P.

Nanfung

h.

m

Kiangsi

Kiench'ang

F.

Nanhai

h.

^

m

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Nanhsiung

0.

^

M

Kwangtung

Nanhwei

h.

^

m

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

Nanhwo

h.

m

m

Chihli

Shunteh

F.

Nank'ang

F.

s

m

Kiangsi

Nank'ang

h.

^

m

Kiangsi

Nanngan

F.

Nank'i

h.

w

m

Szechw'an

Siichow

F.

Nankiang

h.

^

a

Szechw'an

Paoning

F.

Nanking

m

M

Kiangsu

(Kiangning F.)

Nankung

h.

^

^

Chihli

Ki

C.

Nanling

h.

^

S

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

Nanloh

h.

if

ill

Chihli

Taming

F.

Nanngan

F.

^

^

Kiangsi

Nanngan

h.

^

^

Fokien

Ts'iienchow

F.

Nanngan

c.

m

^

Yiinnan

Oh'uhsiung

F.

Nanning

F.

m

m

Kwangsi

Nanning

h.

^

m

Yiinnan

K'iihtsing

F.

Nanp'i

h.

m

JK

Chihli

T'ienlsin

F.

Nanp'ing

h.

m

¥

Fokien

Y^np'ing

F..

Nanpu

h.

^

^

Szechw'an

Paoning

F.

Nantan

c.

m

»

Kwangsi

K'ingyiien

F.

Nantsing

h.

*

i^

Fokien

Changchow

F.

Nanyang

F.

m

I^

Honan

Nanyang

h.

^

lir

Honan

Nanyang

F.

Neihsiang

h.

^

«

Honan

Nanyang

F.

Neihwang

h.

^

m

Honan

Changteh

F.

Neikiang

h.

m

iL

Szechw'an

Tze

C.

Neik'iu

h.

^

sn

Chihli

Shunteh

F.

Newchwang

)

^

m

ShSngking

Fungt'ien

F.

(Niuchwang

Ngan

c.

^

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Ngan

h.

^

Szechw'an

Mien

C.

Nganfuh

h.

^

m

Hunan

Li

C.

616

GITIB8, TOWNS AMD OPEN PORTB OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chimese

Pbovihce.

Subordinate n

CO.

Nganfuh

h.

^

Til

Kiangsi

Kihngan

F.

Nganhsiang

h.

^

l»

Hunan

Li

C.

Nganhwa

h.

^

ft

Hunan

Gh'angsha

F.

Nganhwa

h.

^

ffc

Kansu

K'ingyang

F.

Nganhwa

h.

«

ft

Kweichow

Szenan

F.

Ngan-i

h.

«

^

Kiangsi

Nank'ang

F.

Nganjfin

h.

*

t

Hunan

H6ngchow

F.

Nganj^n

h.

«

t:

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F.

Ngank'ang

h.

*

H

Shensi

Hsingngan

F.

Ngankih

h.

*

%

Ghekiang

Huchow

F.

Ngank'i

h.

^

m

Fokien

Ts'iienchow

F.

Ngank'ing

P.

'St

m

Nganhwei

Ngank'iu

h.

^

H5

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Nganluh

F.

^

1^

Hupeh

Nganluh

h.

^

m

Hupeh

Tehngan

F.

Ngannan

h.

«

^

Kweichow

Hsing-i

F.

Nganning

c.

*

m

Yiinnan

Yiinnan

F.

Nganp'ing

h.

^

¥

Kweichow

Nganshun

F.

Nganp'ing

h.

«

¥

Chihli

Sh«n

C.

Nganp'ing

c.

^

¥

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Nganfleh

h.

«

^

Shensi

Y^nngan

F.

Nganshun

F.

«

ji

Kweichow

Ngansi

C.

^

M

Kansu

Ngansuh

h.

*

.Ml

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Nganting

h.

^

^

Shensi

Y^nngan

F.

Nganting

h.

^

^

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Ngantung

h.

«

m

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Ngantung

h.

«

«

Shfingking

Funghwang

T.

(Antung)

Nganyang

h.

*

i#

Honan

Ghangteh

F.

Nganyih

h.

^

3

Shansi

Hsiai

0.

Nganyoh

h.

^

^

Szechw'an

Tungch'ang

F.

Nganyiien

h.

^

it

Kiangsi

Kanchow

F.

Ngaom^n (Macao) |

m

P^

Kwangtung

Kgen

h.

«

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Ngenlung

h.

E

H

Kwangsi

Pehseh

T.

Ngenngan

h.

A

^

Yunnan

Chaot'ung

F.

Ngenp'ing

h.

n

¥

Kwangtung

Ghaok'ing

P.

Ngenshi

h.

^

i%

Hupeh

Shinan

F.

Ngenyangf6n

c.

«lt^ 1

Kwangsi

Pehseh

T.

Ngeuning

h.

n

m

Fokien

Kienning

F.

Ngomei

h.

Ml

^

Szechw'an

Kiating

F.

Ngopien

t.

fit

A

Szechw'an

Kiating

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

617

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOKDINATE TO.

Ning

c.

m

Kansu

K'ingyang

F.

Ning

c.

m

Yiinnan

Linngan

F.

Ningeul

h.

m

m

Yiinnan

P'ueul

F.

Ninghai

c.

n

m

Shantung

T6ngchow

F.

Ninghai

h.

m

m

GhSkiang

T'aichow

F.

Ningho

h.

n

m

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Ninghsia

F.

m

M

Kansu

Ninghsia

h.

n

M

Kansu

Ninghsia

F.

Ninghsiang

h.

m

m

Shansi

F6nchow

F.

Ninghsiang

h.

m

m

Hunan

Oh'angsha

F.

Ninghwa

h.

m

ffc •

Fokien

T'ingchow

F.

Ningk'iang

c.

m

7§

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Ningkwoh

F.

m

m

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

h.

m

m

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

Ningling

h.

w

m

Honan

Kweiteh

F.

Ningming

c.

m

m

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Ningpo

F.

w

m

Chekiang

Ningshcn

t.

m

m

Shensi

Singan

F.

Ningshoh

h.

m

m

Kansu

Ninghsia

P.

Ningteh

h.

m

■©

Fokien

Fuhning

F.

Ningtsin

h.

fS

^

Chihli

Ohao

0.

Ningtsin

h.

m

m

Chihli

Hokien

F.

Ningtu

C.

m

n

Kiangsi

Ninguta

^tm

Kirin

Ningwu

F.

m

n

Shansi

Ningwu

h.

w

Shansi

Ningwu

F.

Ningyang

h.

m

i#

Shantung

Yenchow

F.

Ningyang

h.

n

#

Fokien

Lungy6n

C.

Ningyuen

F.

w

m

Szechw'an

Ningyiien

T.

n

ift

Shansi

Ningyuen

h.

w

ii:

Hunan

Yungchow

F.

Ningyuen

h.

m

M

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Ningyiien

h.

w

it

Sinkiang

Hi

F.

Ningyiien

c.

w

m

Sh6ngking

Kinchow

F.

Niuchwang

^

^

Sh^ngking

(Newchwang)

Nungngan

h.

m

«

Kirin

Oh'angch'un

P.

Omei (Ngomei

h.

m

m

Szechw'an

Kiatlng

F.

Omi (Ami)

c.

ppi

m

Yunnan

Linngan

F.

Opien (Ngopien) t.

m

m

Szechw'an

Kiating

F.

618

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Pa

h.

G

P

Szechw'an

Oh'ungk'ing

F.

Pa

c.

Szeohw'an

Paoning

F.

Pa

c.

9

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Pach'u

c.

E

%

Sinkiang

Shuleh

F.

Paling .

h.

a

n

Hunan

Yohchow

F.

Patung

h.

G

M

Hupeh

Ich'ang

F.

Payfin

c.

G

m

Hehlungkiang

Hulan

F.

Pahchai

t.

A

M

Kweichow

Tuyiin

F.

Pakhoi (Pehh

ai)

^b

M

Kwangtung

Leichow

F.

P'aich'-fing

h.

m-

m

Sinkiang

Wfinsuh

F.

P'anshih

h.

m

^

Kirin

Kirin

F.

P'anyii

h.

#

^

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Paoch'6ng

h.'

®

m

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Paoch'i

h.

m

m

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

. Paofung

h.

«

w

Honan

Ju -

0.

Paok'ang

h.

^

%

Hupeh

Yiienyang

F.

Paoki

h.

m

Shensi^

Fungsiang

F.

Paok'ing

F.

«

k

Hunan

Paongan

h.

f*

^

Shensi

Y6nngan

F.

Paongan

c.

«

«

Ohihli

Siienhwa

-,F.

Paoning

h.

K

w

Yiinnan

Kwangnan

F.

Paoning

F.

\^

m

Szechw'an

Paoshan

h.

«

m

Kiangsu

T'aits'ang

0.

Paoshan

h.

«

iii

Yiinnan

Yungch'ahg

F.

Paoting

F.

^

E

Ohihli

Paoting

h.

^

%

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Paotsing

h.

fS

m

Hunan

Yungshun

P.

Paoying

h.

«

i!ll

Kiangsu

Yangchow

F.

Peking (Pehking)

*

M

Ohihli

(Shunt'ien

F.)

'

Pehhai (Pakhoi)

*

M

Kwangtung

Lienchow

F.

Pehho

h.

&

m

Shensi

Hsingngan

F.

Peh-hsiang

h.

m

m

Ohihli

Ohao

0.

Pehliu

h.

*

m

Kwangsi

Yiihlin

0.

Pehseh

T.

w

^

Kwangsj

Pehshui

h.

&

7K

Shensi

T'ungchow

F.

Pehtaiho

Atmm

Ohihli

Pehtuna

ffiipfft

Kirin

Kirin l

F.

(Sinch'6ng

F.)

Pehy6n

ts.

61*

Yiinnan

Oh'uhsiung

F.

P'ei

. h.

m

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

619

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

P'Sng

h.

m

Szechw'an

Ch'6ngtu

F.

P'6ng

c.

^

Szechw'ah

Shunk'ing

F.

P'Sngk'i

h.

M

m

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

P.

P'6nglai

h.

m

m

Shantung

T6ngchow

F.

P'engshan

h.

%

iij

Szechw'an

Mei

0.

P'6ngshui

h.

M

?K

Szechw'an

Yiuyang

c.

P'^ngtseh

h.

%

n

Kiangsi

Kiukiahg.

F.

Phari (Phagri-

/ Jong)

Ulterior Tibet

Piyang

h.

m

m

Honan

Nanyang

F.

Pihshan

h.

m

\H

Szechw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

F.

Pihtsieh

h.

m

w

Kweichow

Tating

F.

m (P'ei)

c.

215.

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

P'i (Pi)

h.

m

Shantung

Ichow

F.

P'i

h.

f-R

Szechw'an

Ch'engtu

F.

P'ishan

h.

^

III

Sinkiang

Soch'6

F.

P'ienkwan

h.

1M

1^1

Shansi

Nirigwu

F.

Pin

0.

^P

Shensi

Pin

c.

*

Kwangsi

Szengen '

F.

Pin

c.

m

"

Shantung

Wuting

P.

Pinchow

T.

i

ilil

Kirin

Pinchw'an

c.

i

;n

Yiinnan

Tali

F.

P'ingfan

h.

2P

#

Kansu

Liangchow

F.

P'inghsiang

h.

W

m

Kiangsi

Yiienchow

P.

P'inghsiang

h.

^

m

Ohihli

Shungteh

F.

P'inghu

h.

^

M

Ch6kiang

Kiahsing

F.

P'inghwo

,h.

¥

fti

Fokien

Ohangchow

F.

P'ing-i

h.

¥

#

Yiinnan

K'iihtsing

F.

P'ingkian^

h.

¥

iL

Hunan

Yohchow

P.

P'ingkuh

h.

2P

«

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

P'ingli

h.

¥

m

Shensi

Hsingngan

F.

P-ingliang

F.

¥

m

Kansu

P'ingliang

h.

^

m

Kansu

P'ingliang

F.

P'inglo

h.

^

m

Kansu

Ninghsia

P.

P'ingloh

F.

¥

m

Kwangsi

P'irigloh

h.

¥

Kwangsi

P'ingloh

P.

P'inglu

h.

¥

#

Shansi

Shaop'ing

F.

P'irigluh

h.

^

1^ .

Shansi

Hsiai

C.

P'ingnan

h.

B

^

Fokien

Foochow

P.

P'ingnan

h.

^

^

Kwangsi

Siinchow

P.

P'ingshan

h.

#

iij

Szechw'an

Siichow

F.

P'ingshan

h.

¥

iJj

Chihli

Ch'6ngting

F.

P'ingsiang

c.

^i

p

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

620

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

PnOTINCE.

SUBOKDINATE TO.

P'ingting

0.

¥

^

Shansi

P'ingts'iien

c.

T^

.%

Ohihli

Ch'engteh

F.

P'ingtu

c.

¥

M

Shantung

Laichow

F.

P'ingwu

h.

¥

se

Szechw'an

Lungngan

F.

P'ingyang

F.

2p

It

Shansi

P'ingyang

h.

¥

^

Ch6kiang

W^nchow

F.

P'ingyao

h.

¥

^

Shansi

Fenchow

F.

P'ingyin

h.

¥

^

Shantung

T'aingan

F.

P'ingyueh

0.

¥

^

Kweichow

P'ingyiien

h.

¥

M

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

P'irigyiien

h.

¥

M

Kansu

Kuyiien

0.

Pingyiien

h.

¥

M

Kwangtung

Kiaying

0.

P'ingyiien

c.

f

S

Kweichow

Tating

F.

Poh

c.

m

Nganhwei

Yingchow

P.

Poh

c.

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

F.

Poh-hsing

h.

■f

M

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Pohlo

h.

i

m

Kwangtung

Hweichow

F.

Pohpeh

h.

'8

e

Kwangsi

Yiihlin

0.

Pohp'ing

h.

il

¥

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Pohshan

h.

$

OJ

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Pohy6

h.

s

^

Ohihli

Paoting

F.

P'oyang

h.

M

It

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F.

P'u

h.

fi

Shansi

Sih

0.

P'uch'^ng

h.

m

M

Shensi

T'ungchow

F.

P'uch'6ng

h.

M

M

Fokien

Kienning

F.

P'uchow

F.

m

W

Shansi

P'ueul

F.

^

W

Yiinnan

P'uk'i

h.

fS

iT-

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

F.

P'ukiang

h.

it

tt

Szechw'an

K'iung

0.

P'ukiang

h.

m

tt

Chfikiang

Kinhwa

F.

P'ungan

T.

1

^

Kweichow

P'ungan

h.

^

Kweichow

Hsing-i

F.

P'uning

h.

^

W

Kwangtung

Ch'aochow

F.

P'ut'ai

h.

m

S

Shantung

Wuting

F.

P'ut'ien

h.

w

Ba

Fokien

Hsinghwa

F.

P'uting

h.

#

s

Kweichow
Shansi

Nganshun

F.

Sahlahts'i

T.

mmw

Sanho

h.

tnr

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Sanshui

h.

H

tK

Shensi

Pin

0.

Sanshui

h.

^^

7K

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

(Samshui)

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

621

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUEOKDINATE T0>

Sant'ai

h.

—

» 1

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

F.

Santuao

HHJft

Fokien

Fuhning

P.

(Sanlungao)

Sanyiien

h.

—

j^.

Shensi

Singan

F.

Sangchih

h.

#

m

Hunan

Yungshun

F.

Sha

h.

fjf

Fokien

Yenp'ing

F.

Shaho

h.

J3?

M

Ohihli

Shunteh

F.

Shasi (Shashi)

h.

m

Hupeh
Sinkiang

Kingchow
K'uch'6

F.

C.

Shaya

Shan

h.

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

F.

Shanhaikwan

\iimm

Chihli

Shanhwa

h.

m

^

Hunan

Ch'ansha

F.

Shanshan

h.

m

Sinkiang

Yenk'i

F.

Shantan

h.

lU

n

Kansu

Kanchow

F.

Shant'eu{Swalow)

ill!

lU

Kwangtung
Shensi

Ch'aochow
Shang

F.

0.

Shanyang

h.

Shanyang

h.

lU

%

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Shanyin

h.

lU

It

Shansi

Tat'ung

F.

Shanyin

h.

Ol

11

ChSkiang

Shaohsing

F.

Shang

C.

m

Shensi

Shangch'eng

h.

m

M

Honan

Kwang

0.

Shanghai

h.

±

%

Kiangsu

Sungkiiing

F.

Shanghang

h.

.h

^

Fokien

Ts'ingchow

F.

Shangho

h.

m

M

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Shanghsiatung c.

±ym

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Shangjao

h.

±

^

Kiangsi

Kwangsi n

F.

Shangkao

h.

±

M

Kiangsi

Shuiohow

F.

Shangk'iu

h.

m

%

Honan

Kweiteh

F.

Shanglin

h.

±

^

Kwangsi

Szengen

F.

Shangnan

h.

m

m

Shensi

Shang

0.

Shangshui

h.

m

7lC

Honan

Oh'^nchow

F.

Shangsze

T.

±

B

Kwangsi

Shangts'ai

h.

±

^

Honan

Juning

F.

Shangyiii

h.

±

m

Kiangsi

Nanngan

F.

Shangyii

h.

±

m

Chekiang

Shaohsing

P.

Shangyiien

h.

±

7C

Kiangsu

Kiangning

F.

Shaochow

F.

IS

rt

Kwangtung

Shaohsing

F.

m

m

OhSkiang

Shaowu

F.

#

%

Fokien

Shaowu

h.

^15

ee

Fokien

Shaowu

F.

Shaoyang

h.

?|i

li

Hunan

Paok'ing

F.

Sbeh

h.

^

Honan

Changteb

F.

Sheh h.

m

^^^^^

j Honan

Sihcbw'an

T.

622

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Protince.

SUBOEDINATE TO.

Sh§hung

h.

M

m

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

F.

Shen

C.

m

Honan

Shen

0.

m

Chihli

Shench'i

h.

m

m

Shansi

Ningwu

P.

Shenk'iu

h.

m

B

Honan

Ch'6nchow

P.

Shenmuh

h.

m

/Ic

Shensi

Yiilin

F.

Shentseh

h.

m

m

Chihli

Ting

C.

Sheng

h.

m

Chekiang

Shaohsing

P.

Sheu (Show)

c.

9

Nganhwei

Fungyang

P.

Sheuchang

h.

S

^

Shantung

Y^nchow

P.

Sheuch'ang

h.

#

^

Chekiang

Y6nchow

P.

Sheukwang

h.

9

3&

Kwangtung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Sheuning

h.

m

m

Fokien

Fuhning

F.

Sheuyang

h.

m

m

Shensi

P'ingting

C.

Shihsing

h.

i^

m

Shantung

Nanhsiung

C.

Shigatse

Ulterior Tibet

Shinan

F.

m

n

Hupeh

Shiping

h.

m

m

Kweichow

Chenyiien

P.

Ship'ing

h.

«

^

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Shitsung

h.

Bili

^

Yiinnan

Kwangsi

C.

Shihch'Sng

h.

5

m

Kiangsi

Ningtu

c.

Shihch'6ng

h.

s

M

Kwangtung

Kaochow

p.

Shihchu

T.

s

5±

Szechw'an

Shihfang

h.

f+

M

Szechw'an

Oh'6ngtu

p.

Shihkao

h.

IS

*

Yiinnan

Ch'uhsiung

p.

Shihleu

h.

^

m

Shansi

Ffinchow

p.

Shihmen

h.

^

PI

Hunan

Li

c.

Shihm^n

h.

^

PI

Ch6kiang

Kiahsing

F.

Shihp'ing

c.

^

m

Yunnan

Linngan

P.

Shihp'u

t.

5

m

Chekiang

Ningpo

F.

Shihsheu

h.

^

#

Hupeh

Kingchow

F.

Shihtai

h.

^

m

Nganhwei

Ch'ichow

P.

Shihts'ien

h.

^

n

Kweichow

Shihts'uen

h.

^

M.

Shensi

Hsingngan

P.

Shihts'uen

h.

«

^

Szechw'an

Lungngan

P.

Shoh

c.

m

Shansi

Shohp'ing

F.

Shohp'ing

P.

m

¥

Shansi

Shuch'fing

h.

ff

M

Nganhwei

Liichow

P.

Shufu(Ka8hgar)h.

m

It

Sinkiang

Shuleh

F.

Shuleh

F.

m

©

Sinkiang

Shuhluh

h.

■M

m

Chihli

Paoting

P.

Shuhyang

h.

m

Hr

Kiangsu

Hal

0.

Shuich'ang

h.

m

1

Kiangsi

Kiukiang

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

623

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

Subordinate tc

Shuich'6ng

t.

yK

m

Kweichow

Tating

F.

Shuichow

F.

«

m

Kiangsi

Shuikin

h.

«

^

Kiangsi

Ningtu

C.

Shuingan

h.

«

^

Ch^kiang

W6nchow

P.

Shunch'ang

h.

m

g

Fokien

Y6np'ing

F.

Shunhwa

h.

m

ft

Shensi

Pin

C.

Shun-i

h.

m

m

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Shunk'ing

F.

m

m

Szechw'an

Shunngan

h.

w,

^

Oh6kiang

Ydnchow

P.

Shunning

F.

Ji

m

Yiinnan

Shunning

h.

• Ji

m

Yiinnan

Shunning

F.

Shunteh

h.

Ji

^

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Shunteh

F.

m

^^

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Ji

3c

Chihli

(Peking)

Capital of China

Shwangch'^ng t.

m

Wi

Kirin

Kirin

F.

Shwangliu

h.

m

m

Szechw'an

Ch'6ngtu

F.

Sich'ang

h.

w

Szechw'an

Ningyiien

F.

Sich'ung

h.

m

%

Szechw'an

Shunk'ing

F.

Sifung

h.

H

m.

Sh6ngking

Hailung

F.

Sihsia

h.

m

m

Shantung

T6ngqhow

F.

Sihsiang

h.

w

m

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Sihwa

h.

M

Honan

Ch'6nchow

F.

Sihwo

h.

w

fu

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Silin

h.

w

#

Kwangsi

Szech'fing

P.

Silung •

c.

w

m

Kwangsi

Szech'dng

F.

Singan

F.

H

^

Shensi

Singan

h.

W

^

Oh6kiang

K'iichow

P.

Singan

h.

M

^

Sh^ngking

Hailung

F.

Sining

F.

W

"M

Kansu

Sining

h.

W

n

Kansu

Sining

P.

Sining

h.

W

w

Kwangtung

Loting

C.

Sining

h.

H

m

Chihli

Suenhwa

P.

Sip'ing

h.

W

^

Honan

Juning

F.

Sih

h.

M

Honan

Kwang

C.

Sih

0.

11

Shansi

Sihchw'an

T.

m

;ii

Honan

Sihngo

h.

(If

m

Yunnan

Linngan

F.

Siang

c.

Kwangsi

Liuchow

P.

Siangch'fing

h.

^

m

Honan

Hsii

C.

Siangfu

h.

m

#

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Sianghsiang

h.

•KB

m

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Siangling

h.

m

Shansi

P'ingyang

F.

624

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Komanisk

D.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subokdinate to.

Siangshan

h.

m

m

Chekiang

Ningpo

P.

Siangt'an

h.

m

u

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Siangyang

F.

m

m

Hupeh

Siangyang

h.

s

It

Hupeh ,

Siangyang

F.

Siangyin

h.

m

m

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Siangyiien

h.

m

m

Shansi

Lungan

F.

Siao

h.

m

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

Siaoshan

h.

Jtm

Oj

Chekiang

Shaohsing

F.

Sienkii

h.

till

OhSkiang

T'aichow

F.

Sienyiu

h.

liU

M

Fokien

Hsinghwa

F.

Sin

h.

^

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Slnch'ang

h.

if

§

Chekiang

Shaohsing

F.

Sinch'ang

h.

m

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F.

Sincheng

h.

m

1

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Sinch'ang

P.

m

m

Kirin

(Pehtuna)

Sinch'feng

h.

m

M

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Sinch'ang

h.

m

M

Kiangsi

Kiench'ang

F.

Sinch'eng

h.

m

i^

Chekiang

Hangchow

F.

Sinch'6ng

h.

m

m

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Sinfan

h.

m

Szechw'an

Ch'6ngtu

F.

Sinfung

h.

m

w

Kiangsi

Kanchow

F.

Sinho

h.

m

m

Chihli

Ki

0.

Sinhsiang

h.

m

m

Honan

Weihui

F.

Sinhsing

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Chaok'ing

F.

Sinhsing

c.

m

m

Yiinnan

Ch'6ngkiang

F.

Sinhwa

h.

m

ft

Hunan

Paok'ing

F.

Sinhwei

h.

m

#

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Sin-i

h.

ft

s

Kwangtung

Kaochow

F.

Sinkan

h.

m

m

Kiangsi

Linkiang

F.

Sinkien

h.

m

m

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

F.

Sinloh

h.

m

m

Chihli

Chdngting

F.

Sinmin

F.

m

s

Sh6ngking

Sinngan

h.

m

«

Honan

Honan

F.

Sinngan

h.

m

«

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Sinning

h.

if

m

Hunan

Paok'ing

F.

Sinning

h.

1^

m

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Sinning

h.

fSi

m

Szechw'an

Suiting

F.

Sinning

c.

m

m

Kwangsi

Nanning

F.

Sinp'ing

h.

m

m

Sinkiang

Y^nk'i

F.

Sinp'ing

h.

if

*

Yiinnan

Yucnkiang

C.

Sint-ai

h.

^

m

Shanlung

T'aingan

F.

Sint'ien

h.

m

m

Hunan

Yungchow

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

625

Name, Bomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subobdinate to.

Sints'ai

h.

if

#

Honan

Juning

F.

Sintsin

h.

if

^

Szechw'an

Ch'^ngtu

F.

Sintu

h.

if

«5

Szechw'an

Ch'^ngtu

F.

Sinyang

h.

m

m

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Sinyang

c.

m

%

Honan

Juning

F.

Siny6

h.

m

m

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F.

Sinyii

h.

if

%

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Linkiang

F.

Singtze

h.

^

Kiangsi

Nank'ang

F.

Siujfin

h.

m

t

Kwangsi

P'ingloh

F.

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h.

m

lU

Szechw'an

Yeuyang

0.

Slushui

h.

m

tK

Ohfikiang

Kiahsing

F.

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h.

m

?

Kweichow

Kweiyang

F.

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h.

u

Honan

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F.

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c.

lUlil

^

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T.

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P.

%

^

Sinkiang

(Yarkand)

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F.

m

ffl

Kiangsu

(Suchow)

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C.

m

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Suh

0.

^

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E.

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h.

.^fn

«

Chihli

Hokien

F.

Suhsung

h.

m

m

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Ngank'ing

F.

Suhls'ien

h.

^

m

Kiangsu

Siichow

P.

Suchow

F.

#

m

Kiangsu

Suchow (Suifu

)F.

^

m

Szechw'an

Siikeu

h.

¥k

m

Shansi

T'aiyuen

F.

Siip'u

h.

Wi

m

Hunan

Ch'gnchow

F.

Suw6n

h.

%

K

Kwangtung

Leichow

F.

Siiyung

T.

lit

^

Szechw'an

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h.

i:

«

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

Suenhwa

F.

"a

fb

Chihli

Siienhwa

h.

?

ft

Ohihli

Siienhwa

F.

Suenhwa

h.

"M

ft:

Kwangsi

Nanning

F.

Siienngen

h.

%

^

Hupeh

Shinan

F.

Siienp'ing

h.

m.

¥

Oh6kiang

Ch'uchow

F.

Suenwei

c.

w

^

Yiinnan

K'uhtsing

P.

Sui

c.

BS

Honan

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P.

Sui

c.

m

Hupeh

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P.

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h.

S

Ohekiang

Ch'uchow

P.

Suichung

h.

^

+

Shfingking

Kinchow

P.

SuiKn

t.

Wc

^

Kirin

Kirin

P.

Suifu (Suchow F.)

^

^

Szechw'an

Suihwa

F.

m

ft

Hehlungkiang

40

626

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese

Pkovince.

Subokdinatb to.

Suik'i

h.

^

m

Kwangtung

Lei chow

F.

Suilai

h.

m

*

Sinkiang

Tih-hwa

P.

Suingan

h.

m

^

Ohekiang

Y^nchow

P.

Suining

h.

m

m

Kiangsu

Slichow

P.

Suining

h.

m

m

Hunan

Tsing

C.

Suining

h.

'&

w

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

P.

Suip'ing

h.

m.

¥

Honan

Juning

P.

Suiteh

0.

m

ii-

Shensi

Suiting

F.

m

^

Szechw'an

Suiting

h.

m

^

Sinkiang

Hi

P.

Suiyang

h.

m

m

Kweichow

Tsun-i

F.

Suiyiien

t.

m

it

Shansi

Shohp'ing

P.

Siin

h.

m

Honan

Weihui

F.

Sunchow

F.

m

Kwangsi

Siintien

c.

i

m

Yunnan

K'iihtsing

F.

Siinyang

h.

m

m

Shensi

Hsingngan

P.

Sung

h.

M

Honan

Honan

P.

Sungk'i

h.

^^

M

Fokien

Kienning

P.

Sungkiang

F.

m

iL

Kiangsu

Sungming

c.

^

m

Yiinnan

Yunnan

P.

Sungp'an

T.

fe

m

Szechw'an

Sungt'ao

T.

fe

^

Kweichow

Sungyang

h.

m

n

Ghekiang

Ch'uchow

P.

Sungtze

h.

m

m.

Hupeh

Kingchow

P-

Swatow(Shant

'eu)

?iii

m

Kwangtung

Ch'aochow

P.

Sze

C.

m

Nganhwei

Sze

c.

B

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Szech'^ng

F.

m

m

Kwangsi

Szechow

P.

^

n

Kweichow

Szehwei

h.

m

#

Kwangtung

Chaok'ing

P.

Szeling

c.

B

m

Kwangsi

Shansze

T.

Szemao

t.

s

w

Yunnan

P'ueul

P.

Szenan

F.

s

^

Kweichow

Szengen

F.

s

B

Kwangsi

Szengen

h.

s

M

Kwangsi

K'ingyiien

P.

Szeshui

h.

B

*

Honan

Ch'eng

0.

Szeshui

h.

m

A

Shantung

Yfinchow

P.

Tach'fing

h.

:k

m

T
Chihli

Shunt'ien

P.

Tachuh

h.

:k

it

Szechw'an

Suiting

P.

Tahsing

h.

:k

m

Chihli

Shunt'ien

P.

Taku

:k

»

Chihli J

T'ienlsin

P.

CITIBS, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.

627

Name, Romakised.

Name, Chinese.

Peovince.

Subobdinate to.

Takwan

t.

^

m

Yiinnan

Ohaot'ing

P.

Talai

t.

:k

«

Hehlungkiang

Hehlungkiang
Oh'(

ing.

Tali

P.

:k

a

Yiinnan

Tali

h.

^

M

Shensi

T'ungchow

P.

Talien-wan(Dalny]

:kmm

Sh^ngking

Taming

F.

*

^

Chihli

Taming

h.

:k

^

Chihli

Taming

P.

Taning

h.

±

m

Shansi

Sih

C.

Taning

h.

:k

m

Szechw'an

Kw'eichow

P.

Tapu

h.

:k

m

Kwangtung

Oh'aochow

P.

Tat'ien

h.

±

m

Fokien

Yunch'un

0.

Tating

F.

:k

%

Kweichow

Tatsienlu

T.

^nm

Szechw'an

Tat'ung

F.

:k

PI

Shansi

Tat'ung

h.

±

|H|

Shansi

Tat'ung

p.

Tat'ung

h.

:k

%.

Kansu

Sining

p.

Tat'ung

h.

:k

%.

Kirin

Ilan

F.

Tat'ung

*

1

Nganhwei

Ch'ichow

P.

Tatsuh

h.

;*:

J£

Szechw'an

Gh'ungk'ing

P.

Tayao

h.

:k

W

Yiinnan

Ch'uhsiung

P.

Tay6

h.

±

JQ

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

P.

Tayih

h.

±

g

Szechw'an

K'iung

C.

Tayii

h.

:k

%

Kiangsi

Nanngan

P.

Tah

h.

m

Szechw'an

Suiting

P.

T'alang

t.

m

%

Yiinnan

P'ueul

P.

T'ahch'^ng

h.

m

m

Sinkiang

(Tarbagatai)

Tai

c.

ft

Shansi

T'ai

c.

m

Kiangsu

Yangchow

P.

T'aichow

F.

^

m

Ch^kiang

T'aihsing

h.

m

m

Kiangsu

T'ung

0.

T'aihu

t.

±

m

Kiangsu

Soochow

p.

T'aihu

h.

±

m

Nganhwei

Ngank'ing

p.

T'aihwo

h.

±

ft

Nganhwei

Yingchow

p.

T'aihwo

h.

m

ft

Kiangsi

Kihngan

p.

T'aihwo

h.

±

ft

Yiinnan

Tali

p.

T'aik'ang

h.

±

m

Honan

Ch'6nchow

p.

T'aikuh

h.

*

«

Shansi

T'aiyiien

p.

T'aingan

h.

m

*

Shantung

T'aingan

p.

T'aingan

F.

m

*

Shantung

T'aining

h.

*

^

Fokien

Shaowu

p.

T'aip'ing

P.

*

¥

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

F.

*

¥

Nganhwei

628

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovinoe.

Subobdinate to.

T'aip'ing

h.

±

¥

Shansi

P'ingyang

F.

T'aip'ing

h.

±

2P

Szechw'an

Suiting

F.

T'aip'ing

h.

*

^

Oh6kiang

T'aichow

F.

T'aip'ing

h.

*

^

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

T'aip'ing

c.

*

^

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

T'aishun

h.

m

i'M

Ch^kiang

Wfinchow

F.

T'aits'ang

C.

±

M

Kiangsu

T'aiyiien

F.

*

M

Shansi

T'aiyiien

h.

*

M.

Shansi

T'aiyuen

F.

Tan

c.

p

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

F.

Tanleng

h.

n

m

Szechw'an

Mei

0.

Tant'u

h.

fl-

m

Kiangsu

Gh^nkiang

F.

Tanyang

h.

n

m

Kiangsu

Chfinkiang

P.

T*anch'6ng

h.

¥S

m

Shantung

Ichow

F.

Tangt'u

h.

t

'M

Nganhwei

T'aip'ing

F.

Tangyang

h.

^

^

Hupeh

Kingm6n

C.

T'ang

h.

M

Honan

Nanyang

P.

T'ang

h.

M

Chihli

Paoting

P.

T'angk'i

h.

m

m

Ch^kiang

Kinhwa

P.

T'angshan

h.

m

[1]

Kiangsu

Siichow

P.

T'angshan

h.

ji

111

Chihli

Shunteh

F.

T'angyih

h.

^

&

Shantung

Tungch'ang

P.

T'angyin

h.

m

m

Honan

Changleh

P.

Tao

c.

m

Hunan

Yungchow

F.

Taok'ow

oh.

mum

Honan

Hwaik'ing

P.

T'aochow

t.

m

'M

Kansu

Kungch'ang

P.

T'aolin

T.

m

m

Shansi

T'aonan

F.

M

^

Shengking

T'aoyiien

h.

m

'M

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

P.

T'aoyiien

h

m

m

Hunan

Ch'angteh

P.

Teh

c.

^

Shantung

Tsinan

P.

Tehhsing

h.

n

m

Kiangsi

Jaochow

P.

Tehhwa

h.

^

ft

Kiangsi

Kiukiang

F.

Tehhwa

h.

m

it

Fokien

Yungch'un

0.

Tehk'ing

c.

®>

M

Kwangtung

Chaok'ing

P.

Tehngan

F.

#

^

Hupeh

..Tehngan

h.

^>

^

Kiangsi

Kiukiang

P.

Tehp'ing

h.

n

^

Shantung

Tsinan

P.

Tehts'ing

h.

^

^

Chfikiang

Huchow

P.

Tehyang

h.

@.

m

Szechw'an

Mien

C.

TSng

c.

m

Honan

Nanyang

P.

Tfingchow

F.

^

m

Shantung

T6ngchw'an

c.

g[j

;ii

Yiinnan

Tali

P.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

629

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

SUBOBDINATE TO

F.

Tfingfung

h.

^

^

Honan

Honan

T'Sng

h.

m

Kwangsi

Wuchow

F.

T'6ng

h.

m

Shantung

Y^nchow

F.

T'^ngyiieh

t.

m

m

Yiinnan

Yungch'ang

F

Tih-hwa

F.

m

it

Sinkiang

(Urumtsi)

Tih-hwa

h.

M

ffc

Sinkiang

Tih-hwa

F.

Tihtao

c.

Vi

m

Kansu

Lanchow

P.

Tiehkiang

h.

m

n.

Szechw'an

Ohung

C.

T'iehling

h.

m

^a

Shfingking

Fungt'ien

F.

Tienpeh

h.

m

^

Kwangtung

Kaochow

F.

T'iench'ang

h.

%

■m

Nganhwei

Sze

0.

T'ienchen

h.

^

m

Shansi

Tal'ung

P.

T'ienchu

h.

3?

^

Kweichow

Oh6nyiien

P.

T'ienho

h.

^

fpf

Kwangsi

K'ingyiien

F.

T'ienm6n

h.

ji

PI

Hupeh

Nganluh

P.

T'ienpao

h.

3c

^

Kwangsi

Ohenngan

P.

T'ient'ai

h.

X

Chekiang

T'aichow

F.

T'ientsin

F.

Ji

m.

Ohihli

T'ientsin

h.

n

w

Ohihli

T'ientsin

P.

T'ients'iien

c.

Ji

^

Szechw'an

Yachow

F.

Ting

0.

%

Ohihli

Tingfan

c.

%

#

Kweichow

Kweiyang

P.

Tinghai

T.

%

m

Chekiang

Tinghsing

h.

%

m

Chihli

Paoting

F.

Tingnan

t.

%

it

Kiangsi

Kanchow

P.

Tingngan

h.

%

^

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

P.

Tingpien

h.

%

•^

Shensi

Yenngan

P.

Tingsiang

h.

%

m

Shansi

Hsin

0.

Tingt'ao

h.

S

m

Shantung

Ts'aochow

P.

Tingyiien

t.

%

Shensi

Hanchung

P.

Tingyiien

h.

%

&

Nganhwei

Fungyang

P.

Tingyiien

h.

%

M

Szechw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

P.

Tingyiien

h.

%

it

Yiinnan

Ch'uhsiung

P.

T'ingchow

F.

tT

n

Fokien

Tolunnoh-eul

T.

^^mm

Ohihli

(Dolonor)

T'ohk'oht'oh

T.

Tui^TU

Shansi

Tsanhwang

h.

W

^

Chihli

Oh^ngting

P.

Ts'ang

c.

m

Ohihli

T'ientsin

P.

Ts'angk'i

h.

»

■^

Szechw'an

Paoning

P.

Ts'angwu

h.

m

m

Kwangsi

Wuchow

P.

Tsaok'iang

h.

m

?s

Ohihli

Ki

0.

630

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OV CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATB TO.

Tsaoyang

h.

$

m

Hupeh

Siangyang

F.

Ts'ao

h.

w

Shantung

Ts'aochow

P.

Ts'aoohow

P.

■«

m

Shantung

Tsehchow

P.

m

m

Shansi

Tsengch'6ng

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

P.

Tseu (Cheu)

h.

m

Shantung

Yfinchow

P.

Tsinan

F.

m

^

Shantung

Tsining

0.

m

m

Shantung

Tsitsihar

mmm

Hehlungkiang

Tsiyang

h.

m

m

Shantung

Tsinan

P.

Tsiyiien

h.

m

m

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

Tsihk'i

h.

m

m

Nganhwei

Hweichow

P.

Tsihmeh

h.

IP

Shantung

Kiao

0.

Tsihngan

h.

m

*

Sh^ngking

Hsingking

T.

Tsihshan

h.

m

m

Shansi

Kiang

0.

Ts'iho

h.

m

M

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Ts'itung

h.

m

M

Shantung

Tsinan

P.

Tsiangloh

h.

m

m

Fokien

Y6np'ing

P.

Ts'ienkiang

h.

m

tL

Kwangsi

Szengen

F.

Ts'ienkiang

h.

m

a

Hupeh

Nganluh

P.

Ts'ienngan

h.

m

^

Ohihli

Yungp'ing

P.

Ts'ienshan

h.

1

m

Nganhwei

Ngank'ing

P.

Ts'ient'ang

h.

m

m

Gh£kiang

Hangchow

P.

Tsin

c.

#

Ohihli

Oh^ngting

P.

Tsinhsien

h.

m

^

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

P.

Tsinkiang

h.

w

n.

Fokien

Ts'iienchow

P.

Tsinning

c.

#

m

Yiinnan

Yiinnan

P.

Tsinyiin

h.

m

9

Gh^kiang

Oh'uchow

P.

Tsin

0.

$

Kansu

Ts'in

0.

{&

Shansi

Ts'inngan

h.

$

*

Kansu

Ts'in

0.

Ts'inshui

h.

f-&

*

Shansi

Tsehchow

P.

Ts'inwang-tao

aia

Ohihli

Yungp'ing

F.

Ts'inyuen

h.

f&

m

Shansi

Ts'in

0.

Tsing

C.

^

Hunan

Tsinghai

h.

m

m

Ohihli

T'ientsin

P.

Tsingho

T.

m

m

Sinkiang

Tsinghsing

h.

*

m

Ohihli

Ohfingting

P.

Tsingkiang

h.

m

iL

Kiangsu

Oh'angchow

P.

Tsingloh

h.

^

m

Shansi

Hsin

0.

Tsingngan

h.

^

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

P.

Tsingngan

h.

^

^

Shengking

T'aongan

F.

Tsingning

c.

m

m

Kansu

P'ingliang

F.

CITIBS, TOWNS ANO OPBN PORTS OP CHINA.

631

NAStE, ROMANISEI

). Name, Chinese.

Pkovinoe.

SUBOBDINATE TO

Tsingpien

h.

m

i$

Shensi

Y6nngan

F.

Tsingsikwan

t.

mnm i

Szechw'an

Tatsienlu

T.

Tsingteh

h.

m

l§

Nganhwei

Ningkwoh

F.

TsingySn

h.

*

m

Szechw'an

Tze

0.

Tsingyiien

h.

m

it

Kansu

Lanchow

P.

Ts'ing

h.

t

Chihli

T'ientsin

F.

Ts'ingch^n

h.

m

m

Kweichow

Nganshun

F.

Ts'ingch'6ng

h.

ff

M

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Ts'ingchow

F.

ff

ffl

Shantung

Ts'ingfung

h.

^

M

Ohihli

Taming

P.

Ts'ingho

h.

m

M

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Ts'ingho

h.

m

M

Ohihli

Kwangp'ing

F.

Ts'inghwa

ch.

"^itm

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

Ts'ingkang

h.

w

153

Hehlungkiang

Hailun

T.

Ts'ingk'i

h.

M

m

Kweichow

Szechow

F.

Ts'ingk'i

h.

^

m

Szechw'an

Yachow

P.

Ts'ingkiang

h.

m

in

Kiangsi

Linkiang

F.

Ts'ingkiangp'

u

^iLm

Kiangsu

Ts'ingho

h.

Ts'ingkien

h.

m

t^

Shensi

Suiteh

0.

Ts'ingliu

h.

m

f«

Fokien

T'ingchow

F.

Ts'ingp'ing

h.

m

¥

Shantung

Tungch'ang

F.

Ts'ingp'ing

h.

m

¥

Kweichow

Tuyiin

F.

Ts'ingp'u

h.

»

«

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

Ts'ingshen

h.

w

jp*

Szechw'an

Mei

0.

Ts'ingshui

h.

m

*

Kansu

Ts'in

0.

Ts'ingshuiho

T.

«*M

Shansi

Ts'ingtao

w

E

Shantung

Kiao

0.

TB'ingt'ien

h.

*

m

Ohfikiang

Oh'uchow

F.

Ts'ingts'uen

h.

m

%.

Hunan

Hfingchow

F.

Ts'ingyang

h.

»

{if

Nganhwei

Oh'ichow

P.

Ts'ingyiien

h.

»

M

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Ts'ingyuen

h.

«

%

Ohihli

Paoting

P.

Tso

c.

&

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

P.

Tsoyiin

h.

&

S

Shansi

Sh'ohp'ing

F.

Ts'uen

c.

^

Kwangsi

Kweilin

F.

Ts'uenchow

F.

%

;m

1 Fokien

Ts'uentsiao

h.

^

^

Nganhwei

Oh'u

0.

Tsunhwa

C.

M

ft

Chihli

Tsun-i

F.

m

a

Kweichow

Tsun-i

h.

M

^

Kweichow

Tsun-i

P.

Ts'unghwa

h.

'<&

ft:

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

P.

Tuch'ang

h.

M

Kiangsi

Nank'ang

F.

Tuk'ang

c.

^

;»

Kwangsi

ChSnngan

P.

632

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanised.

Name,(

Chinese

Pbotince.

SUBOBDINATE

to.

Tukieh

c.

n

^

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Tuyun

F.

n

^

Kweichow

Tuyiin

h.

m

^

Kweichow

Tuyiin

F.

Tuhshan

c.

m

til

Kweichow

Tuyiin

F.

Tuhshih-k'ow

T.

m^'Q

Ohihli

T'ulufan

T.

i!t##

Sinkiang

(Turfan)

Tunhwa

h.

m

it

Kirin

Kirin

F.

Tunhwang

h.

m

m

Kansu

Ngansi

0.

T'unliu

h.

^

f

Shansi

Lungan

F.

Tungch'ang

F.

M

Shantung

Tungchw'an

P.

M

;1

Yunnan

Tunghsiang

h.

M

m

Kiangsi

Fuchow

F.

Tunghsiang

h.

M

m

Szechw'an

Suiting

F.

Tungho

h.

M

M

Shantung

T'aingan

F.

Tunghu

h.

m

M

Hupeh

Ich'ang

F.

Tungku

M

i

Chihli

T'ientsin

F.

Tungkwan

h.

M

Kwangtung

Kwangchow

F.

Tungkwang

h.

M

3K

Chihli

Hokien

F.

Tiinglan

c.

«

m

Kwangsi

K'ingyuen

F.

Tungliu

h.

M

m

Nganhwei

Oh'ichow

F.

Tungming

h.

M

m

Chihli

Taming

F.

Tungngan

h.

M

^

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Tungngan

h.

M

^

Hunan

Yungchow

F.

Tungngan

h.

M

^

Kwangtung

Loting

C.

Tungp'ing

h.

M

¥

Shfingking

Hailung

P.

Tungp'ing

c.

M

^

Shantung

T'aingan

F.

Tungt'ai

h.

M

S

Kiangsu

Yangchow

F.

Tungyang

h.

M

m

Ch6kiang

Kinhwa

F.

T'ung

0.

m

Kiangsu

T'ung

c.

M

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

T'ungch'6ng

h.

j§

m

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

F.

T'ungch'fing

h.

m

m

Nganhwei

Ngank'ing

F.

T'ungchow

F.

1^

jHI

Shensi

T'ungchw'an

F.

■m

;ii

Szechw'an

T'unghai

h.

m

m

Yiinnan

Linngan

F.

T'unghsiang

h.

m

m

Chdkiang

Kiahsing

F.

T'unghsii

h.

3i

w

Honan

K'aifung .

F.

T'unghwa

h.

m

it

Sh^ngking

Hsingking

T.

T'ungjfin

F.

m

iz

Kweichow

T'ungj6n

h.

m

t:

Kweichow

T'ungjSn

F.

T'ungkiang

h.

m

iL

Szechw'an

Paoning

F.

T'ungkwan

t.

■m

m

Shensi

T'ungchow

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

633

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese,

Pbovince.

Subordinate to.

T'ungkwan

h.

m

t

Shensi

Singan

F.

T'ungliang

h.

m

m

Szeohw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

F.

T'ungllng

h.

m

m

Nganhwei

Ch'ichow

F.

T'unglii

h.

m

m

Ohfiklang

Y6nchow

F.

T'ungngan

h.

m

^

Fokien

Ts'iienohow

F.

T'ungpeh

h.

m

IS

Honan

Nanyang

R.

T'ungshan

h.

m

lU

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

F.

T'ungshan

h.

m

lU

Kiangsu

Siichow

F.

T'ungtao

h.

m

m,

Hunan

Tsing

C.

T'ungtze

h.

m

#

Kweichow

Tsun-i

F.

T'ungwei

h.

m

m

Kansu

Kungch'ang

F.

Turfan

T.

ia:^#

Sinkiang

Tze

0.

m

Szeohw'an

Tzechw'an

h.

?i

)\\

Shantung

Tsinan

F.

Tzeliu

ts.

nm^

Szeohw'an

Kiating

F.

Tzet'ung

h.

n

m

Szeohw'an

Mien

0.

Tzeyang

h.

m

m

Shantung

Y6nchow

F.

Tzeyang

h.

^

iw

Shensi

Hsingngan

F.

Tzeyang

h.

*

m

Szeohw'an

Tze

0.

Tz'e

c.

m

Chihli

Kwangp'ing

P.

Tz'ek'i

h.

m

m

Oh^kiang

Ningpo

F.

Tz'eli

h.

m

m

Hunan

Li

0.

Uch-Turfan

i^

#

IJ
Sinkiang

(Wushih T'ing)

Uliasut'ai

Ms^mM-^

Mongolia

Urga (K'urun)

m

B

Mongolia

Urumtsi

.i#*^

Sinkiang

(Tih-hwa F.

)

iv

Waichow

F.

WW

(see Hweichow F.)

1

m

Kwangtung

Wan

h.

n

Szeohw'an

Kw'eichow

F.

Wan

h.

n

Kwangtung

Yai

C.

Wanch'6ng

c.

n

*

Kwangsi

Shangsze

T.

Wanngan

h.

m

le

Kiangsi

Kihngan

F.

Wannien

h.

M

^

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F.

Wantsai

h.

m

Kiangsi

Yiienchow

F.

Wants'iien

h.

m

^

Shansi

P'uchow

F.

Wants 'lien

h.

n

^

Ohihli

Siienhwa

F.

Wangkiang

h.

tL

Nganhwei

Ngank'ing

F.

634

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanised.

SfAME, Chinese.

Province.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Wangtu

h.

m

n

Ghihli

Paoting

F.

Wei

h.

m

Chihli

Kwangp'ing

F.

Wei

h.

m

Shantung

Laichow

F.

Wei

c.

m

Chihli

Siienhwa

F.

Weich'ang

t.

m

^

Chihli

Oh'fingteh

F.

Weichw'an

h.

m

ill

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Weihaiwei

^M^ 1

Shantung

T'6ngchow

F.

Weihui

F.

^

»

Honan

Weinan

h.

m

^

Shenei

Singan

F.

Weining

c.

^

m

Kweichow

Tating

F.

Weishi

h.

M

ft

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Weiyiien

h.

m

m

Kansu

Lanchow

F.

Weiyiien

h.

m

^

Szechw'an

Kiating

F.

Weiyiien

t.

M

m.

Yiinnan

P'ueul

F.

W§n

h.

fS

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

W6n

h.

%

Kansu

Kiai

0.

W6nch'ang

h.

%

i

Kwangtung

K'iungchow

F.

W6nchow

P.

u

w

Ghdkiang

Wenchw'an

h.

^

)\\

Szechw'an

Meu

0.

(see Minchw

an)

WSnhsi

h.

m

m

Shansi

Kiang

C.

WAnhsiang

h.

m

m

Honan

Shen

0.

Wfenkiang

h.

u

iL

Szechw'an

Ch'fingtu

F.

W^nngan

h.

3SC

*

Chihli

Shunt'ien

F.

W6nshan

h.

3S:

lU

Yunnan

K'aihwa

F.

WSnshang

h.

St

±

Shantung

Y6nchow

F.

W6nshui

h.

X

*

Shansi

T'aiyiien

F.

W6nsuh (Aksu

)F.

m.

m

Sinkiang

W6nsuh

h.

u

^

Sinkiang

W6nsuh

F.

W6nt6ng

h.

«

^

Shantung

Tfingchow

F.

Wfingngau

h.

m

^

Kweichow

P'ingyueh

F.

Wfingyiien

h.

m

m

Kwangtung

Shaochow

F.

Woosung

^

m

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

(Wusung)

Wu

h.

M:

Kiangsu

Soochow

F.

Wuchai

h.

s

n

Shansi

Ningwu

F.

Wuch'ang

F.

n

^

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

h.

WL

g

Hupeh

Wuch'ang

P.

Wuch'ang

t.

5

n

Kirin

Kirin

F.

Wuch'ang

h.

i^7

n

Ch6kiang

Huchow

F.

Wuch'ang

h.

^

m

Shantung

Lints'ing

C.

Wuchih

h.

^

w

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

Wuchow

F.

m

n

Kwangsi

CtTIBS, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

635

Nam£, Bomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Province.

Subordinate to.

Wuchw'an

h.

^

)\\

Kwangtung

Kaochow

F.

Wuchw'an

h.

m

;ii

Kweichow

Szenan

F.

Wuchw'an

T.

ffC

}\\

Shansi

Wuho

h.

5

m

Nganhwei

Sze

0.

Wuhsiang

h.

IS

m

Shansi

Ts'in

0.

Wuhsiieh

K

•K

Hupeh

Hwangchow

F.

Wuhu

h.

m

M

Nganhwei

T'aip'ing

F.

Wu-i

h.

K

M

GhSkiang

Kinhwa

P.

Wukang

c.

«

n

Hunan

Paok'ing

F.

Wuk'ang

h.

^

m

ChSkiang

Huchow

F.

Wukih

h.

M

m

Ghihli

Oh^ngting

F.

Wukiang

h.

M

tL

Kiangsu

Soochow

F-

Wuk'iang

h.

^

3S

Ohihli

Sh6n

0.

Wuk'iao

h.

^

m

Ohihli

Hokien

F.

Wukung

h.

^

^

Shensi

K'ien

C.

Wuling

h.

n

m

Hunan

Oh'angteh

F.

Wungan

h.

n

^

Honan

Ohangteh

P.

Wuning

h.

n

w

Kiangsi

Nanch'ang

F.

Wupao

h.

^

m

Shensi

Suiteh

0.

Wup'ing

h.

n

¥

Fokien

T'ingchow

P.

WuBhan

h.

m

iij

Szechw'an

Kw'eichow

F.

Wushih

T.

*^

#

Sinkiang

(Uch-Turfan

Wusih

h.

m

i

Kiangsu

Oh'angchow

F.

Wusiien

h.

^

Kwangsi

Siinchow

F.

Wusung

^

S

Kiangsu

Sungkiang

F.

(Woosung)

Wut'ai

h.

5

m

Shansi

T'ai

0.

Wuting

F.

^

%

Shantung

Wuting

C.

«

%

Yiinnan

Wutsin

h.

E

m

Kiangsu

Oh'angchow

F.

Wuts'ing

h.

fC

w

Ohihli

Shunt'ien

F.

Wuwei

h.

n

^

Kansu

Liangchow

F.

"Wuwei

c.

m

n

Nganhwei

Liichow

P.

Wuyang

h.

%

Honan

Sihchw'an

T.

Wuyih

h.

^

g

Ohihli

Ki

0.

Wuyuen

h.

^

m

Kwangsi

Szengen

P.

Wuyiien

h.

m

w

Nganhwei

Hweichow

P.

Wuyuen

T.

5

M

Shansi

Yachow

F.

m

W

M.

Szechw'an

Yangan

h.

m

^

Szechw'an

Yachow

P.

636

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPBN PORTS OF CHINA.

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Yatung

Tibet

Tai

G.

m

Kwangtung

Yang

h.

#

Shensi

Hanchung

F.

Yangch'eng

h.

\^

m

Shansi

Tsehchow

F.

Yangchow

F.

■^

M

Kiangsu

Yangch'un

h.

^

Kwangtung

Ghaok'ing

F.

Yanghu

h.

m

m

Kiangsu

Ch'angchow

F.

Yangkao

h.

%

M

Shansi

Tat'ung

F.

Yangkiang

T.

%

2n

Kwangtung

Yangki-Hissar

(Yingkihshaeul)

m^ipm

Sinkiang

Yangk'iih

h.

m

A

Shansi

T'aiyiien

F.

Yangkuh

h.

m

Wl

Shantung

Yfinchow

F.

Yangli

c.

«

m

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

p.

Yangsin

h.

1^

m

Shantung

Wuting

F.

Yangshan

h.

^

\i\

Kwangtung

Lien

C.

Yangshoh

h.

n

m

Kwangsi

Kweilin

P.

Yangwu

h.

m

fC

Honan

Hwaik'ing

F.

Yao

c.

m

Shensi

Singan

F.

Yao

c.

m

Yiinnan

Oh'uhsiung

F.

Yarkand

(see Soch'e)

3

«

Sinkiang

Yehch'fing

h.

m

m

Sinkiang

Soch'e

F.

Y§noh'ang

h.

M

^

Shensi

Y^nngan

F.

Y6nch'6ng

h.

m

M

Kiangsu

Hwaingan

F.

Y6nch'6ng

h.

m

M

Honan

Hsii

C.

Y^nchow

P.

m

Ch^kiang

Yfinchow

F.

^

m

Shantung

Y6nchw'an

h.

m

)\\

Shensi

Y^nngan

F.

Y6nkih

t.

m

w

Kirin

Kirin

P.

Y^nk'i

F.

m

«

Sinkiang

(Karashar)

Yfink'ing

c.

M

m

Chihli

Siienhwa

P.

Y6nling

h.

m

m.

Honan

K'aifung

P.

Y6nngan

F.

m

^

Shensi

Y6np'ing

F.

m

¥

Fokien

Y6nshan

h.

m

llJ

Chihli

T'ientsin

P.

Y6nshi

h.

m

@f

Honan

Honan

F.

Y6nt'ai

m

a

Shantung

T^ngchow

P.

(see Ohefoo)

Y6nt'ing

h.

m

?

Szechw'an

T'ungchw'an

P.

Y^ntsin

h.

m

w

Honan

Weihui

P.

Yfinyiien

h.

m

m

Szechw'an

Ningyiien

F.

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OP CHINA.

637

Name, Romanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

Subordinate

TO.

Yih

h.

m

Shantung

Laichow

F.

Yih

h.

iiii

Shantung

Y6nchow

F.

Yihch'fing

h.

s

m

Shansi

P'ingyang

F.

Yihtu

h.

s

n

Shantung

Ts'ingchow

F.

Yihyang

h.

<

x^

Kiangsi

Kwangsin

F.

Yihyang

h.

m

m

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Yinkiang

h.

En

n.

Kweichow

Szechow

F.

Ying

c.

m

Shansi

Tat'ung

F.

Yingch'Sng

h.

m

m

Hupeh

Tehngan

F.

Yingchow

F.

m

m

Nganhwei

Yingkihshaeul

T.

m^i^m

Sinkiang

(Yangki-Hissar)

Yingk'ow

t.

m

p

Shfingking

Fungt'ien

F.

(Newchwang]

Yingshan

h.

^

iij

Nganhwei

Luhngan

0.

Yingshan

h.

m

lU

Hupeh

Tehngan

F.

Yingshan

h.

m

iij

Szechw'an

Shunk'ing

F.

Yingshang

h.

M

±

Nganhwei

Yingchow

F.

Yingteh

h.

%

^

Kwangtung

Shaochow

F.

Yiu

h.

^

Hunan

Ch'angsha

F.

Yiuk'i

h.

*

m

Fokien

Y6np'ing

F.

Yiuyang

0.

W

^

Szechw'an

Yiuyiih

h.

^

m

Shansi

Shop'ing

F.

Yohch'i

h.

#

m

Szechw'an

Shunk'ing

F.

Yohchow

F.

^

in

Hunan

(Yochow)

IM

Yohshan

h.

m

III

Szechw'an

Kiating

F.

Yohts'ing

h.

m

»

Ch6kiang

W6nchow

F.

(seeLohts'ing

h.)

Yohyang

h.

■©

It

Shansi

P'ingyang

F.

Yu

h.

^

Shansi

P'ingting

0.

Yu

c.

^

Honan

Sihchw'an

T.

Yii

c.

n

Honan

K'aifung

F.

Yuch'6ng

h.

M

M

Shantung

Tsinan '

F.

Yiich'eng

h.

M

M

Honan

Kweiteh

F.

Yiihang

h.

m

Ij

Ch^kiang

Hangchow

F.

Yiihsiang

h.

m

m

Shansi

P'uchow

P.

Yiikan

h.

#

^

Kiangsi

Jaochow

F,

Yuk'ing

h.

m

m

Kweichow

P'ingyueh

C.

Yuk'ing

h.

m

m

Hehlungkiang

Suihwa

F.

Yulin

F.

m

w

Shensi

Yulin

h.

m

^

Shensi

Yulin

F.

Yiishe

h.

m

Bt

Shansi

Liao

C.

Yut'ai

h.

M

m

Shantung

Tsining

0.

638

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN P0HT8 OV CHINA.

Name, Romanised.

■

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

SUBOBDINATE TO.

Yiitien

h.

^

m

Sinkiang

Hwotien

P.

YiitsMen

h.

M

m

Ohekiang

Hangchow

F.

Yiitu

h.

n

Kiangsi

Kanchow

F.

Yutz'e

h.

m

^

Shansi

T'aiyiien

F.

Yiiyao

h.

^

m

GhSkiang

Shaohsing

F.

Ylihhwan

t.

s

m

Chdkiang

W^nchow

F,

Yiihlin

0.

t

n

Kwangsi

Yuhm6n

h.

2

n

Kansu

Ngansi

0.

Yiihp'ing

h.

5

m

Kweichow

Szechow

P.

Yiihshan

h.

3i

\U

Kiangsi

Kwangsin

F.

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h.

S

EQ

Ohihli

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G.

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t.

m

n

Szechw'an

Ningyiien

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Yuen

h.

Hupeh

Yiienyang

F.

Yiiench'fing

h.

TC

m

Chihli

Taming

P.

Yiienchow

F.

U

w

Hunan

Yiienchow

F.

m

m

Kiangsi

Yiienhwo

h.

7C

ft

Kiangsu

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F.

Yiienkiang

h.

U

a

Hunan

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P.

Yiienkiang

0.

%

a

Yiinnan

Yuenk'iih

h.

m.

ffi

Shansi

Kiang

0.

Yiienling

h.

^

m

Hunan

Oh'^nchow

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Yiienmeu

h.

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Yiienngan

h.

it

*

Hupeh

KingnlSn

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h.

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¥

Ghihli

Shunt'ien

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Ohihli

Gh£ngting

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Yiiensi

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w

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h.

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ft

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9

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m

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^

g

Yiinnan

CITIES, TOWNS AND OPEN PORTS OF CHINA.

639

Name, Eomanised.

Name, Chinese.

Pbovince.

Subordinate to

Yungch'6ng

h.

$k

m

Shantung

Tfingchow

F.

Yungch'6ng

h.

7lC

m

Honan

Kweichow

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§

m

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P.

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F.

7TC

w

Hunan

Yungch'un

C.

^

*

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Yungchw'an

h.

tN

il'

Szechw'an

Ch'ungk'ing

F.

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h.

^

fVB

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Foochow

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Yungfuh

h.

^

m

Kwangsi

Kweilin

F.

Yungfung

h.

^

Kiangsi

Kihngan

P,

Yungho

h.

n

ft

Shansi

P'uchow

F.

Yunghsing

h.

71C

a

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Ch'en

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h.

^

ft ,

Shansi

Sih

0.

Yungk'ang

c.

71C

jft

Kwangsi

T'aip'ing

F.

Yungk'ang

h.

71C

j^

Ohfekiang

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F.

Yungkia

h.

7l<

M

Ch6kiang

W6nchow

P.

Yungking

h.

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m

Szechw'an

Yachow

P.

Yungming

h.

71C

m

Hunan

Yungchow

P.

Yungngan

h.

7l<

^

Fokien

Ydnp'ing

F.

Yungngan

h.

7lC

^

Kwangtung

Hweichow

P.

Yungngan

c.

7lC

$

Kwangsi

P'ingloh

P.

Yungnien

h.

^

^

Ghihli

Kwangp'ing

P.

Yungning

h.

^

w

Honan

Honan

P.

Yungning

h.

7lC

m

Kiangsi

Kihngan

F.

Yungning

h.

71C

w

Szechw'an

Siiyung

T.

Yungning

c.

77C

w

Shansi

F6nchow

P.

Yungning

c.

*

m

Kwangsi

Kweilin

P.

Yungning

c.

7TC

w

Kweichow

Nganshun

P.

Yungpeh

T.

71C

*

Yiinnan

Yungp'ing

F.

7k

¥

Ohihli

Yungp'ing

h.

71C

2P

Yiinnan

Yungch'ang

P.

Yungshan

h.

71C

t

Yiinnan

Ohaot'ung

P.

Yungsheu

h.

^

«

Shensi

K'ien

0.

Yungshun

P.

^

ii

Hunan

Yungshun

h.

71C

Ji

Hunan

Yungshun

F.

Yungshun

h.

7l<

^

Kwangsi

Nanning

F.

Yungsin

h.

71C

if

Kiangsi

Kihngan

E.

Yungsui

T.

71C

m

Hunan

Yungting

h.

7K

%

Hunan

Li

0.

Yungting

h.

^

%

Fokien

T'ingchow

P.

Yungtseh

h.

m

n

Honan

OhAng

c.

Yungtsi

h.

m

m

Shansi

P'uchow

p.

Yungts'ing

h.

71C

m

Chihli

Shunt'ien

p.

Yungts'ung

h.

7l<

m

Kweichow

Lip'ing

p.

Yungyang

h.

m

m

Honan

Ohfing

0.

APPENDIX I.

>e-i<

Signification of tbe principal CMnese Geographical Terms.

Cha, a palisade, a fence.

Cliah, a flood-gate.

C/i'a, the tea-plant.

Ch'a, a place where the road

forks.
)Chai, a stockade for def-
I ence, a fortress, a pass.

Chang, a freshet.

Ch'ang, an area of level
ground.

Ch'ao, the tide.

ChSn, a market-town,

Ch'Srij a minister, a court-
ier.

Ch'6n, a Chinese hour,

Ch'Sng, a citadel, a walled
place.

Cheu(Chow), an islet, a con-
tinent.

Cheu, a boat, a vessel.

Chi, to govern, to rule.

Chi, a small islet.

Ch'i, a pool, a pond.

Ch'ih, a Chinese foot (14
inches).

Chow, a territorial division.

Chu, an islet.

Chuh, the bamboo-plant.

C/i'u, a place, a spot.

Chung, the middle.

19 Chungkwoh, the Middle
Kingdom (China).

C/iungf, the end.

Jll

i3&

&
*

m
m
w

m

m

J?
If

a terrace,
a ward.

Chung, a mound, a tumulus.

Ckw'an, a stream.

C/iw'an, a ship.

Chw'an, to string together.

Chwang, a farmstead.

Em^ two.

Fah, a law, a rule.

g Fahhwoh, France.

Fan, aborigines, barbarians.

Fan, boundary, frontier.

Fan,an embankment, a dyke.

Fan, a field.

Fan, a hillside,

Fang, a hamlet,

Fang, a dyke.

Fang, a house.

F6n, a part, a division.

FSn, a mound, a grave.

Feu, a port, a mart.

Feu, a mound.

Fu. a prefecture.

Fu/i, a return flow.

Fung, the wind.

Fung, the summit.

ifai, the sea,

Han, dry,

Han, embankment.

Hang, a store, a mercantile

establishment.
Hao, city moat.
Heh, black.
Heu, a ruler,
HOj a river.

a sovereign.

APPKNDIX I,

il

"p Hsia, below, underneath.
^|5 Hsiang, the country, a village.
(^, Hsien, a district (a territorial

division).
|5g Hsien, limit, boundary.
^ Hsiieh^ a cave.
^ Hu, a door, a houshold.
fjjg Hu, a lake,
j^ Hu, a slope to the water

side.
^4- //uh, a measure, half a picul.
:^ Hung, crosswise, athwart.
^ /fwa, flowery, elegant.
:j^ Hwa^ a flower, ornamented.
|5^ Hwang, a dry moat.
1^ Hwang, wild, barren.
^ Hwang, high, supreme, the

Emperor.
^ Hwang, yellow.
^ Hwo, goods, merchandise.
^ Hwoh, lofty.
^ 7, barbarian,
g Jeh. (Jih), the sun, a day.
X J^^n, a man, the human race.
-^ J6n, an office, a duly.
JH Jwan^ vacant space near a

city wall.
^ Kan, dry.
j^ /'fan, a pit, a hole.
1^ Kang, a summit.
-fr K'ang, the neck.
^ K'ang, a stove-bed.
^ Kao, high.

j^ K'Sng, a ditch, a trench.
^ Keu, a water-course.
p K'eu, the mouth.
H jRli, season, period.
1^ Ki, shallows, an eddy.
^ K'i, a banner.
1^ K'i, to diverge, a fork in a

road.
1^ K'z, a mountain streamlet.
^ Kia, a family.
-^ Kia, a guard-house at a pass.
^ Kiah, a mountain-pass.
;}|f /fiaij a street.
^ Kfai, a boundary.

^ Kiang, a large river.

U Kiang, the frontier.

i^- Kiang, a port.

^ JCiao, waste-land.

^ Kiao, a sedan-chair.

JH Xiao, ridge, watershed of a
high peak.

^ K'iao, a bridge.

J^ Kieh, blue clay.

j^ Kien, a stream.

^ Kien, documents, official pa-
pers.

^ Kin, metal, gold.

Jp Kin, a Chinese pound or
catty (l^^lbs. avoirdupois).

j£ Kin, near.

M King, classical works.

^ King, the capital or metro-
polis.

^ King, the neck, an isthmus.

J^ Kio/i, a foot.

J^ Kfu, nine.

c. K'tii, a hillock.

^ K'iu, a tumulus.

^ Kuh, grain, cereals.

^ K'M, the treasury, revenue.

^ K'u, a cave, a hut.

Jl. Kii, an embankment.

j^ K'iih, crooked, tortuous.

?a Kiien, a brook.

■^ KiXn, a prince, a sovereign.

ip Klin, a principality, a pre-
fecture.

JQ Kung, work, skill.

jJV Kung, a duke, a term of res-
pect.

g Kung, a mansion, a palace.

Jjjf K'^wen, the earth.

g|> Kwa, divining marks.

'^ Kwan, an official.

P JCwan, a custom-house.

ig Kwan, an Inn.

^ Kwan, a crest, a summit.

1^ Kwan, large.

J^ Kwang, broad.

Ij^ K'wangf, vacant, waste.

1^ Kwei, the cassia-tree.

41

642

APPENDIX I.

^ Kwoh, a kingdom.
^ Larij a railing,
f^ Lang J a wave.
^ Lao, great rain, a stream.
^ Let, a rampart.
M Li a Chinese mile {1,800 ft.
or ^ of an Eng. mile).
^ Li, a deputy-officer.
|g Li, the nephelium-tree (its

fruit is the lichi).
^ Liang, to measure.
Jg Liang, grain, provisions.
^ Liang, a foot-bridge.
^ Liang, two.

}g Lien, thelotus, the Water-lily.
:^i^ Ltn, a forest,
^ Ling, a fraction.
^ Ling, imperial mausolea.
s^ Ling, ice.

^ Ling, a pass on a mountain-
ridge.
jhfc Liu, water flowing,
.aw Liu, a fountain.
]^ Liu, lapis-Iazuli.
■m Lu, the water-rush,
at Lm, a road, a circuit (a territ-
orial division).
Jhf Lu, a stove, a fireplace.
J- Lu/i, six.
^ Lung, a dragon.
1^ Lung, a dyke.
•f| Lung, n mound.
W Mai, to buy.
^ Mai, to sell.
^ Man, barbarous, fierce.
^ Mao, hair, pelage.
^ Mao, high grass, thatch.
;|i^ Mei, a prune,
p^ MSn, a gate, an outer door.
"^ Meu (Mow), a Chinese land
measure (6 equal to an
English acre).
^ Mi, hulled rice,
•gf Miao, sprouts.
^ Miao, a pagoda.
^ Mien, soft, cottony, floss.
^ Mien, the face, the surface.

_g Min, the people.

^ Ming, a name.

^ Mo, a sandy plain.

T^ Mu, a mother.

7^ Mu/i, wood, timber.

^ JVan, the south.

^ JVei, within, inside.

^ Ngan, the shore, the beach.

^ Ngan, a monastery.

■;^ Ngao, a high shore.

^ ATi, mud, slush.

d^ iVien, a year.

4^ iViu, a cow, an ox.

-^ NiX, a woman.

^ Nung, to cultivate the soil.

J^ Pa, an embankment.

/\ Pa/i, eight.

j}^ P'ai, a tablet.

^ Pan, half, to divide.

^ Pan, to revolt, to rebel.

f^ Pang, a country, a region.

^ P'ang,the side, by the side of.

^ Pao, a fortified outpost, a
ward.

^ Pe/i, white.

"g" Pe/i, a hundred.

ig Pe/i, the cypress-tree.

4|- Peh, the north.

i^ Pei, a pillar, a grave-stone.

^ Pei, a cowrie shell.

^ Pei, a generation.

!5J^' Pei, an embankment, a dam.

^ PSn, the root, the origin.

^ Pi/i,a Chinese writing-brush.

^ P'iao, a ticket, a bank-bill.

^ij Pieh, to separate.

jg Pien, border, side.

^ P'in, rank, order.

J^ Ping, a soldier.

i'^ ^*ng, ice.

2p P'ing, level, equable.

Jf P'ing, a flat, level plain.

^ Po, a wave.

^ P'o, a slope, a declivity.

7(^ Pu. cotton-cloth.

^ Pu, a step, a pace (62 \
inches Eng).

APPENDIX I.

643

lU

w

m
m

m.

m

Puj a port, a mart.
Pu, to divine.
P'w, the bank of a river.
P'u, the cat-tail rush.
P'u, vast, extensive.
P'u, a shop.
San, three.

Sang, the mulberry-tree.
Sha.j sand.
Sha.n, a mountain.
SMng, a province.
Shi/i, a picul(133^1bs avoir-
Si^ the west. [dupois).
Siao, small.
Sie, a little.
Sierij first, before.
Sin, the heart.
Sin^ new, fresh.
Sin, a guard-house.
Sing, a clan or family name.
Siu, a cavernous cliff, a

ravine.
Six, an islet.
Su, a place, a spot.
Suh, a halting place.
SiXeh, snow.

Siinj to examine, to patrol.
Siien, a whirlwind.
Sui, a year of one's age.
Sung, to dwell.
Sung, the pine-tree.
Sze a township.
Ta, great.

T'ah, a pagoda tower.
Tai, a generation,
r'ai, excessive.
T'ai, a terrace, an altar.
Tan^ a load of 2 piculs.
7"an, a sandbank.
T'an, a high terrace for

worship.
T'an, a plain.

7"an, a deep pool in a river.
T'an, charcoal, embers.
T'ang, a hall, a church.
T'ang, a dyke, a reservoir.
Tao, an island out at sea.

^ Tao, a way, a road, a circuit
(territorial division).

jg r'ao, a torrent.

^ T'ao, bend of a river.

^ Tseh, a marsh, a pool.

ij- Teu, a bushel, the tenth of a
shih or picul.

1^ T'eu, the head.

jtg Ti, the base, the foot of.

^ Ti, a sovereign.

Il^ Ti, the earth.

^ Ti/i, Northern barbarians.

^ T'ieh, iron.

^ Tien, a shop, an inn.

f@ Tien, to till the ground.

^ Tien^ a palace.

^ THen, the sky, heaven.

0 T'ien, a field.

I J ring, a piece of waste-land.

"J" Ting, a nail, a full-grown
person.

f^ Ting, a peak, a summit.

^ T'ing, a court, a territorial
division.

J^ To, a crenelated battlement.

^ Ts'ang, a government gran-
ary.

5;§ Ts'ao, a canal.

^§ itK: Ts'ao-mi, tribute rice.

^ Ts'ao, herbs, plants.

^ Ts'ih, seven.

^ Ts'ien, a thousand.

•^ Ts'ien, before.

^ Ts'ien, a copper, a cash.

^ Ts'ien, a ford.

^ Tsin, a ford, a ferry.

^ Tsing, a well, a deep pit.

^ Ts'ing, dark-green, azure.

^ Ts'iu, the autumn.

^ Tso, the left hand.

2j£ Tsu/i, lictors, soldiers.

;^ Tsith, a clan, a tribe.

J£ Tswh, the leg, the foot.

1^ Tsui, a headland.

;^ Ts'^nn, a village, a hamlet.

-^ Ts'un, a Chinese inch (^j^ of
the Chinese foot).

64^

APPENDIX I.

,^

±

74

3l

m

^

Ts'uen, a fountain, a spring.

Tu, a ferry-boat.

T'u, a plan, a map.

T'u, the soil.

Tui, a heap, a pile.

Tun, a hillock.

T'un, military colonists.

Tung, the east.

Tung, the winter.

Tung, a cave.

T'ung, copper.

TzBj a Chinese written sym-
bol or pictograph, a
name.

Wa, a hollow, a puddle.

Wan, a winding bank, a
bay.

Wan, ten thousand.

Wajig, a king, a ruler.

Wang, a deep and wide ex-
panse of water.

Wei, a military station (under
the present dynasty).

Wo, the country of dwarfs
(Japan).

Wu, five.

Wu, military.

Wuh, a house, a room.

Ya, a tribunal, a court.

P^ YamSn, a Chinese oITicial
establishment, a public
court.

Yai, the sheer side of a hill.

Yang, the middle.

if

m

E3

it

1^

Yang, the superior of the
dual powers, the sun.

Yang, the ocean.

Yg, a waste, wild.

YS, night, darkness.

Y?n, steep mountains.

YSn, salt.

YSn, an embankment.

yi/i, a city, a principality.

Fi/i, a government post-sta-
tion.

Yili, one.

Yin, dark, obscure, the in-
ferior of the dual pow-
ers, the moon.

Yin^ silver.

Ying, flourishing, brave.

g Yinghwoh, England.

Ying, an entrenched camp.

Yiu, the right hand.

Yoh, a lofty summit.

YiX, in, at.

YiX, a fish.

Yix, rain.

YiX, a bank, a dyke.

YiXh, a gem.

YiXeh, the moon, a month.

Fiien, the first.

YiXen, a source.

Yiien, a fountain, a spring.

YiXen, a garden.

yiien, distant, far off.

YiXen, a hall, a college.

YiXn, clouds.

APPENDIX II.

China's Foreign Trade in 1906*.

We are iudebte.d for all statistics on the Forei£,^a Trade of Cliina to the reports
of the Imperial Maritime Customs published by order of the luspeotor General of
Customs, and kindly placed at our disposal by the Statistical Secretary, M"" H.B. Morse.
The value of the Haikwan Tael for the year 1906 was 3 s. 3 J d.

Annual Value of the Foreign Trade of China, 1905-1906.

Year.

Net
Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1905
190G

Hk. Tls.
447,100,791
410,270,082

Hk. Tls.
227,888,197
230,456,739

Hk. Tls.
674,988,988
646,726,821

There was a decrease of Hk. Tls. 28,262,167, or i per cent from the value in 190-5,
the loss falling especially on the imports.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1903.

Country.

1905

1906

Total, Hk. Taels.

Total, Hk. Taels.

Great Britain.

101,536,613

92,036,607

Hongkong.

229,523,841

227,677,381

British India.

37,518,977

34,068,732

. Singapore and Straits.

,7,864,.569

7,398,502

Australia and New Zealand.

l,(;i0,C7iJ

1,014,469

South Africa (including Mauritius).

68,775

.58,136

Canada.

Total will! Bfilisti Coutiti'ics.

2,794,049

5,192,127

383,917,iS9

S67,li6,037

See for previous years ; Commerce, pp. 407-424.

*)46 APPENDIX U.

Annual Value of the Direct Trade with each Country, 1905-1906 (continued).

Country.

1905

1906

Total, Hk.Taels,

Total, Hk. Taels.

United States of America.

103,947,610

70,107,637

Philippine Islands.

Total with United States.

966,977

2,.536,704

10i,91«,587

7Z,6M,341

Mexico and Central America.

47,168

54,142

Soutli America.

13,0S4

27,309

Germany.

20,223,724

23,105,154

France.

22,683,867

29,640,638

Belgium.

11,821,020

15,396,712

Italy.

8,595,098

8,722,941

Austria and Hungary.

1,828,622

3,605,481

Netherlands.

1,961,331

1,947,096

Norway, Sweden, Denmark.

147,261

102,849

Spain and Portugal.

Total Continental Trade.

70,688

48,628

67,331,611

72,569,499

Macao.

7,745,616

10,394,983

Russia, European Ports.

5,501,041

5,757,036

Russia and Siberia (by land frontier).

2,923,478

2,565,904

Russia, Pacific Ports.

Tota 1 with Russia .

3,024,607

11,018,087

11,M9,129

19,341,027

Korea.

3,939,628

1,811,037

Japan and Formosa.

96,780,211

94,357,287

French Indo-China.

3,978,264

5,654,719

Siam.

1,506,637

1,981,820

Dutch Indies.

5,036,850

5,919,293

Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Aden.

2,145,294

2,537,205

Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1905-1906.

Description of Goods.

190S

1906

Opium.

Cotton Goods (Shirtings, Drills, T. Cloths.)

Woollen and Cotton Mixtures.

Woollen Goods.

Value : Hk. Tls.

34,070,021

181,452,953

1,193,434

4,240,751

Value : Hk. Tls.

32,2S5,377

152,727,845

2,269,812

4,382,958

APPENDIX II. 647

Principal Net Imports from Foreign Countries, 1905-1906 (continued).

Description of Goods.

1905

1906

Value : Hk. TIs.

Value I Hk. TIs.

Miscellaneous Piece Goods.

2,036,000

3,062,711

Metals.

45,428,998

17,289,855

Coal and Coke.

7,121,953

8,765,957

Cigars and Cigarettes.

4.,731,579

6,254,862

Tobacco.

1,GU,323

1,660,075

Dyes, Colours and Paints.

6,^152,727

7,945,954

Fish and Fishery Products.

8,828,542

8,125,721

Bags of all binds.

2,032,423

1,398,767

Candles.

1,384,054

648,451

Flour.

3,706,159

6,395,753

Ginseng.

2,000,000

488,900

Glass and Glassware.

1,481,830

1,981,373

Kerosene Oil, American.

11,378,271

7,132,179

,, Borneo.

1,097,371

1,660,273

„ , Burma.

17.5,516

8,251

,, Bussiau.

1,700,439

,, Sumatra.

6,935,492

3,778,020

Leather.

1,799,576

2,361,499

Machinery and Fittings.

5,336,927

5,730,221

Matches, Japanese.

5,558,130

5,139,808

Medicines.

1,908,573

2,137,134

Paper.

2,453,039

4,063,413

Rice.

8,554,971

11,749,.590

Railway Plant and Materials.

7,346,739

11,439,806

Soap.

1,564,461

1,312,662

Stores, Household.

2,384,534

2,334,891

Timber, Hardwood.

809,277

1,367,005

„ Soft-wood.

2,309,130

4,030,161

Sagar, Brown.

7,363,053

10,457,089

„ Candy.

1,578,189

2,156,038

„ Refined.

8,248,312

8,866,573

„ White.

5,432,548

8,525,409

Wines.

1,016,351

845,642

Spirits.

1,272,204

531,732

Beer and Porter.

739,862

497,560

The fall-off was especially noticeable in cotton-goods (TIs 28,725,108), metals
(TIs. 28,139,143), candles, soap, kerosene oil (fell from 153,471,831 to 128,687,690
gallons, a reduction of 24,784,141 gallons), ginseng, wines, spirits and beer.

A considerable increase took place in woollen goods, cigars and cigarettes, flour,
leather, paper, machinery, railway plant and materials, timber and sugar.

648

APPENDIX II.

Principal Exports to Foreign Countries, 1905-1906.

Description of Goods.

1905

1906

Value : Hk. Tls.

Value : Ak. Tls.

Silk.

70,393,833

71,295,525

Tea.

25,445,652

26,629,630

Eaw Cotton.

12,029,326

11,631,638

Skins (Purs), Skin Clothing, Bugs.

9,684,286

8,207,100

Beans

6,931,876

3,158,391

Beanoake.

6,188,347

7,064,108

Straw Braid.

6,210,688

8,650,861

Sheep's Wool.

6,070,1.57

4,847,015

Hides, Cow and Buffalo.

4,995,749

5,491,908

Oils (Bean), Groundnut, Tea, Wood, Aniseed,

Cassia).

-4,095,985

5,527,821

Paper.

3,551,634

3,259,435

Tin, in slabs.

3,441,547

3,478,834

Mats and Matting.

3,129,330

4,078,721

Cattle (Sheep, Pigs, Goats).

3,210,100

3,357,924

Bristles.

Fire-crackers and Fireworks.

2,555,610
2,972,256

2,756,262
3,585,733

Hemp.

Medicines.

2,352,007
2,111,616

2,964,289
2,430,322

Sugar.

2,194,490

1,040,939

Eggs.

Provisions and Vegetables.

Sesamum Seed.

Tobacco, Leaf and Prepared.

Chinaware.

Fruits of all kinds.

Grasscloth.

Fish and Fishery Products.

2,021,.589
2,474,703
2,349,746
2,312,713
1,721,474
1,671,992
1,259,586
1,164,337

2,956,400
2,701,027
4,512,602
2,215,913
1,579,204
1,903,978
1,079,131
964,719

Timber and Wood of all kinds.
Vermicelli and Macaroni.

1,135,246
1,377,962

982,510
1,373,400

On the whole, the exports show Uttle development. There was a faUing-ofi in
raw cotton, beans, skins, sheep's wool, sugar, fish and fishery products, timber and
wood. A slight increase took place in sUk (which contributed 30 per cent of the
total export), tea, beancake, straw-braid, oils, mats and matting, fire- crackers, eggs
and sesamum seed.

APPENDIX II.

Principal Ee-exports, 1905-1906.

649

Description of Goods.

1906

1906

'

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Cotton Goods.

5,020,064

4,665,251

Formosa Tea.

2,554,609

2,277,365

Metals.

889,233

3,541,029

Coal.

611,625

736,651

Household Stores.

516,867

796,868

Kerosene Oil.

512,309

399,137

Ginseng.

485,684

345,336

Opium.

219,626

292,890

Flour.

232,118

63,816

Condensed Milk.

184,539

84,112

Woollen Goods.

173,962

401,957

Bags of all kinds.

168,485

6S,301

Sugar.

122,410

198,214

Ceylon Tea.

82,795

6,048

Spirits.

225,277

150,195

Beer and Porter.

142,743

80,856

Wines.

106,587

229,768

The total value of foreign products re-exported in 1905 was Hk. Tls. 14 093 741
and in 1906 Hk. Tls. 18,020,205, of which cotton manufactures, Formosa tea, and
metals contributed one half.

Importation of Cotton Piece Goods and Yarn, 1905-1906.

Description of Goods.

1905

1806

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Shirtings and Sheetings, Plain.

6o,387,.o93

45,734,293

Drills, Jeans, T. Cloths.

21,52.5,938

19,697,708

Fancy Cottons (Italians, Lastings, Spanish

Stripes).

27,330,425

22,420,790

Cotton Yarn and Thread in Balls and Spools.

67,208,997

65,1:0,467

Importation of Cotton Yarn, 1905-19C6.

Description.

1905

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Indian.

47,556,392

46,109,724

Japanese.

17,791,368

16,649,172

English.

815,430

1,005,013

Hongkong.

77,727

148,443

650

APPENDIX II.

Sorts of Opium imported, 1903-1906.

Description.

1903

igoi

1906

1906

Benares.

Malwa.
Patna.
Other kinds (Persian).

Total Value.

Hk. Tls.

8,139,056
17,024,215
16,384,857

2,282,764

Hk. Tls.

6,161,982
16,097,055
13,160,719

1,674,416

Hk. Tls.

6,537,092

12,899,9P6

13,743,796

889,147

Hk. Tls.

7,481,899

9,329,927

15,005,645

467,906

48,880,892

37,094,172

34,070,021

32,285,377

In regard to quantity, the consumption of Benares and Fatna opium increased
from 34,195 piouls in 1905, to 38,953 piculs in 1906; while Malwa and Persian fell
from 17,725 piculs in 1905, to 15,164 piculs in 1906, the oanse being the low price of
the Bengal drug and the still lower one of native opium. In June, 1906, a uniform
tax of Tls. 155 per pioul was imposed on the drug throughout the 18 Provinces. At
the end of the year, upon the issue of the anti-opium regulations, prices fell all round
about 5 per cent for Malwa and 8 per cent for Bengal.

Opium : Net Importation into the Principal Ports, 1904-1906.

Ports.

1904

1905

1906

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Shanghai.

15,203

14,811

15,937

Canton.

9,453

10,209

11,146

Swatow.

4,865

4,129

4,381

Poochow.

3,851

3,301

3,362

Amoy.

3,422

3,299

3,645

ChSnkiang.

3,462

2,351

2,497

Hangohow.

2,487

2,099

1,603

Ningpo.

2,209

1,814

1,408

Lappa.

1,276

1,783

1,650

Kiukiang.

2,418

1,715

1,459

Wuhu.

2,360

1,625

1,633

K'iungohow.

450

1,075

1,051

The total net import of opium into all the ports amounted in 1900 to 49,279
piculs; in 1901 to 49,484; in 1902 to 50,761; in 1903 to 68,457; in 1904 to 54,725; in 1905
to 51,920, and in 1906 to 54,117 piouls. Except in the Provinces of Kiangsi and Chc-
kiang, there has been in 1906 a general increase in the consumption of foreign opium,
the total quantity having been exceeded in only two of the last 10 years viz : in 1899
when the amount reached 69,161 piculs; and in 1903, when it attained 58,457 piouls.

APPENDIX 11.

651

Special Exports : Silk, Tea.

The total net value of all exports, during the year 190G, was Hk. Tls. 236,456,739,
^Aich gives Hk. Tls. 8,568,512, or 3.6 per cent more than in 1905, but 3 million taels
less than in 1904.

The principal exports are silk and tea.

Sorts of Silk exported, 1905-1906.

Description.

1905

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Silk, Raw, White.

13,.524,010

16,485,481

„ Yellow.

3,866,402

3,214,873

„ Wild.

8,639,062

6„S72,970

„ Steam Filature.

27,395,999

29,614,449

Cocoons.

1,344,286

1,089,872

Waste Silk.

4,288,525

3,208,162

Cocoons, Refuse.

.555,818

450,254

Piece Goods.

8,897,627

8,474,750

Shantung Pongees.

1,041,123

1,279,101

Products, Unolassed.

840,981

1,105,610

Silk and its products contributed to the total export trade of 1906 a sum of
Hk. Tls. 71,295,525 (a million more than in 1905), being 30 % of all exports. Yellow
silk gained 10 %, wild silk was unaltered, and waste silk lost 15 %.

In the export of all kinds of silk and its products, China compares with Japan
as follows :

1904

1905

1906

China.
Japan.

Hk. Tls.
78,255,412
95,300,000

Hk. Tls.
70,393,833
77,180,000

Hk. Tls.
71,295,525
98,722,000

Sorts of Tea exported, 1904-1906.

Description.

1904

1905

1906

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Tea, Black.

16,567,796

12,721,213

12,252,518

„ Green.

9,469,737

8,292,474

7,645,421

„ Brick, Black.

3,576,846

3,366,268

4,392,064

„ „ Green.

406,910

.586,750

2,083,641

„ Tablet.

115,383

123,980

254,958

„ Dust.

65,287

54,967

1,028

Total Value.

80,201,964

25,445,652

26,629,630

652 APPENDIX 11-

Tea : Exportation Direct to Foreign Countries, 1906.

Destination.

Black.

Green.

Brick.

Tablet.

Dust.

Grand.
Total.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Piculs.

Great Britain.

57,966

29,304

87,270

Hongkong.

89,009

2,360

3

1

91,373

Other British Colonies.

16,177

10,417

8

12

26,614

United States of America.

70,315

81,307

407

152,029

Russia (European Ports).

122,612

57,937

77,354

1,098

259,031

Bussia and Siberia (by land

frontier).

53,037

166,711

198

219,8.56

Kussia (Pacific Ports).

109,S50

2,035

340,320

8,089

460,294

Continental Europe (Russia

excepted).

55,296

55,296

Turkey, Persia, Egypt.

272

272

During the year 1906, tea shipments increased in value over a million taels
to Hk. Tls 26,629,630. The export of leaf, 808,094 piculs, was less than in 1905 by
37,847 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 1,169,687 in value ; brick and tablet, 596,034 piculs,
were more by 72,677 piculs in weight, and Hk. Tls. 2,353,665 in value. Hence it may
be remarked that the exports of leaf for the consumption of Western peoples are less
in quantity year by year, while supplies of brick tea, for the consumption of Russia
and Central Asia, steadily increase in quantity and to a still greater degree in value.

Shipments of leaf originating in Hank'ow were less than in 1905 by 30,701 piculs,
and those originating in Kiukiang were less by 9,950 piculs, both crops being reduced
by the cold wet Spring. Green teas shipped at Shanghai (and coming from Ningpo
and Hangchow) were less by 31,403 piculs, and the demands for America considerably
decreased. Teas from Pooohow were more by 23,172 piculs than in 1905.

The proportion supplied by China of the consumption in Great Britain and the
United States is as follows : —

1901

1905

1906

Piculs.

Piculs,

Piculs.

Great Britain :

From all sources.

1,924,950

1,943,165

2,025,750

From China.

82,800

49,942

42,.533

Per cent.

4,3

2.5

2.1

United States :

From all sources.

800,931

735,843

670,781

From China.

315,.572

291,106

247,162

Per cent.

43.1

40.1

37.0

APPENDIX II.

Shipping : Vessels entered and cleared, 1905-1906.

653

Flag.

1905

1906

1905

19C6

No.

No.

Tons.

Tons.

British.

30,442

28,192

35,095,658

33,150,560

Japanese.

25,850

25,188

0,23S,918

11,376,430

German.

7,337

6,315

8,187,871

7,177,.518

French.

r,,181

5,511

1,699,121

3,125,749

Norwegian.

3,240

1,978

2,922,826

1,610,460

American.

689

582

1,293,110

1,351,200

Russian,

3fi

153

82,1.55

289,105

Portuguese.

926

976

146,290

183,908

Danish.

68

108

72,S37

172,!^26

Swedish.

17^

75

156,466

65,992

Dutch.

119

168

227,500

329,477

Austrian.

52

44

19.5,705

170,104

Korean.

0

28

1,293

22,310

Italian.

05

2

19,91^6

1,108

Spanish.

6

?

8,730

?

Chinese Shipping, 1905-1906.

1905

1906

1906

19C6

Vessels

of the Foi-eign Type.
Junks.

No.

.35,070
113,679

No.

45,817
93,157

Tons.

11,349,911

5,0.-7,441

Tons.

12,212,373
3,974,378

All these Vessels are owned by Chinese, sail under the Chinese fiagj and are
entered and cleared at the Imperial Maritime Customs.

Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906.
Share taken hy each Nationality.

Flag.

Clearances and Entries
at Treaty Ports.

Total Tonnage
Outwards and Inwards.

1905

1306

19C5

1906

British.

21,768

•20,237

25,309,319

21,005,271

Chinese.

88,584

80,318

12,75!, 108

12,738,365

Japanese.

25,222

22,202

5,74 7, 393

7,977,608

German.

5,299

4,.531

5,543,198

4,995,252

Norwegian.

1,476

9)3

1,277,978

708,679

French.

2,807

4,482

303,S0!S

1,7(8,675

American.

172

280

166,098

lf8,115

654

APPENDIX II.

Carrying Trade between the Treaty Ports, 1905-1906.
Share taken by each Nationality (continued).

Flag.

Clearances and Entries
at Treaty Ports.

Total Tonnage
outwards and Inwards.

1905

1906

1905

1906

Swedish.

IOC

36

94,201

32,212

Dutch.

33

31

50,142

55,078

Portuguese.

274

367

46,222

82,415

Danish.

43

57

30,264

47,645

Eussian.

7

32

11,747

41,299

Italian.

36

?

11,034

't

Austrian.

2

9

6,642

9

Korean.

2

3

240

2,414

Percentages of Trade, Commercial Houses and Foreign
commercial population of China, 1905-1906.

Nationality.

Percentages of Trade.
190S 1906

Commercial Houses.

igoT ^6

Persons.
1905' "^1906

British.

50,78

47,55

434

492

8,493

9,256

Chinese.

24,98

24,83

German.

9,92

9,19

197

199

1,850

1,939

Norwegian.

5,24

2,36

10

9

166

185

Japanese.

4,12

9,73

729

739

16,910

15,548

French.

2,06

3,24

77

91

2,143

2,189

American.

1,82

1,50

105

112

3,.'?80

3,447

Austrian.

0,25

0,33

17

19

250

236

Dutch.

0,18

0,32

9

19

181

225

. Swedish.

0,37

0,12

1

1

137

135

Italian.

0,01

0,00

22

21

412

786

Bussiau.

0,19

0,50

19

20

682

273

Danish.

0,07

0,23

13

14

201

209

Belgian.

9

9

8

6

273

• 297

Portuguese.

0,01

0,09

44

51

2,463

3,184

Spanish.

0,01

9

7

40 ?

249

389

Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Port or Open Mart,

1905-1906.

Port or Mai-t.

1906

1906

Estimated Native
Population.

Hk. Tls.

Ilk. Tls.

Amoy (Hsiam^n).

18,654,610

17,368,562

114,000

Canton.

92,243,650

94,108,696

900,000

Ch'angsha.

5,895,830

5,291,809

500,000

APPENDIX II.

655

Annual Net Value of the whole Trade of each Port or Open Mart,
1905-1906 (continued).

Port or Mart.

1905

19C6

Estimated Native
Population.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Chefoo.

39,131,381

34,740,267

100,000

Chenkiang.

33,344,208

35,826,857

170,000

Ch'ungk'ing.

27,731,627

28,996,206

702,000

Pooohow.

17,724,198

16,790,480

624,000

Hangchow.

17,496,980

16,299,185

350,000

Hank'ow

111,043,046

97,142,377

870,000

Ich'ang.

3,263,670

4,741,747

50,000

Kiaochow.

22,322,680

30,512,381

120,000

Kiukiang.

23,228,644

22,731,011

36,000

K'iungohow.

6,876,804

6,737,000

38,000

Kongmoon (KiangmOn).

3,461,444

3,732,207

55,000

Kowloon (Kiulung).

42,946,800

41,971,8.59

see Hongkong

Lappa (Kungpeh).

16,858,584

15,383,943

Luugohow.

230,4.52

186,274

12,000

M^ngtze.

9,592,945

10,824,864

15,000

Nanking.

10,573,545

9,668,934

300,000

Newchwang.

61,752,905

44,482,001

74,000

Ningpo.

19,163,630

19,142,434

260,000

Pakhoi (Peh-hai).

2,830,938

2,478,862

20,000

Samshui (Sanshui).

3,883,259

3,378,940

5,000

Santuao (Santungao).

2,220,032

2,290,183

S,000

Shanghai.

176,979,193

168,736,329

840,000

Shasi (Shashi).

1,317,544

1,497,134

85,000

Soochow.

4,240,013

5,729,980

500,000

Swatow (Shant'eu).

4f,005,306

43,198,688

65,000

Szemao.

246,848

226,082

15,000

Tengyueh.

1,679,999

1,397,877

12,000

T'ientsin.

90,565,672

112,864,555

750,000

Ts'inwangtao.

21,851,079

8,470,788

5,000

Wfnchow.

2,257,021

2,384,569

80,000

■Wuchow.

11,185,518

10,554,816

05,000

Wnhu.

30,623,!'09

21,998,201

137,000

Yochovv (Yohchow).

490,058

747,088

20,000

Grand Total.

821,029,459

784,356,057

7,897,000

Value of Exports abroad.

227,888,197

230,456,739

Value of Home Trade.

134,800,777

133,715,237

656

APPENDIX II.

These tables show that Newchwang has suffered in the competition with Talien
and the preferential rates on the South Manohurian railway. The year was prosperous
for T'ientsin. The 2 Shantung ports ; Chefoo and Kiaochow, show a tendency to
change positions, the total trade of the former having fallen Hk. Tls. 4,391,117 (imports
being less), and the latter having gained Hk. Tls. 8,189,701 (the most marked increase
being in foreign imports). Both share at present in the whole trade of Shantung in
the following proportions ; Chefoo 53 % and Kiaochow 47 %. In the West, Ch'ungk'ing
improved as well as Ich'ang and Shasi (Shashi). The Hank'ow trade fell both in
imports and exports, net foreign imports being less by 11 million taels, and the total
trade less by 14 million. The imports of Wuhu were little altered hut exports were less
in value by 40 %, reducing the value of the whole trade of the port from 30 i to 22
million taels. The imports to Nanking were less than in 1905, but those of Chfenkiang
increased by 10 %. Shanghai closed the year 1905 with large stocks unsold. Imports
fell from Hk. Tls. 92,207,173 in 1905, to 74,972,150, a decrease of over 17 million taels.
Exports of Chinese produce recovered lost ground from 72 million in 1905 to 79 million
in 1906. The Chgkiang ports : Ningpo, Hangchow, WSnohow, have maintained their
values almost unaltered. Foochow, Amoy and Swatow have fallen slightly. Canton
has advanced (the increase being in exports) by almost 2 million taels. Of the Southern
frontier marts, JMfingtze alone shows an increase in its trade, 4,012 piculs of native
opium having been exported to Tongking.

Customs Revenue, 1900-1906-

Year.

Foreign Trade.

Home Trade.

Total.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

Hk. Tls.

1900

18,182,815

4,691,171

22,873,986

1901

19,860,900

5,676,674

25,.J37,574

1903

24,180,574

5,826,470

30,007,044

1903

24,054,785

6,475,903

30,530,088

1904

24,788,638

6,704,518

31,493,156

1905

27,544,295

7,506,709

3.5,111,004

1906

29,272,481

6,796,114

36,068,595

APPENDIX III.

-H-H-

Statistics of Protestant Missions in China for the year ending, 1905.

By Bev. Nelson Bitton, L. M. 8.

At pp. 359-361 of this ■work, we gave the statistics of Protestant Missionary work
in China down to the close of 1902, having at that time no more recent ones at hand.
We have since applied for later statistics, and the Bev. N. Bitton, of the London
Missionary Society, has kindly furnished us with the following official totals for the
year ending, 1905. We supplement them by the comparative table of China Missions
from Broomhall's "Chinese Empire, a General and Missionary Survey", published in
London, 1907.

Foreign irissionaries.
Men (Clerical and lay).
Wives of Missionaries.
Single women.

Total Foreign Staff.

Chinese Workers.
Ordained Pastors.
Unordained Helpers.
School Teachers.
Hospital Assistants.
Bible-women (Colporteurs).
Total NatiTe Staff.

Missionary Residences (with residing

Foreign Missionary). 632

Missionary Out-stations. 4,470

Total Number of Stations. 5,102

Baptized Christians. *

178,251

Adherents, not baptized.

78,528

Native contributions for

Church work. $ (Mex.) 301,263

Schools (Day or Primary).

2,196

Pupils in same.

42,546

Higher Institutions (Intermediate

and Collegiate).

389

Students in same.

15,137

Medical Staff.

Men.

207

Women.

94

Total Medical Staff.

801

Hospitals. 166

Dispensaries. 241

In-patients during year reported. 35,301
Out-patients. 1,044,948

* Broomhall states the number of communicants to be 154,142, but adds that with
the Methodist Episcopal Mission, communicants include probationers or adherents.
Moreover, the Quakers or Friends, who admit no baptismal rite, cannot reckon but
adherents, of whom there are 809. (W. N. Bitton. Recorder, June, 1907).

42

658

APPENDIX III

Comparative Table of China missions

Showing progress of Missions as reported at Conferences of

1877, 1890 and 1907. *

1877

tsso

1907

Protestant Missionaries.

473

1,296

3,719

Chinese Helpers.

750

1,657

9,998

Communicants.

13,035

37,287

154,142

Stations.

91

?

706

Out-stations.

511

?

3,793

Organised Churches.

312

522

?

Hospitals.

16

61

1 366

Dispensaries.

24

44

Contributions of Native Church.

S (Mex.) 9,271

$ (Mex.) 36,884

1

Day Schools.

15

?

2,139

Pupils in do.

Boarding and Higher Schools.

Students in do.

280

7

290

I Total Pupils
j 16,»36

42,738

255

10,227

Prom Broomhall's "Chinese Empire, a General and Missionary Survey." p. 40.

isieoi

APPENDIX IV.

oXKo

The Woosung Bar, Hwangp'u Conservancy Work
and Approaches to Shanghai.

HEIGHT OF WATEE.

on the Outer and Inner Woosung Bars at low water of the syzygies.

(Gorrected up to-date by W. A. Carlson, Harbour Master, Shangluii).

1902-1906.

18 ft.

16 ft.

14 ft.

12 ft.

10 ft.

8 ft.

^m

\

5'"

gm

1902

1903

1901

1905

1906

The lower tracing exhibits the changes on the Inner Bar; the vpper tracing
those on the Outer Bar, which has improved since 1903.

660

APPENDIX IT.

The Hwangp'u Conservancy "Work.

In the XP" Article of the final Protocol signed at Peking September 7,
1901, it was provided to estabUsh a Conservancy Board for the purpose of
controlling, straightening and im-
proving the course of the Hwang-
p'u river, by which access is
gained to Shanghai. In 1905, an
agreement was made between the
Powers and China, whereby she
undertook herself to carry out the
work, and supply the funds re(3[uired
tor the purpose. These amount to
Tls. 460,000 per annum, during 20
years, and are derived from a tax
on the native opium of Szechw'an,
and of SUohow Fu in Kiangsu Pro-
vince. The limits, within which
work is to be controlled, extend
from the Government Arsenal, a
little above Shanghai, to the month
of the Hwangp'u (the red buoy
in the Yangtze). In the early part
of 1906, M' J. de Kijke, a Dutch
Engineer, arrived at Shanghai, and
started work in Feb. 1907, under
the Directors, the Taot'ai of Shang-
hai and the Commissioner of the
Imperial Maritime Customs. The
main features of M' de Bijke's
plan are :

1* to close the ship-channel stream, on the Northern or P'ootnng side of Gk>ugh
Island, and divert it to the junk-channel, on the Southern or Shanghai side, thereby
avoiding the right-angle turn over the Inner Bar into ship-channel, so much com-
plained of by navigators.

2° to construct a large training jetty at Woosung, nearly a mile in length, from
Prince's Pier to the Spit Buoy on the Outer Bar.

3° to establish other training works where needed, and especially near Gough
Island ; to bring the river to an easy curve and normal width from above the Chinese
City to Woosung, and out away Pheasant Point and other places where widening is
necessary.

The training works are now proceeding, and extend from Kaok'iao Creek to the
Inner Bar. A dyke has been completed from end to end of Gough Island. Large
layers of brushwood and reeds (called einkstuka), and bamboo cylinders (gabbioni) are
lowered into ship-channel. It will thus be gradually shoaled up, while junh-charmel
will become the main channel. *

* Imp. Marit. Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. Vol. III. (Whangpoo Biver
Conservancy, by the Commissioner of Customs.)

SHANGHAI and the Hwangp'u Elver.

APPENDIX IT.

APPROACHES TO SHANGHAI. •

661

The Bar of the Yangtze is graduaUy growing larger. Important changeB
are taking place in the South Channel, the main waterway to Shanghai. An
immense flat extends from the Fairy Wreck Buoy to the Fairway Bell Buoy, a distance
of about 17 miles. A new channel, named the Tungsha Channel (between Tungsha
Bank and the S. E. Spit), began in 1904. It has now out through the S. B. Spit, is
steadily improving, and may finally become the main channel.

• Imp. Marit. Customs : Returns of Trade, 1906. Vol. III. (Notes on Navigation
during 1906).

APPENDIX V.

Work and Progress of the Imperial Post Office in 1906. *

The development of the Imperial Post Office (I. P. O.), in China was particularly
accentuated in 1906. To the 1,626 localities open to postal business at the end of 1905,
470 have been added, making a total for the year ending, 1906, of 2,096 Postal Est-
ablishments. Articles dealt with rose from 76 to 113 millions. Parcels, which were a
little over 1 million in 1905, reached 1,383,000, being 351,000 in excess of the previous
year. Money-order transactions (issued within the domestic area only) rose from a
total sum of Tls. 821,000 to Tls. 1,540,000. The number of letters in "clubbed" mails,
carried for native postal agencies, has fallen by a million, this being due to the cess-
ation of business on the part of the Canton native letter agencies, who refused during
3 months (July-Sept.) to pay the increased tax of 4 cents (1 d) per ^ oz., instead of the
former 2 cents {I d), on all "clubbed" mails to and from Hongkong.

The annexed table will exhibit the whole work and progress for the 'years
1905-1906.

Head and Branch Offices, with articles handled, 1905-1906.

1905

1906

Head and Sub-Offices.

41

38

Branch Offices.

396

481

Agencies.

1,189

1,574

Articles dealt with.

76,000,000

113,000,000

Parcels : Number.

1,032,000

1,383,000

„ Weight (Kilos).

3,262,000

4,310,000

Letters in native "clubbed" mails.

8,896,000

7,892,000

♦ Report on the Working of the Post-Office, 1906, by T. Piry, Postal Secretary.

662 A»^&Nl}iJc V.

During the year, a Postal Commissioner was stationed at Hank'ow, the Emporiutn
of Central China; Foreign Inspectors at Mukden (Manchuria), Kweiyang (Kweichow
Province) and Yunnan Fu (Yunnan Province) respectively, and a Deputy Postmaster
at Lanchow Fu, the Capital of Kansu. At Foochow (Fokien Province), postal adminis-
tration has been separated from the Customs, and placed under the direct supervision
of a Postmaster. Means of transport have been further increased and speed accelerated,
especially in the environs of Peking and of Shanghai, in the Southern Provinces and in
Manchuria. The general public accept more and more the regulations. Native agencies
are losing ground, but still hold out and are opposed to the new system especially in
Hupeh and Szechw'an. Henceforth, all private agencies at the Treaty ports and
inland must register at the I. P. C). "Clubbed" mails are also to pay half the full tariff
on gross weight. A penal law hos been enacted to check fraud in stamps and punish
the suppression of mail matter. A great drawback is still experienced in getting
reliable men for the money-order branches; the transfer and keeping of the funds are
also attended with special difficulties and risks. The Chinese staff of the Post Office
counted at the close of 1906, 360 linguist Clerks, of whom 34 do inspecting duties
exclusively; 725 non-linguists and about 1,600 Agents.

Two special features call for particular mention : 1° A new Ministry of Posts
and Communications (Yiuohw'an Pu §B ^ SK) was established at Peking, Nov. 6, 1906,
but so far, has not interfered with the postal organisation under the auspices of the
Customs. The Ministry, however, resents much the presence and increase of foreign
post-offices (in 1906, Hongkong opened an agency at T'ientsin, and Japan at Canton.
All these agencies now number 59) within the Empire, as this deprives the Govern-
ment of a large revenue, and facilitates cheaper rates for home correspondence (all
British post-offices at Treaty ports have instituted the penny postage, and the American
agency at Shanghai the 2 gold-cents rate for home correspondence). 2* Although not
in the Union, China was represented at the Universal Postal Congress, which
opened at Eome, April 7, 1906. The Delegate expressed the desire that his Govern-
ment would adhere to the Union at the next Postal Congress.

In the early part of 1907, the Administration issued a conventional system of
romanisation for Chinese names of places. This list fixed the foreign spelling of some
2,000 ^)ostal localities, and will he subsequently made authoritative in the Customs,
Posts and Teli graphs. A Postal Atlas is now published (Oct. 1907), and has been
kindly forwarded to us by M' H. B. Morse, Statistical Secretary. It includes 21 maps
(21 X 12 i inches), one for each Province. The 2,000 places, already open to postal
business, are in black, while places not yet exploited are in red. The results of all
this work augur prosperity to the Young Service, and bespeak amply its increasing
value and progress (see for previous years pp. 435-4S8).

INDEX. (*)

Abeel D., 387.

Aboriginal Races of China, 4, 313,

S42-345, 371, 373, 448.
Academy, Imperial, 299-300.
Adam L., 508.
Addis C. S., 337, 391.
Administration of China Proper :

,, Central, 295-301.

,, Provincial, 301-316.

Administration of Manchuria, 488,
504-505.

,, of Mongolia, 519-520.

, , of Chinese Turkestan

533-534.

,, of Tibet, 545-547.

Admiralty Charts, 294.
Agassiz A. R., 215, 508.
Agriculture, 393-401.

,, of each Province {see

Chekiang, Chihli, etc.)
Agricultural Products, 394-397.
Aiar-Nor Lake, 528.
Aiguebelle (d'J, 476.
Aigun (Hehlungkiang ch'^ng), 494.
Aksu, 524, 531.
Alabaster, Sir C, 335.
Alashan Mts. (Holan-shan), 11, 25,

35, 514.
Alceste I. (Hailii-tao), 255.
Alcock, Sir Rutherford, 102.
Alexander G., 380.
Algue J., 293.
Allan C. W., 138.
Allen H. J., 482, 508.
Allen F. R., 375.
Allom, 400.

Alluvial Formations, 22-23,
Alps, Szechw'an, 94, 95, 98.
Altai Mts., 511.
Altyn-Tagh Mts., 525, 539, 541.

Amban or K'inch'ai, 517, 545-546.
Ambassadors, Chinese, to Foreign

Courts, 298.
Ambassadors' Route, 145, 203.
Amherst, Lord, 145, 463, 474.
Ami (Omi) Chow, 183.
Amnemachin Mts., 25.
Amoy or HsiamSn, 221, 223-224, 226,

279, 280, 420, 654.
Amphitrite or Tunghai I., 290.
Amur River or Hehlung-kiang, 475,

489-490.
Amyot, 379, 479, 508, 536.
Ancestor ^Vorship, 353, 378-379.
Anderson A., 484.
Anderson F., 337.
Anderson W., 406.
Andre-Marie R. P., 386.
Andrew of Perouse, 472.
Anhui or Anhwei, (see Nganhwei).
Animals of China, Wild, Domestic,

17, 398 {see each Province).
Annales de la Sociiti des Missions-

Etrangeres, 193, 213.
Annam, 202, 467.
Anthouard, (d'J, 481.
Anthracite coal, 135.
Antoine et Mitral, 404.
Antonini P., 378, 399, 405.
Antung (Ngantung), 492, 505.
Anunghoy or Yanianghsiai, 286.
Anz W., 89.
Apple, 18, 398,

Approaches to Canton (sketch-map),
171.
,, to Peking (sketch-map).

68.
Apricot, 18, 398, 544.
Arabs at Canton, 287.
Arbutus-tree, 398.

(*) The names of Authors and the Titles of books are printed in italics. The
figures which follow the names refer to the pages of the work. Figures in heavy
type indicate the places where the subject is principally treated.

The following contractions are used : — B. (Bay), C. (Cape), Ch. (Channel),
G. (Gulf), /. (Island), Is. (Islands), L. (Lake), Mt. (Mountain), Mts. (Mountains),
R. (River), Str. (Strait).

664

INDEX.

Arbuz-ola Mts., 514.

Area of the Chinese Empire, 5.

„ of China Proper, 8.
Argun R. or Ngaikiin-ho, 490.
Armstrong. 88.
Army, 328-335, 338.

Manchu, 328; Provincial, 330.

Mongol, 520; Tibetan, 549.

Reorganisation of, 331-333.
Arrow War, 464, 475.
Arsenals and Docks, 53, 334, 404.
Artchisck, Daniel, 474.
Artsa-Bogdo Mts., 511.
Asculi (Joseph de), 552.
Ashmore W., 376.
Atkinson T. W., 508, 522.
Atentze, 182, 183.
Aubazac, 376.

Auber P., 215, 423, 483, 484.
Aubry, 192.
Audience, to Foreign Ministers, 466.

,, question settled, 470.

Audsley G. A., 406.
Augustinians, Spanish, 356.
Aurora University (Sicawei), 369.
Austria, Relations with China, 474.

Baber E. C, 118, 192, 372.

Backer (de), 481.

Bagrach-Kul or Tenghiz L., 528, 531.

Baiankara Mts., 94, 541.

Bailiff or rural Constable, 309-310.

Balfour, Captain, 266.

Balfour F. H., 380, 381, 385, 389, 391,
400, 485.

Ball (Dyer), see Dyer.

Bailer F. W., 375, 376.

Bamboo, its various uses, 18, 395,
398.

Banana, 18, 393, 398.

Bankers, Shansi, 42, 408.

,, Influence on Currency, 320.

Banners, The Eight, 329.

Bannister S., 483.

Bars on the Coast of China :

Canton, 286-287 ; Foochow, 278 ;
Ningpo, 275 ; T'aichow, 274 ;
Taku, 252 ; Woosung, 264-265,
270, 659.

Barclay Parsons W., 138.

Bard E., 335, 371, 399, 405, 422.

Barkul, 29, 524, 531.

Barley, found in the Northern Pro-
vinces, 394.

Barre P., 507.

Barrett Hamilton G., 536.

Barrow J., 474.

Barton J. L., 390.

Bat'ang or Pat'ang, 94, 107, 112, H«.

Batz (de). 520.

Bayan Susu (Helungkiang), 495.
Bayantu River, 518.
Bays and Harbours of the China
Coast :
Amoy or HsiamSn Bay, 276, 277.
Bullock Harbour, 274.
Chefoo Bay, 254 (with sketch-
map), 256.
Dalny Bay or Talienwan, 491,

500.
Hait'an^Bay, 276.
Hangchow Bay, 98, 272.
Heut'eu or Tiger's Head Bay,

277.
Hongkong Harbour, 281 (with

sketch-map), 284.
Hsinghwa Bay, 281.
Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281.
Kiaochow Bay, 254 (with sketch-
map), 259.
Kinchow Bay, 491.
Kwangchow Bay, 281 (with ske-
tch-map), 290.
Laoshan Bay, 254.
Lappa (Kungpeh) Bay, 281.
Min-kiang, Estuary of the, 276.
Mirs Bay or Tap'dnghai, 281.
Nankwan Bay, 276.
Nimrod Bay (Siangshan-kiang),

274.
Port- Arthur or Liishun-k'ow

Bay, 491.
Samsa (Sansha) Bay (with ske-
tch-map), 276-277.
Sangkeu-k'ow Bay, 274.
Sanmen Bay, 274.
Ship'u Roadstead, 274.
Shihtaok'ow Bay, 254.
Shuhshan Bay, 254.
Swatow (Shant'eu) Bay, 281.
T'aichow Bay, 274.
Ts'uenchow Bay, 277.
T'ungshan Bay, 277.
"Weihaiwei Bay (with sketch-
map), 254, 257.
A^'enchow Bay, 274.
Yungch'eng Bay, 254.
Bazin M. A.. 375.
Beacons on the China Coast, 246.
Beal S., 382.

Beancake, principal export from Man-
churia, 408, 412, 501, 648.
Beans, 394, 501.
Beauvais, 191, 213.
Beecher H. M., 87.
Behme und Krieger, 88.
Behring Strait, 239-240.
Bergholz P., 293.

INDEX.

665

Bernard W. D.. 293.

Betts G. E.. 372.

Beveridge A., 508.

Bezaure (de). 102.

Bhamo (Burma), Trade with Tali F.,

181.
Bianconi, 20.
Bickmore A. S.. 405.
Bills of Exchange, 320.
Biot E., 335, 390.

Birds of China, 17 (see each Province).
Bishop, Mrs J., 102, 118.
Bizeul S., 387.
Black-Caps, 548.
Black River, 179.
Blackburn China Mission. 119, 192,

193, 213, 215, 335, 442.
Blagovestchensk (Siberia), 494.
Blenheim Channel, 286.
Blodget H.. 380, 390.
Blue Books on China, 485.
Blue City (Kweihwa ch'§ng, Shansi),

53.
Blue River ^Hwang-ho), 94.
Boards or Ministries, 74, 220.

the 10 Boards (form erly 6) , 229.
Bock, 237.
Bod or Tibet, 547.
Boehmeria nivea (Ramie fibre), 395.
Bogdo-ola Mts., 525.
Bogue or Bocca Tigris, 204, 286.
Bohea Hills (Fokien), 225.
Bohea tea, 225.
Bonacosi A., 378, 399, 405.
Bonbo (Indigenous religion of Tibet),

548.
Bondservants, Manchu, 329.
Bone C, 215.

Bonham Island (Pehtsieh-shan), 273.
Bonin. 191.

Bonnet, Nicholas (Bishop), 354, 472.
Bans d'Anty. 89, 191, 372, 423.
Bonvalot G., 535, 555.
Bonze or Buddhist monk, 352.
Boone W. J.. 390.
Borradaile A.. 521.
Borax (found in Tibet), 545.
Boro-koro Mts., 526.
Botany, Isee Flora).
Boucher H., 375.
Boulger D. C, 6, 335, 338, 383.
Bourne F. S., 88, 103, 192, 193, 213.
Bouvet J., 479.
Bower H., 536.
Bowra E., 480, 556.
Box E., 388.
Boxers and the Boxer uprising in

China, 43, 75, 252, 355, 468-4fl«,

477.

Braam (Van), Story of the Dutch

Embassy to Peking, 473, 482.
Braddel T., 423.

Brahmaputra River (Tsangpo), 544.
Braves, Chinese, 331.
Bray {de). 422.

Breaker Point or Shihpeishan, 283.
BretschneiderF., 20, 86, 385, 482, 536.
Brick-tea (exported to Russia), 416,

531, 052.
Brickmore A. S., 213, 214.
Bridges in China, 425.
Bridgman E. C, 372, 374, 384, 388,

400, 480, 483.
Brine-wells (Szechw'an), 114.
British Expedition to Lhasa, 539,

546, 548, 550, 554-555.
British Flag in China, first appear-
ance of, 474.
Broomhall M., 390, 657, 658.
Broullion R. P., 165, 386.
Brown, 387.
Browne, Colonel, 508.
Bruce C. D., 556.
Bruce-Mitford, 294.
Buckwheat, 18, 70, 394.
Buddha, Statues of, 61, 451.

Living, 516, 548.
Buddhism 352-353, 381, 582.

,, officially introduced into

China, 452.
,, practised by the Emperor

Wuti, 455.
,, persecuted by the Empe-

ror Wutsung, 456.
,, Tibetan or Lamaism, 516,

547-548.
Buddhist Sutras brought from India,
352, 452.
,, Monks visit India, 472.
,, Invocation, 548.

Pilgrimages, 109, 117, 237,
552.
Buir-Nor or Pir Lake, 491.
Bullock T. L., 192, 383, 480.
Bullock Harbour, 274.
Buoys and Beacons, 246.
Burden J. S., 389.
Bureau et Franchet, 20.
Burgevine, 465, 475,
Buriats, 493.

Burlinghame Mission, 465, 476.
Burma or Mientien, 112, 174,181-183,

459, 462, 466.
Burmese "wild men" or Kachyns,

112.
Burning of the Books, 451.
Bushell S. W., 405, 406, 479.
Byron Brenan, 424.

666

litDE^.

Cabinet, Inner or Neikoh, 297.
Cactus, 180.
Cahun. 479, 520.
Caix R. de, 507.

Calendar, Chinese, 301, 355, 444-445.
Calendrier-Annuaire (published by
the Jesuit Fathers of the Sicawei
Observatory), 293, 441.
Gallery J. M., 374.
Gallery and Ivan, 480.
Cambodia, 459.
Camel, 17, 54, 55, 70, 77, 83, 101, 164,

,398, 518, 528, 531.
Campbell A .. 555.
Gampbell G. M.. 521.
CamphoT-tree, 397.
Canals in China, 427-428.
Canal, Imperial or Yun-ho, 29, 59,
69, 78, 82, 102, 154, 150, 227, 230,
428-430, 459.
Candareen or Fen, 316.
Candidates for Literary Degrees, 365.
Candler E., 556.
Canton, 115, 129, 145, 181, 207-209

with sketch-map), 212, 287, 4110,
Canton-Hank'o\v Railway, 433.
Cantonese race and language, 207,

343, 344, 348.
Caoutchouc. 180.

Capes and Headlands on the China
Coast :
Cape Adkins or Ch'angshan, 254.
Breaker Point or Shihpeishan,

283.
Cape Cami or Kwankiaowei,

283.
Chefoo Cape, 254.
Flat Rocky Point, 255.
Good Hope or Piaokioh, 283.
Jaeschke, Cape, 255.
N.E. and S.E. Capes (Shantung),

254.
P'ootung Point, 261, 273.
Yangtze Cape, 261, 273.
Yiunishan Headland, 255.
Capitals of the Provinces, List of,

304-305.
Capuchin Friars in Tibet, 552.
Carey F. W., 192, 372, 556.
Carles W. R., 103, 138, 441.
Carli, D' Mario, 237.
Carolus Dollar, 319.
Caron P., 379.
Carpentier, Jean le, 482.
Carpini, John of Piano, 472.
Carrez, 88.

Carstairs-Douglas. 377.
Carton C, 385.
Casartelli Z.. (Bishop), 387.

Cash or Li (native coin, vulgo Ts'ien),

316-317, 404.
Castaing, 194.

Cathay (name given to China), 7.
Catholicism (T'ienchu-kiao) in Chi-
na, 353-358.
Catholic Missions in China, 355-358,

384.
Cavalerie, 193, 372.
Celestial Mts., or T'ien-shan, 33.
Censorate or Court of Censors (Tu-

ch'ah Yilen), 300.
Censuses of the Population, 346.
Cent or Fen (division of the Mexican

Dollar), 320.
Chakhars, 515.

Chalmers J., 370, 374, 376, 379, 380.
Chaloner Alabaster, 380.
Chamdo (Anterior Tibet), 552-553.
Chang Chitung ( Viceroy of Hu-

kwang), 333, 391.
Changchow Fu. 224.
Changkia-k'ow or Kalgan, 67, 77.
Changkiawan, Battle of, 475.
Changming hsien, 110, 113.
Changshui River, 142.
Changteh Fu, 56, 63.
Channels at the mouth of the Yang-

tze-kiang, 262, 661.
Changti, Emperor (Hani, 452.
Ch'ajen or Court Underlings, 311-

312.
Ch'ang River (Kiangsi), 144.
Ch'angchow Fu, 153.
Ch'angch'un Fu, 470, 487, 498.
Ch'ang-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 94.
Ch'angmao Rebels, 464.
Ch'angngan (Singan Ful, 447, 451,

456,457.
Ch'angngan-sze, 197.
Ch'angpeh-shan or Long White Mt. ,

489.
Ch'angsha Fu, 131, 133, 135,137, 470.
Ch'angshan I., 254.
Ch'angshan hsien, 84.
Ch'angteh Fu, 130, 131, 133, 136.
Ch'angt'u Fu, 487.
Chao Chow, 67.
Chao Kw'angyin ( Founder of the

N. Sung dynasty), 457.
Chao Liehti, 453.

Chao Suenti, Emperor ^T'ang),456.
Chaok'ing Fu, 170, 202, 204, 207,

20«, 212, 354.
Chaoti, Emperor (Han), 452.
Chaot'ung Fu, 175, 181, 183.
Chaoyang Lake, 82.
Ch'aochow Fu, 202, 212.
Ch'aohu Lake, 91, 142.

INDEX.

667

Chapdelaine Fr., Massacre of, 475.
Chapel Island or Tungting, 278.
Chap'u or Tsop'u, 272.
Characteristics of the Chinese race ;
,, physical, 340.

moral, 341-342, 370,
371.
Chavannes, 404, 479, 481.
Chavannes (de), 370, 399, 479, 521.
Chefoo or Yent'ai, 8, 80, 84,87, 250,

260, 420, 655, 656.
Chefoo Agreement, 476.
Chehling Pass, 12, 137, 212.
Chekiang Province, 8, 217, 210, 227-
237.
,, Area and Population, 227.

,, Aspect and Characteris-

tics, 228 ; Climate, 229.
Geology, 228.
Orography, 228.
Hydrography, 229-231.
,, Industry and Commerce,

235.
,, Fauna and Flora, 231.

Agricultural Wealth, 231.
Mineral ^Vealth, 231.
,, People and Language, 231-

232.
,, Cities and Principal Cen-

tres, 232-234.
,, Highways of Communi-

cation, 235.
,, Open Ports, 235.

,, Coast-line of, 272-275.

Chemulpo, 468.

Ch'to Dynasty (short-lived), 454.
Ch§nchow Fu, 56, 62.
Chenhai hsien, 275.
Chenkiang Fu, 91, 153, 160, 103,

164, 420, 655.
Chenngan Fu, 195.
Chenpienfu-i Ting, 177.
Chensi T'ing or Barkul, 524.
ChSntsung, Emperor {N. Sung), 458.
Chenyuen Fu, 184, 186, 189.
Chgnyuen T'ing, 177.
Ch^nchow Fu, 56.
Ch'en Pasien, 455.
Ch^ng Chow, 56, 63.
Cheng Kitung, 371.
Chengteh, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Ch^ngting Fu (Chihli), 54, 55, 66.
Chtagt'ung, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Ch&ngyang-kwan, 151.
Ch'^ng Wang or Shi Hwangti, 450.
Ch'Sng Chow, 131, 137, 212.
Ch'togkiang Fu (Yunnan), 175.
Ch'^ngteh Fu or Jehol, 66, 77, 78.
Ch'fingtsung, Emperor (Yiien), 459.

Ch'^ngtu Fu, 105, 112, 117.
Ch'engtu Plain, 107, 109, 113.
Ch'eng W^ang, Emperor(Chow), 449.
Ch'^nghwa, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Cherchen-Daria, 528.
Chestnut, 398.
Cheukia-k'ow, 59, 62.
Cheuts'un, 84, 87.
Chevalier S., 20, 102, 293.
Chihli Province, 8, 65-78.

,, Area and Population, 8, 66.
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 67.
,, Climate, 69; Geology, 67.
,, Orography, 67-68.

Hydrography, 69-70.
,, Fauna and Flora, 70.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

•Wealth, 70.
,, Industry and Commerce, 78.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

71-78.
,, Highways of Communication,

78.
,, Open Ports, 78.

Coast-line of, 251-252.
China, Aboriginal Races of, 4, 342-
345.
,, First Settlers, 4.
,, In the different geological

periods, 3.
,, Area and Population, 5.
,, Distribution of Inhabitants, 5.
,, Divisions, 5.
, , Names applied to the country

and people, 7, 339.
,, Foreign Relations, 471-473,

475, 478.
,, Emigration (Chinese abroad),
478.
China Proper :

,, Boundaries, Area and Popu-
lation, 7-8.
,, Present Divisions, 3 Regions

or Basins, 19.
,, Geological Constitution, 10.
,, Orography or Mountain Sys-
tems, 11-13.
,, Plains, 13.
,, Rivers and Lakes 15-16.
,, Coast-line, 16, 238-294.
,, Fauna and Flora, 17-18.
,, Government and Administra-
tion, 295-316.
,, Revenue and Expenditure, 316-

324, 327, 656.
,, Imperial Maritime Customs,

325-328.
,, Army and Navy, 328-334.
,, Various Races, 339-345.

668

INDEX.

Languages, 347-350.

,, Religions, 350-365.

,, Educational System, 364-370.

,, Agriculture, 392-398.

, , Mining and Industry, 402-404 .

,, Foreign Trade, 407-422; 645-
656.

,, Means of Communication, 425-
431.

,, Railways (completed, pro-
jected), 431-434.

., Imperial Post Office, 435-437,
661-662.

,, Telegraphic Lines and Com-
panies, 437-439.

,, Steamship Lines and Com-
panies to and from, 439-440.
Chinese Imperial Dynasties, Synopsis

of, 446-447.
Chinese Empire, Historical Sketch

of, 443-471.
Chinese character-writing, 349-350.
Chinese Race, Antiquity of, 339.
Chinese Foreign Office or AVaiwu

Pu, 298, 464, 469.
Chinese Repository (passim).
Chinagrass plant (Ramie fibre), 111,

206, 395.
China Revieio (passim).
Ch'ichow Fu, 146, 152.
Ch'ihshui (Shensi), 44.
Ch'ihshui R., 96, 110.
Ch'ihk'i T'ing, 203.
Chisholm G., 442.
Chou Han, 467.
Chouzy ( M'J'-), 192, 213.
Chow Dynasty, 87, 446, 449.
Chow Kingdom, Rise of, 455.
Chow Kung, 449.
Chows or Provinces, 453.
Chowsin, Emperor (Yin), 448, 449.
Ch'oros tribes (Kalmuks), 520.
Christianity in China :

Catholicism, 353-358.
,, Protestantism, 358-361.

Chu-kiang or Pearl river, 202, 204,

209, 286.
Chu Yiusung, Emperor (Ming), 461.
Chu Yuenchang(Founder of the Ming

dynasty), 459-460.
Ch'u Kingdom, 340.
Ch'u Chow, 146, 151.
Ch'uchow Fu, 227, 230, 231.
Chuhsi (Commentator of Confucius),

145, 351.
Ch'uhsiung Fu, 177.
Chungkias (a cross with Aboriginal

tribes), 188.
Chung-kwoh or Middle Kingdom

(China), 7, 57.
Chungpa, 110, 113.
Chungchow I. (near Foochow), 222,

223.
Chungt'iao-shan (Mt.), 51.
Chungt'ien, 95.

Chungtsung, Emperor (T'ang), 456.
Chungwei hsien, 38.
Ch'ungcheng, Emperor (Ming), 355.

461, 506.
Ch'ung-kiang, (R.), 105, 109, 114.
Ch'ungk'ing Fu, 91, 96, 100, 106, 110,

114, 115, 117, 420, 655.
Ch'ungming I., 157, 262, 271.
Ch'ungming Point, 263.
Ch'ungngan hsien, 225, 226.
Churches and Chapels in China :
,, Catholic, 357.
,, Protestant, 359.
Chusan (Cheushan) Archipelago, 228,

229, 234, 249, 272, 273.
Cinnamon, 200, 394.
Circuits or Lus (old divisions), 458.
Circuits or Intendancies (modern

divisions), 306-307.
Clark A.. 484.
Clark G. W., 193, 372.
Clark S. R.. 193, 372.
Classics, Chinese, 350, 364, 365, 374.
,, destruction of, 450.
,, restored, 451.
Clavery E., 422, 423.
Clement V. (Pope), 354.
Climate of China, 14-15.
,, of Manchuria, 489.
,, of Mongolia, 515-516.
,, of Turkestan, 526-527.
of Tibet, 541-542.
Cloud F. D., 237.
Clubbed letter mails, 535, 661, 662.
Coal-fields and mines, 52, 53, 54, 70,
83, 86, 91, 107, 112, 115, 120, 134-
135, 141, 143, 206, 402, 408, 493,
529.
Coast-line of China, 238-250.
ChSkiang, 272-275.
Chihli, 251-252.
Fokien, 276-280.
,, Kiangsu, 261-271.

,, Kwangtung, 281-292.

Shantung, 252-260.
Coast Winds and Monsoons, 243-

246.
Cobbold R. H., 371.
Colleges and Schools in China :
Government, 367-369.
,, Private, 369.
ColUngidohd C, 215, 293.
Collins V. D.. 400.

INBEX.

669

Colowan I., 288.

Colquhoun A. R., 103, 173, 192, 213-
215, 293, 325, 336, 372-373, 391,
423, 441, 481, 485, 508, 522.
Commerce and Trade, 407-424.
Commerce of the Open Ports, 420-

421, 654-656.
Commercial Treaties with China

(1902-1903), 470, 477.
Communications in China, 425-440.
Compte P. L. Le, 371, 374, 441.
Confucius or K'ung Futze, 65, 80,

87, 351, 352, 444, 449, 456, 458.
Confucianism, 350-351, 379-380.
Conservancy Board (Hwangp'u), 270,

660.
Constitution promised by the Throne,

471.
Consulates, Establishment of, 475.
Consuls, Court of, 267.
Conveyance, Modes of, 427.
Conway Sir W., 556.
Copper, 83, 84, 112, 135, 136, 149, 180,

182, 187, 207, 402, 493, 529, 534,

553.
Cordes, 441.
Cordier H. E., 165, 214, 237, 338,

384, 385, 441, 480.
Comaby W. A., 138, 378, 380, 381,

389.
Cothonay R. P., 235.
Cotton plant, 394, 395, 397.
Cotton Piece-goods and yarn (im-
ported), 413-414,649.
Cotton-spinning and weaving mills,

404.
Council, Grand, 74, 297.
Coup d'Etat (of Prince Kung), 464.
Courant M., 20, 371, 390, 422.
Courbet, Admiral, 467.
Courcy fde>, 370, 374, 378, 391, 399,

405, 422.
Court of Censors, 74, 300.

,, of Consuls, 267.

,, of Sacrificial Worship, 301.

,, of State Ceremonial, 301.
Court, Mixed (Shanghai), 267.

,, Underlings, 311.
Courtellemont, 191.
Couvreur F. S., 375.
Coxinga, 462.
Crabouillet, 371.
Crops (see Agriculture), 18, 60, 393-

394.
Crosby O. T., 536, 556.
Culbertson M. S., 378.
Cumfrey (Ti-hwang), 61.
Cummings C. F., 236, 237, 291, 293.
Cunningham, 338, 558.

Currency, Chinese, 316.

,, Necessity of uniformity in,

320-321.

Currents on the China Coast, 240,

249, 255, 263, 273, 276, 279, 283,

291.

Curzon, Sir G. N., 294, 379, 389,

401, 442.
Customs, Imperial Maritime, 325-
328.
,, Revenue collected by, 327,

656.
Customs, Native, 323.
Cyclic Period, Origin of, 444.
Cyclones (Siienfung), 245.

Dabry, 338.

Dabry de Thiersant, 382, 383, 401,

481.
Dahlman R. P., 382.
Dalai Lama, The, 517, 546, 548, 554,

555.
Dalai-Nor, Lake, 491.
Dalny or Talienwan, 492, 500-501,

505.
Daours, (in Manchuria), 493.
Darjeeling, 451.
Darwent C. E., 166, 442.
Daryl P., 378, 390, 399, 405.
Dautremer, 191.
David, Pere Armand, 20, 46, 64,

137, 235, 521.
David et Oustalet, 20.
Davis, Sir J. F., 88, 103, 214, 215,

237, 243, 380, 381, 399, 405, 441,

479, 483, 521.
Darwin Prince G. H., 293.
Day H.. 401.
Dean W., 387,
Deasy, Captain H.. 556.
Debesse, Pere A., 375.
Deblenne, 371.

Dechevrens, Pere M., 166, 293.
Decken (de), 555.
Deep Bay, 284.

Deer, Grotto of the White, 145.
Deer horns, 113, 498, 553.
Degrees, Literary, 365, 455.

in the New System, 368.
Delamarre, 479.
Delaroche-Vernet, 88.
Delta, Si-kiang or Canton, 202, 203,

205, 206, 211.
Denby Ch.. 389.
Denham J. E., 237.
Denmark, Relations with China, 474.
Dennis J. S., 387.
Dennis iV. B., 342, 522, 376.
Depung Monastery (Lhasa), 552.

670

INDEX.

Deschamps, 165.
Desert, Gobi, 529, 535.

Takla-makan, 530, 535.
Desgodins C. H., 555.
Deshaines, 385.
Deveria G., 382, 481.
Dialects, Multiplicity of, 347, 348.
Dictionaries for the study of the

Chinese Language and Dialects,

347-377.
Dikes {see Embankments).
Diospyrus-kaki or Persimmon, 398.
Divisions of China, Regional, 19.
, , Provincial, 5 , 8 ,304-305,471 .
,, Territorial, 306-310.
Djaghing-gol, River, 25.
Doberck W., 293.

Docks and Dockyards, 223, 334, 404.
Dodd or Pehting Island, 278.
Dog in China, 17,398.
Dokerla, The Three Peaks of, 13, 182.
Dollars, Spanish or Carolus, 319.
,, Mexican, 320.
,, Canton, Hupeh, Hongkong,
320.
Dolon-Nor, 70, 77, 491.
Domestic Animals of China, 17, 398.
jDoolittle J., 336, 371, 375, 379, 388,

391.
Double Island or Masii, 281, 284.
Douglas Sir R., 335, 337, 370-371,

374, 378-379, 384, 389, 391, 399,

442, 479, 483-485, 521.
Dowager Wu, Empress, 456.
Duck, Mandarin, 206.
Duclos, 404.
Dudgeon J., 400.
Dufus W., 376.
Dufourny, 292.
Dujardin-Baumetz, 422.
Duke, Hereditary title of, 315.

of Ts'ifi, 449.
Durand, 386.
Dust-storms in North-China, 23, 59,

69.
Dutch in China, 473.

,, settle in Formosa, 473.
, Embassies to Peking, 473.
Dyer Ball J., 335-338, 370-373, 376-

377, 379, 380-383, 386-388, 391, 401,

423, 442, 479, 483-485, 508, 522.
Dynasties, Synopsis of the Chinese

Imperial, 446.
Dynasty, The Chow, 449 ; Han, 451-

453 ; Hsia, 448 ; Ming, 460 ; Shang

or Yin, 448 ; Sung, 454-457 ; T'ang,

456 ; Tats'ing or Manchu, 461-471;

Tsin, 453-454 ; Ts'in, 450 ; Yiien

or Mongol, 459.

Earthquakes, 51, 154.
East-India Company trades with
Canton, 287.
,, Its monopoly ceases, 287.
Eastern China Sea or Tung-hai, 241.
Eastern Chinese Railway, 432, 503.
Eastern Turkestan (see Chinese Tur-
kestan), 523-537.
Ebi-Nor Lake, 528.
Eden G. H., 374, 378.
Edible birds' nests, 268.
Edict, the Sacred, 462.

,, abolishing opium, 396-397.
,, regulating the Educational

System, 367, 471.
,, promising a Constitution and
a representive Form of Gov-
ernment, 471.
Edkins J., 88, 103, 336, 372, 378, 381,

386, 388, 400, 405, 482, 521-522.
Edkins 37" J., 371.
Education, 364-370 ; 390-392.

Old system of, its draw-
backs, 364-365.
Modern system of, 307-

368.

in Government Schools

exclusively Confucian,

369.

in Mission Schools, 369.

Students sent abroad for

modern, 369.
Praiseworthy efforts to

promote, 369.
Obstacles to success in,
369.
Edwards E. H., 390, 508.
Eggs, Large export of, to Japan, 150,
160, 412, 648.
,, Preserved, 136,234.
Egingol River, 512.
Egmont Hake H.. 480.
Eitel E. J., 215, 373, 376, 380-382,

388, 391, 423, 484.
Ektagh Altai or Central Altai Mts.,

511.
Elders, Village, 309-310.

,, chosen from the local Gentry,

309.
,, their functions, 310.
Eleuths, 462, 515, 520.
Elliot, Captain, 474.
Ellis H., 484.

Embankments, to restrain the

Hwang-ho, 27, 28,61.

,, on the Coast of Kiang-

su, 155, 271.
,, at the mouth of the

Yangtze R., 262.

INDEX.

671

„ along the Grand Canal

(Kiangsul, 155, 228,
429.
Embassies to China, from the Popes,
472 ; the Portuguese, 473 ; the
Dutch, 473;
Great Britain (Lord Macartney),
462, (Lord Amherst), 463, 474.
Russia, 474.
Emigration, Statistical tables of, 478.
Emperor of China, Names given to,
295-296 ; resides in Peking, 74 ;
has private hunting grounds
near Peking, 74 ; country-seat
at Jehol, 77, 464 ;
bis position in the Government,
295 ; chooses Successor to the
Throne, 296 ;
Censors may animadvert on his

conduct, 300 ;
receives directly credentials of
Foreign Ambassadors, 470.
Empress of China, Names given to,

296.
Empress-Dowager WuHeu, 456,
Empress-Dowrager Tz 'ehsi .

forms -with Prince Kung a Re-
gency during minority of the
Emperor T'ungchi, 464 ;
becomes again Regent during

minority of Kwangsii, 466;
withdraws from Regency after

marriage of Kwangsii, 467 ;
resumes for the third time the
Regency to stay hasty reforms,
468;
during the Boxer crisis, orders
extermination of all Forei-
gners, 469 ;
flees to Singan Fu till peace res-
tored, 469;
returns and re-entersPeking,470;
begins Era of reorganization, 471.
Encyclopaedia, Chinese :

compiled under the Mings, 460.
under Kanghsi, 462.
English, appear for the first time in
China, 474.
Portuguese jealousy of, 474.
send embassies to Peking
(considered as tribute-
bearers), 462, 463, 474.
Trade stopped at Canton,

474.
Wars with China, 463, 464,

469, 474,
Trade with China, 269, 409,
411,413,414,417,420,422,
645,649,650,652,653,654.

Trading Houses andTraders

in China, 346, 420, 654.
Share in China's Commerce,

418, 654.
Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

654.
Steamship Lines to and

from China, 439-440.
Population at Shanghai,

267.
Railway enterprise in Chi-
na, 430-433.
Treaties with China, 463,
464, 474, 475, 477, 555.
Enselme H. 507.
Envoys, Chinese, to Foreign Courts,

298 (see Ambassadors).
Ergik-Tangak Mts., 511.
Ess^yric, 102.
Etsingol River, 36, 514.
Estuary of the Min-kiang (Min R.),
276, 278.
oftheYung-kiang, 274-275.
,, of the Yangtze, 261, 263.
of the Han-kiang, 281, 284.
Etat-major de I'lndo-Chine, 191,213,

214.
Eulfu or Assistant Magistrate, 311.
Eulhai Lake (Yunnan), 180, 345.
Eunuchs, 459,, 460, 461.
Eurasia, 2.
Europeans, Early Relations with

China, 471-472,
Ever-victorious Army, 465, 476.
Examinations, Literary, 365-367.

Military, 370.
Eocner A, if., 337.
Expenditure of the Chinese Empire,

324.
Exports from China, Value of, 409,
412, 415, 416, 417, 645, 648, 651-652.
Ezra E. J., 383.

Faher E., 375, 378, 380, 381, 479.
Factories at Canton, 209, 473 ;
burned by the Chinese, 464 ;
established at Sancian and Lam-
pa by the Portuguese, 473.
Fagg J. J., 389.

Fah Hsien, Buddhist Monk, 472.
Fakumen, 506.
Famine, Depopulation caused by,

21, 467.
Fan, Dike of Duke, 155.
Fanch'^ng (Hupeh), 129.
Fang Family (tea-merchants), 408.
Fans, Manufacture and Export of,

115, 144, 158, 209, 232, 233, 234,408.
Fan-palm, 180.

672

INDEX.

Fan-tze or Tanguts, 38.

Fati (Hwangti), 209.

Fatshan or Fohshan, 204, 210, 211,

212.
Fauna of China, Generalities, 16-17.
Chekiang, 231 ; Chihli, 70.
Fokien, 221 ; Honan, 60.

,, Hunan, 134 ; Hupeh, 124.

,, Kansu, 36; Kiangsi, 142.

,, Klangsu, 156-157; Kwang-
tung, 206.

,, Kwangsi,198;Kweichow,187.

,, Manchuria, 492; Mongolia,
515.

,, Nganhwei, 149; Shansi, 52.
Shantung, 83 ; Shensi, 42.

,, Sinkiang, 528; Szechw'an,lll.
Tibet, 544; Yiinnan, 180.
Fauvel A., 88, 165, 236, 292, 386,

400, 441.
Favier (M9^), 87, 386.
Peer L., 521.
Fei-ho R., 148.
Fenchow Fu, 48, 53.
Fenfu or Deputy Magistrate, 311.
Fen-ho R., 26, 41, 45, 48, 51, 55.
Ferguson J. C, 391.
Fergusson, 484.
Ferreira do Amaral, 288, 473.
Ferry-boats, 27, 429.
Feu Chow, 115, 186.
Feu-kiang, 110, 113.
Fielde A. M.; 376.
Filature silk establishments, 268,

404.
Finances of China, 321, 324, 431.
Fink C, 166, 385.
Finn J., 383.
Fire-crackers, 412, 648.
Firewood, Scarcity of in China, 393.
Fish, Various kinds in China, 17.

,, extensively reared and eaten,
163, 222, 398.

,, scarce in Chihli, 70.
Fish-skin Tartars or Goldi, 493, 496.
Fisher C. B., 480.
Five Sovereigns, Period of, 444.
Flag, British, appears for the first
time in China, 474.

,, Chinese, 418, 653.
Flat Rocky Point, "litis" wrecked

at, 252.
Fleet, Chinese, 333-334.

,, destroyed at Canton, 464.

,, at Foochow, 467.

,, at Weihaiwei, 468.
Fleming G., 508.
Flora of China, 16, 18.

of each Province (see Fauna).

Flour, American, 411, 413, 647, 649.
Fogs on the China Coast, 246.

,, in Yunnan, 175, 178.
Fohshan or Fatshan, 204, 210, 211,

212.
Fokien Province, 8, 121, 202, 207,
217-226, 276-280.
Area and Population, 218.
Aspect and Characteristics,

219 ; Climate, 210.
Geology, 219 ; Orography,

219.
Hydrography, 220-221,
Fauna and Flora, 221.
Agricultural and Mineral

^Vealth, 221-222.
People and Language, 222.
Cities and Principal Centres,

222-225.
Industry and Commerce, 225.
Highways of Communica-
tion, 225-226.
,, Coast-line and Ports,276-280.
Fomien or Fohweik'il, 198.
Foochow, 217, 218, 219, 222-223, 226.
,, Sketch-map of and app-

roaches to, 220, 278.
Description of, 222-223.
Dialect, 348.
,, Foreign trade of, 223, 420,

656; Arsenal, 223.
, , Fleet captured by Admiral

Courbet, 467.
Food of the Chinese, in the North,
18, 71, 394.
,, Centre and South, 18,

394,
Forbes R. B., 423.
Forbes F. E., 293, 380, 391, 399, 480.
Forbes and Hamsley, 20.
Force P.. 400.
Foreign Concessions, 16.

,, Relations with China, 471-
477.
Trade of China, 407-424 ;
645-656.
,, Ports open to Trade, 326,
463, 654.
Foreign Debt of China, 324.
Foreigners in China :

,, opposition to their entering

the country, 358.
,, hatred of by Chinese, 462,

463, 465.
,, refusal to treat them on

terms of equality, 463.
,, assieged in Peking, 469.
,, massacred, 465, 466, 469,
475, 476.

INDEX.

673

Foreign Population in China, 325,
346, 357, 359, 420, 422,
654, 657.
,, at Hank'ow, 128.
,, in Hongkong, 285.
at Shanghai, 267.
at Ts'ingtao, 258, 422.
Forests, scanty in China Proper, 157,
198, 393.
,, abundant in Manchuria,
492, 493, 494; in Mongolia,
515; in Turkestan, 528;
in Tibet, 544.
Forke A., 375, 376.
Formosa or T'aiwan, 217, 223, 224,
410, 413, 646, 649.
Dutch in, 473.
,, occupied by Coxinga, 462.
,, annexed by China, 462, 471.
,, blockaded by the French,

467.
,, ceded to Japan, 468, 471.
Formosa Channel, 218, 240, 241, 243,

245, 249, 276.
Forts, Taku, 252, 464, 469.
Fortune R., 166, 236, 237, 293, 400.
Foster Mr' A., 376.
Fournier Convention, 467.
Fowler, 237.

France, Relations with China, 473-
474.
,, joins England against China,

464, 475.
, , negotiates Treaties with Chi-
na, 463, 467, 475.
,, obtains important rights for
Catholic Religion, 464, 475.
,, expels T'aip'ing rebels from

Chekiang, 476.
,, K'ungt'ung I. ceded to, 256.
, , in Annam and Tongking, 467.
,, conflict with China, 467.
,, leases Kwangchow-wan, 213,

290, 291, 468, 477.
,, protests against occupation
of Manchuria by Japan, 468.
,, occupies Peking with Allies,

469, 477.
,, Trade with China, 410, 418,

646.
,, exports wine to China, 411 ;

imports silk, 415-416.
, , Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

420, 653-654.
,, Steamship Lines to and from
China, 439-440.
Franchet, 20.

Francis Xavier, St., 282, 354.
Franciscan Friars visit China, 472.
,, labour in the China Mission,
354, 355, 356.
Frangois, 214.
Frandon, 422.
Franke O., 88, 373.
Freeman-Mitford A. B., 216, 294,

336, 521.
French Missionaries to China, 355,
356, 357, 473-474, 475.
Consul massacred at T'ien-

tsin, 465.
Cemeteries desecrated by

Boxers, 469.
Concession (Shanghai), 266,

267.
Population at Shanghai, 267.
Railway enterprise in China,

431, 433.
Telegraphic connection with

China, 438.
Postal Establishments in
China, 435, 437.
Frey, General, 338, 481.
Froc, Pcrei!/.,(Sicawei Observatory),

20, 293.
Fruit-trees of China, 18, 36, 37, 53,

60, 83, 187, 198, 231, 394, 398.
Fu or Prefecture (territorial divis-
ion including chief-town), 306-307.
Fuchow Fu (Kiangsi), 140.
Fuhk'ai, 196.
Fuhling or Imperial Mausolea (near

Mukden), 497.
Fuhning Fu, 218, 225.
Fuhsi, Founder of the Chinese Em-
pire, 63, 443, 444.
Funghwang ch'eng, 487, 504, 506.
Funghwang-shan (one of the Hills

near Sungkiang Fu), 159.
Fungning hsien, 78.
Fungshui (native Geomancy), 466.
Fungsiang Fu, 39, 44.
Fungt'ien or Mukden, 487, 488,497.
Fungyang Fu (Nganhwei), 63, 146,

150-151.
Funiu-shan (Mt.), 57, 59, 60, 92, 122.
Furs, 44, 53, 54, 75, 78, 114, 150,
182, 199, 412, 495, 496, 501, 532,
545, (i48.
Fusan (Fushan), 461.
Fu-yin or Governor of Peking, 74.

Gabelentz, G. (Von der), 380, 381,

508,
Gabet M. (Lazarist) visits Lhasa, 552.
Gadoffre, 165.
Gaide, 372.

43

674

INDEX.

Gaillard, Pere L., 165.

Gainet, 378, 379, 390, 399, 422.

Galdan Monastery (Lhasa), 552.

Gall, Pere S. Le, 379.

Gall-nuts, 187.

Gallois L., 20.

Gambir, false, 200.

Gandar, Pere D., 165, 441.

Gap Rock or Maweichow, 283.

Garaix J., 294.

Gardner C. T., 389.

Garrisons, Manchu, 329.

Gartok (Kotak'oh), 549, 554, 555.

Gaubil, Pere A., 479, 521.

Gauthier, 338.

Gauzes, Soochow, in little demand

by Foreigners, 404.
Gaztelu, 375.
Gee N. G., 392.
Genaehr J., 389.
Genghis-Khan (the Greatest Khan),

origin of, 515, 517.
Gennevoise F., 378, 379.
Geographical Terms, Signification

of, 640-644.
Geology of China, Generalities :
China in the different Geological
Periods, 3 ; Geological Consti-
tution of the soil, 10 : Predom-
inant rocks of the Chinese soil,
3 ; Present Geological action, 3 ;
Geological Map of North China,
9 ; Geological Sketch-map of the
Chinese Provinces bordering on
Tongking, 169; Valleys of the
Peh-ho and of the Hwang-ho,
22-23; Valleys of the Yangtze
and of the Hwai-ho, 91-92 ; Si-
kiang valley, 168.
Geology of each Province :
,, Chekiang, 228,231; Chihli, 67, 70.
,, Fokien, 219, 222; Honan, 57, 60.
,, Hunan, 132,135; Hupeh, 122,125.
,, Kansu, 31,33; Kiangsi, 141,143.
,, Kiangsu, 154, 157; Kwangsi, 196.
,, Kwangtung, 203, 206, 207.
,, Kweichow, 185, 187; Nganhwei,

147, 149.
,, Shansi, 50, 55; Shantung, 80

(with Geological Map), 83.
,, Shensi, 31, 40, 42.
,, Szechw'an, 106-107, 111-112.
,, Yunnan, 177, 180.
Geology of the Dependencies :
,, Manchuria, 488, 493.
,, Mongolia, 510, 515; Sinkiang,
525 ; Tibet, 539.
Geological Works on China, 6.
Geomancy or Fungshui, 466.

German Missionaries killed in Shan-
tung, 477.
,, Ambassador massacred in Pe-
king, 469 ; China erects
monument in expiation, 469.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267;
at Hank'ow, 128 : at Ts'ing-
tao, 422.
,, Railway enterprise in China,

432, 434.
,, Postal Establishments in China,
435.
Germany, Relations with China, 474.
,, protests against occupation of

Manchuria by Japan, 468.
,, Kiaochowleasedto, 85,87,258-
260, 468, 477.
,, obtains mining and railway
privileges in Shantung, 468.
,, occupies Peking with Allies,

469, 477,
,, Imperial Prince sent by China

to apologise to, 469.
,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, exports dyes and colours, 411:

cotton goods, 413.
,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

653-654.
,, Steamship Lines to and from
China, 439, 440.
Gervay Mission, 191.
Gialbo or King (Tibet), 545.
Giants, believed to exist in the first

Ages, 443.
Giles H. A., 6, 370, 374-376, 381,

382, 406, 479.
Gill W., 103, 118, 138, 192.
Gilman F. G., 372.
Gilmour J., 521.
Ginger, 206, 221.

Ginseng, 114, 234, 411, 413, 492, 498.
Giquel, 476.

Gobi Desert, of Mongolia, 509, 512-
513.
of Turkestan, 529-530.
Godard, 377.

Godown or Warehouse, 160.
Gcedertz, 88.

Gold in China, 42, 54, 83, 112, 114,
125, 135, 149, 198, 222.
,, in Manchuria, 493, 501.
,, in Turkestan, 528.
,, in Tibet, 545, 553.
Golden Horde or Kin Tartars, 71.
Goldi or Fishrskin Tartars, 493.
Goodrich G.. 376.
Gordon, General, 465, 476.

INt>£X.

675

Government and Administration :
Central, 296-301.
„ Provincial, 301-316.
,, of Manchuria, 488, 504-505.
,, of Mongolia, 519-520.
., of Chinese Turkestan, 533-
534.
of Tibet, 545-547.
Governors of Provinces, 301, 302,
303, 305; duties of, 303.
,, responsible to Central Gov-
ernment, 303.
Gough, Sir Hugh, takes Shanghai, 266.
Gough Island, 264, 660.
Grain cultivated in China, 18, 36, 42,
60, 70, 71, 83, 111, 124, 134, 142,149,
157, 180, 187, 198, 206, 221, 231,394.
Grain Intendant, 303, 306.
Grain Tax and Revenue, 321, 322.
Grain Transport Administration, 303,

330.
Grammars for Chinese Language, 375.
for Manchu, 508.
for Mongol, 522.
,, for Tibetan, 557.
Grand Council, 74, 297.

,, Court of Revision, 300.
,, Secretariat, 74, 297.
Grand Canal {see Canal).
Grandidier, 404.
Grandprey (de), 338.
Grapes, 52, 77, 83, 493, 544.
Graphite (found in Mongolia), 515.
Grasscloth plant. 111, 206, 395, 412,

648.
Graves R. H., 372.
Graviere J. (de la), 292.
Great Britain in China (see English).
Great Khlngan or Hsingngan), 513.
Great Wall, 28-29, 33, 39, 69.

,, construction and length of, 29,

450.
,, erected against Huns and

Tunguses, 29, 451.
,, repaired under the Mings, 450,

460.
,, of little value to-day, 29.
,, Passes through it, 29, 55.
,, Region within and without, 29.
Green G. R., 399.
Green J., 237.
Green Standard Army, 330.
Grenard, 46, 63, 555.
Greslon A., 479.
Grillieres, 191.

Groot (de). J. M.J., 378, 379.
Grosier, 6, 64, 88, 118, 138, 165, 191,
193, 213, 214, 236, 237, 371, 391,
399, 405, 422, 507, 521.

Grosjean, 404.

Grotto of the While Deer, 145.

Groundnut, 158, 160, 198, 200, 206,

210, 233, 394, 395, 412, 648.
GrueberFr. (Jesuit), visits Lhasa, 552.
Guam, Telegraphic line to, 439.
Guava. 198.
Gueluy. 535.

Guia Lighthouse (Macao), 249, 283.
Guiakio or Yalung River, 544.
Guignea (de). 374, 482, 520.
Guinness M., ,388.
Guiot L.. 386.
Gulfs (.see Bays).
Gum, 44, 187, 397.
Gumpach J. (Von), 484.
Gunboats, Chinese, 334.
Gundry G., 293.
Gundry R. S., 30, 166, 214, 237, 293,

337, 338, 379, 382, 387, 391, 405,

423, 441, 483.
Guppy H. B., 103.
Gurkhas invade Tibet, 462.
,, conquer Nepal, 554.
,, enter Tibet with British
Expedition, 555.
Gutzlaf G., 88, 89, 118, 137, 138, 165,

166, 192-193, 213-216, 236, 237,

293, 374, 377, 379, 388, 399, 405,

423, 479, 480, 507, 521, 536.
Gutzlafif I. or Tach'ih, 263, 273.
Tides at, 263.
,, Telegraph station at, 438.
Gyantse (Tibet), 550, 554.
Gymnastics in modern Chinese

schools, 368.
Gypsum, 86, 231.

Hachun-Gobi Desert, 530.
Hackmann H., 382.
Hager J., 374.
Hal Chow, 154, 261.
Halkwan or Customs Tael, 318, 408,
410.
,, weight of, 318.
,, par value of, 318.
,, fluctuation through fall in
silver, 318.
Gold equivalent of (1870-1906),
319.
Hailar or Khailar, 495.
Hailu-tao or Alceste I., 255.
Hailun T'ing, 488.
Hailung Fu, 487.

Haimen (in Kiangsu, near mouth of
Yangtze R.), 97, 154, 157,
261, 262, 263, 271.
,, its inhabitants, 157, 158, 271,
,, language spoken, 158.

676

INDEX.

,, communications by steam-
boat with Shanghai, 271.
Hainan I., 203, 282.

Capital of, 202, 212, 282.
,, Area and population, 282.
,, Geological formation, 203.
,, Fauna and Flora, 206.
,, Aboriginal tribes of, 207,282,

343, 344-345.
,, dialect spoken, 207, 348.

exports, 211, 291.
,, Lighthouses of, 283-284.
Haiphong, 290-291.
Hait'an Bay (Fokien), 276.
Hait'an I., 278.
Hait'an Pass, 276.
Hakkas or K'ohkias (aliens, squat-
ters), 198, 199, 207, 343.
original home of, 207, 344.
actual race, 199; character of

343, 344.
principal habitat of, 199, 343.
furnish many emigrants, 207.
part transported to Kwangsi

and Hainan I., 344.
dialect of, 207, 343.
books for learning, 377.
Halde (du), 88, 118, 137, 165, 192,
193, 213, 214, 236, 271, 378, 381,
385, 441, 479, 507, .521.
Hall W. H., 480.
Halloran A. L., 293.
Hami or Hahmih T'ing, 363, 460,

524, 526, 529, 534.
Hamilton A.B.. 236.
Hampden du Base B.. C, 166, 378.
Han Dynasty, 446, 451-453.

,, its Founder, Liupang, 451.

,, Former or Western, 451.

,, Emperors of, 451.

,, waged war against Huns, 451.

,, Later or Eastern, 452.

,, introduced Buddhism, 452.

, , held intercourse with Roman

Empire, 452.
,, last Emperors of, 452.
,, general character of, 452.
Han Dynasty, Posterior, 457.
Han jln or "Men of Han" (name

taken by the Chinese), 7, 452.
Han River, 120, 122, 123, 124.

,, Valley, 124, 125.
Hanchung Fu (Shensi), 39, 44, 123.
Han-hai or rainless sea (Gobi Desert),

509-510.
Hank'ow, 93, 97, 122, 125-127, 130,
326, 421, 655.
,, Sketch-map of, 126.
,, distance from sea-coast, 98.

from Shanghai, 100-101.
,, flow of Yangtze at, 99.
,, Population of, 125; Foreign

trading Houses at, 128.
,, Shipping and Trade, 127-128,

421, 655.
,, exports brick-tea to Russia,
417, 652; Railway to Peking,
102, 431.
Hanlin or Imperial Academy, 299-

300, 459.
Hansa, 508.
Hanyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124, 125,

126, 127-128, 458.
Hangchow Fu, 159, 227, 229, 230,
232, 235, 458.
,, terminus of Grand Canal, 230,

235.
,, Bay of, 272, 273; Bore or eagre,

230, 272.
,, Capital of the Empire under
the Southern Sungs, 235,
458.
,, famous for its beautiful site,

159, 232.
,, devastated by the T'aip'ings,
282.
Trade of, 232, 421, 655.
,, Steamship communication
with Shanghai, 271.
Hao or Ch'angngan hsien, 447, 449.
Happer A. P., 370, 385.
Harbin, 96, 503, 505.
Harlez C. (de), 372, 377, 379.
Hart. Sir Robert, 320, 321, 325, 337,

423,435,481, 500.
HaH V. C. 118,380.
Hart E., 401.
Hassenstein, 88.
Havret Pere H., 46, 165, 383.
Hawks-Pott F. L., 377, 479, 481.
Hayashi, Baron, 500.
Hay ward G. W., 536.
Heaven together with the Earth,
object of Imperial wor-
ship, 353, 378-379.
Dowager Empress Wu Heu
offers the Annual sacri-
fices to, 456.
alone great, 444 ; Yao imit-
ated it, 444.
sends calamities and misfor-
tunes, 295.
punishes unworthy Rulers,

448.
withdraws mandate from

Princes, 295.
Emperor is its A'icegerent
(T'ientze), 295.

INDEX.

677

„ Temple of, in Peking, 73,74.
Hedde J.. 399.
Hedley J., 88, 336, 522.
Heh-ho or Hei-ho (R.), 35.
Hehlung-kiang or Amur R., 475, 489-

490.
Hehlungkiang ching or Aigun, 494.
Hehshui T'ing, 488.
Heir to the Throne :
,, under the Hsia dynasty, 448.
,, actually chosen by the reigning
Emperor, 296.
Hemp, 42, 83, 111, 158, 187, 207, 223,

231, 412, 492, 648.
Hemsley, 557.

Hengchow Fu, 131, 132, 135-136.
Heng-shan (Hunan), 13, 132.
Henrion, 384.
Henry A., 20, 372.
Hertslet, Sir E., 485.
Heude. Pere P., 20, 166.
Heu Chow or Posterior Chow, 457.
Heuchu, last Emperor of the Minor

Han, 453, 455.
Heu Han or Posterior Han, 457.
Heuki I. and Lighthouse (Miaotao

Islands), 254.
Heu Liang or Posterior Liang, 457,
Heu T'ang or Posterior T'ang, 457.
Heu Ts'in or Posterior Ts'in, 457.
Hexapolis or six Towns (Chinese

Turkestan), 531.
Hides, Export of, 412, 648.
High Commissioners (Tibet), 545.
High Justices, Three, 301.
High Ministers of State or Hwei-i

Tach'en, 297.
Highways of Communication :

Chekiang, 235; Chihli, 78.
,, Fokien, 225-226 : Honan,
62-63.
Hunan, 137; Hupeh, 129-
130.
,, Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 145.
,, Kiangsu, 163-164.
,, Kwangsi, 200; Kwang-

tung, 211-212.
,, Kweichow, 190.
,, Nganhwei, 151-152; Shan-
si, 54-55.
,, Shantung, 86; Shensi, 45.
Szechw'an, 117-118.
Yiinnan, 182-183.
,, Manchuria, 501.

Mongolia, 518-519.
,, Sinkiang or Chinese Tur-
kestan, 534-535.
Tibet, 553-554.
Hilliard Atteridge A., 387.

Hills, The (near SungkiangFu), 159.

,, the hundred thousand, 196.
Himalaya Mts., 539, 541, 544.
Hindoo race, 112, 533.
Hindustan, 523, 538, 554.
Hinnam G. W., 508.
Hippisley, 405.
Hirth F., 405, 472.
Historians in the Sung Dynasty,

458.
Historical Works or Shi, 350.
History of the Chinese Empire, 443-
471.
,, of the Three States or San
Kwoh, 453.
Hoang P., 335, 336, 338, 371.
Hobson H. E., 483.
Hodgson M., 406, 557.
Hoh Chow, 50, 110.
Hohfei hsien, 150.
Hoh-kiang R. or Ch'ih-shui, 96, 110;

186.
Hoh-shan (Mt.), 50, 147, 149.
Hoihow or Haik'ow (Hainan I.) :
,, Harbour of, 283.
,, Trade of, 211, 212, 291.
,, Communications with Hong-
kong, Pakhoi, Swatow, 291.
,, its time-zone, 292; great typ-
honic centre, 291.
Hokien Fu, 66, 78.
Hoklos or Foklos (people from Fo-
kien), 207, 344.
Hok'ow, 183, 477.
Holan-shan or Alashan Mts., 11,25,

35, 514.
Holcomb. 371.
Holdich and Rockhill, 556.
Holland, Relations with China, 473.
,, sends embassies to Peking,

462, 473.
,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654 {see Dutch, Dutch
Indies).
Holland, Capt., 476.
Home Trade of China, 328, 407-408.
,, most important, but impos-
sible to estimate, 407.
,, largely a retail trade, 407.
,, wholesale trade monopolised

by Guilds, 408.
,, duties levied on at Open
Ports, 328.
Honan Province, 8, 46, 48, 51, 52, 56-
64.
,, Area and Population, 8, 56.

678

INDEX.

Aspect and Characteristics,

56-57.
Climate, 59 ; Geology, 57.
Orography (with Sketch-map :
Section of Mts. in AV. Ho-
nan), 57, 58.
Hydrography, 59-60.
Fauna and Flora, 60.
Agricultural and Mineral

W^ealth, 60.
People and Language, 60.
Cities and Principal Centres,

60-62.
Industry and Commerce, 62.
Highvsrays of Communication,

62-63.
Railway Lines, 432.
Historical notes on, 63, 444,
447, 448, 449, 451, 453, 454,
455,458, 480.
Honan Fu, 56, 61.
Hongkew or Hungk'ow (Shanghai),

160, 266.
Hongkong or Hsiangkiang, 181, 203,
211,213,281,284,236, (with
Sketch-map), 422.
,, ceded to Great Britain, 285,

463, 474.
,, Area and populatio.i, 285,
,, Kowloon added, 40'i, 475.

Trade of, 285-281, 409, 411,

414, 417, 422, 645, 649, 652.

,, Industries, 2 Vi; Government,

286.
, , exposed to typhonic disasters,
285.
Hongkong Bay, 281.
Hongkong Chronicle and Directory,

214, 216.
Hope Grant, Admiral, 475, 476.
Hopkins L. C, 375.
Hor or Horpa tribes (Tibet), 547.
Horn, Cape, 239.
Home C. S., 388.
Hosie A. Sir, 118, 192, 193, 337,372,

423, 442, 508.
Hot'ao or Ordos Plateau, 513.
Hoti, Emperor (Later Han), 452.
Hoti, Emperor (Ts'i), 454.
Houette, 292.
Hourst, 102.
House Island or Hwangsha, 262,

263.
Howorth H. H., 521.
Hsia Dynasty (B. C. 2205), 443, 445-
446.
,, seat of Empire at Hsiai Chow,

55; at Yanghsia, 447.
, , nutnber of Sovereigns, 446, 448.

Hsia or Tangut Kingdom (Kansu),
rise of, 458.
,, China pays tribute to it, 458.
Hsia-ho, 156.
Hsia-kwan, 158.
Hsiai Chow. 50, 51, 55.
Hsiamfin or Amoy {see Amoy).
Hsienfung, Emperor (Tats'ing), 464.
,, events of his reign, 464.

Hsienti, last Emperor of the Later

Han, 452.
Hsientsung or Ch'enghwa, Emperor

(Ming), 29, 460.
Hsienyang (Shensi), 43, 450.
Hsin Chow (Shansi), 50.
Hsinghwa Bay (Fokien), 276.
Hsinghwa Fu, 218.
Hsing-i Fu, 172.

Hsingking (Manchuria), family re-
sidence of the Manchus, 487, 497.
Hsingngan Mts., 309, 489, 533.
Hsingngan Fu (Shensi), 123.
Hsingp'ing hsien (Shensi), 41.
Hsiungnu [see Huns).
Hsu Chow (Honan), 56, 63.
Hsuchow Fu (Kiangsu), .see Silchow

Fu.
Hsuchow Fu (Szechw'an), see Su-

chow Fu or Suifu.
Hsuen Chwang, Buddhist Monk :

visits India, returning by Canton,

472, 335.
Hsuyung-ho (see Suyung-ho).
HsuyTing T'ing {see Suyung T'ing).
Huber E., 482.
Hue, M. (Lazarist),20,384,399, 555.

,, visits Lhasa, 552.
Huchow Fu, 227.
Hudson B., 237.
Hudson Taylor, 388.
Hui-ho (R.), 148.
Huili Chow, 95.
Huk'ow Canal (connects P'oyang

Lake with Yangtze R.), 142.
Huk'ow hsien (Port of Call, Kiang-

si), 145.
Hukwang (Hunan and Hupeh), 120,

302, 305, 461.
Hulan (Manchuria), 488, 495.
Hulon or Kulon Lake, 491.
Humboldt (de), 373.
Huns, a nomad Central-Asian tribe :

,, ancestors of the Ouigours,
Mongols and Turks, 451.

,, defeat Kaoti, 451 ; worsted by
Wuti, 451.

,, kept in check by Mingti, 452.

,, repulsed to the Caspian by
Hoti, 452.

INDEX.

679

,, claim Throne under Hweiti

(Tsin), 453.

takeLohyang(A. D. 310), and

occupy N. China under

Hwaiti, 454.

,, establish the Wei Kingdom

(Honan), 454, 455.
,, defeat Wuti (Liang) 455, and

Taitsung (T'ang), 456.
,, cause struggle between N. and
S., 456.
Hunan Province, 8,120,121, 131-138.
,, Area and Population, 131.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
132 ; Climate, 132.
Geology, 132; Orography, 132.
Hydrography, 132-133.
,, Fauna and Flora, 134.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 134-135.
,, People and Language, 135.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
135-136.
. ,, Industry and Commerce, 136.
,, Highways of Communication,
137.
Open Ports, 137.
Hunch 'un, 506.

Hundred Families or Pehsing, 339.
Hungchi, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Hunghai or Hwanghai Bay, 281.
Hung Hsuts'aen (T'aip'ing Chief),

464.
Hung-kiang (R.), 110,
Hunglan or Waglan Island, 283.
Hung-shan (Mt.). 67.
Hungshui or Red River, 170, 172,

186, 196.
Hungtington E., 536.
Hungtseh Lake, 59, 91, 148, 156.
Hung Wu, Founder of the Ming

Dynasty, 150-151, 184, 201, 460.
Hupeh Province, 8, 120, 121-130.
Area and Population, 121.
Aspect and Characteristics,

121-122; Climate, 123.
Geology, 122; Orography, 123.
Hydrography, 123.
Fauna and Flora, 124.
Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 124-125.
People and Language, 125.
Cities and Principal Centres,

125-129.
Industry and Commerce, 129.
Highways of Communication,

129.
Railway Lines, 431.
Open Ports, 130.

Hurka or Peony River, 490.

Hurley R. C, 442.

Hushan or Tigerl. (near Ningpo), 273.

Hut'eu or Tiger Head Bay (Fokien),
277.

Hut'o-ho (R.), 70.

Hut'ukht'u or Avatar, 516.

Hwa hsien (Kwangtung), 206-207.

Hwa-kiang (R.), 186.

Hwap'ingchw'an T'ing, 32.

Hwa-shan (one of the Five Sacred
mountains), 26, 44, 51, 57,

Hwaying-miao (famous for its straw
shoes), 44.

Hwai-ho, 23, 57, 59, 146, 148, 156.

Hwaik'ing Fu, 51, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63.

Hwailung-shan (Mt.), 57, 122.

Hwaingan Fu (salt manufacturing
centre), 153, 154, 163.

Hwaiti, Emperor (Tsin), 453.

Hwaiyang-shan (Mt.), 57, 92, 122,
123, 147.

Hwaiyuen hsien, 151.

Hwang ch'eng or Imperial City (Pe-
king), 71, 72.

Hwangchow Fu, 121,125, 128, 130.

Hwangchow T'ing, 132.

Hwang-hai or Yellow Sea, 240, 241.

Hwang-ho or Yellow River, 23, 24,
28, 41, 55, 60,69, 82,84,

154, 163, 251,452.

., sources of (with Sketch-
map), 24.
length of, 24 ; flow of, 29.
,, various names given to, 28.
,, embankments of, 27, 28,

61, 82.
,, Inundations of, 28, 37, 61,

82.
,, Upper Course of, 24-25.

Middle Course of, 25-26.
,, Lower Course of, 26-27.
,, variations in its Course,

27-28, 154.
,, high level of its bed in
Shantung, 82.
navigable, 38, 41 , 55, 60, 82.
Hwangp'oo or Shanghai River, 98,

155, 160, 261, 266, 268,
269, 271.

,, inundations of, 155.

,, volume diminishing, 164.

,, Bar at its mouth, 264, 270.

, , Conservancy Work of,660.
Hwangsha or House Island, 262, 263.
Hwang-shan (Mt.), 147.
Hwangti, Founder of the Empire,

339, 444.
Hwangyang-shan (Mt.), 67.

680

INDEX.

Hweichow Fu (Kwangtung), 202,470.
Hweichow Fu (Nganhwei), 146, 150.
Hweiti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.
Hweiti, Emperor (Tsin), 453.
Hweitsung, Emperor (iS'. Sung), 458.
,, fled before the Kin Tar-

tars, 458.
Hwohluh hsien, 75.
Hwotien Fu or Khoten, 524, 530.
Hydrography of China Proper, 15,
16.
, , Valleys of the Peh-ho and
of the Hwang-ho, 23-28.
,, Valleys of the Yangtze and
of the Hwai-ho, 93-100.
A'alley of the Si-kiang, 170-
173.
Hydrography of each Province :

Chekiang, 229-231 ; Chihli ,

■ 69-70; Fokien, 220-221.

,, Honan, 59-60; Hunan, 132-

134 ; Hupeh, 123-124.
,, Kansu, 35-36; Kiangsi, 141-

142.
,, Kiangsu, 155-156.
,, Kwangsi, 196-198; Kwang-
tung, 204-206 ; Kwei-
chow, 186-187.
,, Nganhwei, 148-149; Shan-
si, 51 ; Shantung, 82.
,, Shensi, 41-42; Szechw'an,
109-111.
Yilnnan, 178-180.
Hydrography of the Dependencies :
of Manchuria, 489-491.
of Mongolia, 511-512.
, , of Chinese Turkestan, 527-
528.
of Tibet, 542-544.

I (Barbarian) formerly applied to
Foreigners, now officially forbid-
den, 343.

I Chow (Chihli), 67.

I-ho (R.), 82.

I Tsing, Buddhist Monk visits Su-
matra, 472.

Ice on the coast of Chihli, 251.
,, of Shantung, 255.

Ich'ang Fu (Hupeh), 95, 96, 99, 117,
121, 128, 130.

Ich'ang hsien, 137, 212.

Ichih (Shang), 448.

Ichow Fu (Shantung), 79, 83.

Idolatry, 516.

Igneous rocks, 2.

Ikias (Aborigines oftheS. and S.W'.;
a pre-chinese race), 188, 198,
199, 207, 339, 343.

,, inhabit Kweichow,188;Kwang-
si, 198-199 ; Kwangtung, 207.
Hi, 362, 462, 465, 524, 532-533.
,, occupied, by Russia (1871), 476.
,, restored (1881), 467, 476, 533.
Hi Fu (see Kuldja)
,, River, 528,532.
,, Valley, 525, 526.
litis, German gunboat, loss of, 255.
Imbault-Huart, 535, 536.
Imperial City or Hwang ch'eng (Pe-
king), 71, 72, (with plan).
,, Clan Court and Household,

301.
,, Tombs at Mukden, 497.
,, Academy or Hanlin, 299.

Army, 328-329.
,, Board of Astronomy, 301.
,, Canal (see Canal).
,, Maritime Customs, 325-328.
Post Office, 435-437; 661-662.
,, Telegraph Company, 438.
,, Agent or Amban (Urga), 517.

Resident (Tibet), 545-546.
,, Japanese Resident(Mukden),
488.
Imports into China, Value of, 409-

411, 646-650.
Incense sticks, 44.
Indemnities, to Great Britain, 463,
464, 466, 474.
,, to France, 465, 467.

,, to Russia, 477.

,, to Japan, 324, 468, 476.

Boxer, 324, 325, 469, 477.
India, British, 523, 535, 538, 548, 549,
553, 554.
,, trade with China, 409, 414, 439,

645, 646, 649. "
,, ,, with Tibet, 553.
Indian ink, 91, 150, 151, 403.
,, opium, 411, 414, 650.
,, tea, 395.
,, yarn, 414, 649.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
Indies, Dutch, trade of, 410, 646.
Indigo, 114, 116, 187, 190, 200, 207,

211, 234, 492.
Indo-China, French, 291, 467, 477.
trade with China, 410, 646.
,, exports principally rice, 411.
Indus, River, 541, 544.
Industrial Schools, 369.
Industry of China, 91, 163, 403-404,
408.
,, of each Province:

Chekiang, 235 : Chihli, 78.
Fokien, 225; Honan, 62.
,, Hunan, 136; Hupeh, 129.

INDEX.

681

,, Kansu, 38; Kiangsi, 144.

Kiangsu, 163; Kwangsi, 200.
, , Kwangtung, 211 ; Kweichow,

190.
,, Nganhwei, 151 ; Shansi, 54.

Shantung, 86 ; Shensi, 44.
,, Szechw'an, 116; Yunnan, 182.
Industry of the Dependencies :
,, of Manchuria, 501.
,, of Mongolia, 518.
of Turkestan, 534.
of Tibet, 553.
Inglis R., 423.

Inner Cabinet or Neikoh, i297.
Inner Mongolia, Extent of, 519.

,, Administration of, 519.

Innocent IV (Pope), 472.
Insignia of Civil and Military Rank,

314, 444.
Inspector-General of Customs, 246,

325.
Instruction in Chinese Schools, 364-

367.
Intendancies or Circuits, 306, 312,
559, 561, 562, 564, 565, 566, 567,
568, 569, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575,
577, 578, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584-
585.
Intendant or Taot'ai, 303, 307.
Intercalary month inserted by the

Emperor Yao, 445.
Intercourse of Western Powers with

China, 473-475.
Inveen E., 237, 556.
Irawaddy River, 179, 544.
Irisson M., 399, 405.
Irkutsk, 509.
Iron-ore in China, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62,

78, 125, 151, 157, 211, 402, 493.
Irrigation of the Ch'engtu Plain, 113.
Islands, 242, 246, 251, 253-254, 255,
261-262, 263, 264, 272, 273, 275,
277-278, 281-283, 289, 290.
Italy, Relations with China, 477.
,, Trade with China, 41 0,41 6,646.
,, Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 346, 420, 646.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
Itsung, Emperor (T'ang), 456.
lyin, Prime Minister (Shang dyna-
sty), 448.

Jacquet, 213.

Jade or Yuh, 408, 528, 529, 530, 532.
Jade-stone Gate or YiihrnSn, 529.
James H. F., 381, 507.
Jametel, 88.

Jamieson G., 335, 336, 338, 399, 424,
442.

Jamieson J. W., 335, 336, 337, 405.
Janglatse (Western Tibet), 551.
Jaochow Fu, 140, 144.
Japan, 223, 240, 269, 270, 461,651.
Emperor Shitsu (Yilen) fails in

expedition against, 459.
invades Korea and settles at

Fusan (Fushan), 461.
receives Buddhism from China,

352.
wars with China, 467, 468,

476, 477.
Formosa ceded to, 468.
war with Russia, 470.
Port Arthur and Dalny (Tairen)

transferred to, 470, 492.
leases territory in S. Manchu-
ria, 470, 500.
Customs Agreement (Dalny)

with China, 500-501.

Trade with China, 223, 410,

411, 413, 414, ,646, 649, 651.

Trading Houses and Traders

in China, 128,346,420,654.

Shipping and Tonnage, 418,

653, 654.
Steamship Lines to and from

China, 439-440.
Railway enterprise in China,

431, 432, 434, 503-504.
Telegraph Lines to China, 224,

438.
Treaties with China, 470, 477.
Chinese students in, 369.
Catholics in, 358.
Japanese incursions on the coast of
China, 460.
pirates attack Shanghai, 266,

466.
Settlements in China, 75,127,

159, 223, 224.
Population at Shanghai, 267;

at Hank'ow, 128.
Post Offices in China, 435.
Chancellor of Legation mur-
dered at Peking, 469.
troops occupy Peking, 469,

477.
Imperial Resident at Muk-
den, 488.
at Newchwang, 498, 500.
Jarkent (Chinese Turkestan), 533.
Jarvie R., 400.

Jehol or Ch'^ngteh Fu, 66, 69, 70,
77-78.
„ Lord Macartney at, 462.
,, Kiak'ing dies at, 463.
,, Hsienfung flees to, 464.
Jenhwai T'ing, 185, 186.

44

682

INDEX.

Jenks J. W., 320.
Jennings W., 375.
Jentsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.
JSntsung, Emperor (Yuen), 459.
„ restored the Hanlin Acad-

emy, 459.
,, ignored the rites, 459.

Jeremiassen C, C, 373.
Jemigan T. R., 166, 336, 337, 370,

387, 391, 405, 423, 442, 483, 484.
Jesuits first enter China (under
Wanlih), 354, 355, 461.
, , secure by their science esteem

of the learned class, 355.
, , reform the Imperial Calendar,

355.
,, their relations with K'ang-

hsi, 355, 462.
,, their influence feared by

K'ienlung, 463.
,, labour in the China Mission,

356.
,, have Observatory at Sicawei
(near Shanghai), 355. •
Jesus (de) Montalto, 216, 385, 483.
Jews (Judaism) in China, 60, 363,

383, 472.
Jinricksha, 102, 162, 427.
John of Marignoli, 472.

,, Montecorvino, 354, 472.

,, Piano Carpini, 354, 472.

Johnson W. H., 536.
Jones A. G., 371.
Joss-paper, 233, 275.
Ju Chow, 56, 60, 81, 63.
Judge, Provincial or Nieht'ai, 306.
Jujube, 37, 83, 398, 544.
Julien S., 381, 400, 405, 481.
Junk, origin of the word, 226.
Junk-trade, Chinese, 116, 144, 186,

289, 323, 418, 653.
Juning Fu (Honan), 56, 59.
Justice, speedy form of village, 310-
311.
,, paternal, 310-311.
Jutze Ying, Emperor (Former Han),
452.

Kachyns or Burmese "wild men",

112.
K'aifung Fu (Honan), 26, 56, 60-61,
63, 426, 444, 457, 458, 460.
,, Jews at, 363.
K'aihwa Fu (Yunnan), 175, 183.
K'aip'ing coal-mines, 70, 402, 430.
Kalgan or Changkia-k'ow, 67, 77,

78, 518, 519.
Kalgan Pass, 29, 78.
Kalkhas (Mongol tribe), 515, 51 8.520.

Kalmucks (Mongol tribe), 462, 515,

520.
Kalons or Shapeh (Tibetan Council-
lors of State), 546.
Kambalu (Khanbalig) or Peking, 71,

354, 459.
Kan-kiang or Kan R., 97, 140, 141-

142, 145.
Kanchow Fu (Kansu), 32, 37, 38.
Kanchow Fu (Kiangsi), 140, 142.
Kanchuh (Kwangtung), 212.
K'ang or Stove-bed, 23, 91.
K'ang or Chamdo (Eastern Tibet),

545.
K'anghsi, Emperor (Tats'ing), 120,
164, 355, 462.
,, events of his reign, 462.
,, relations with the Jesuits,
355, 462.
Dictionary of, 349, 350, 462.
Kannengeiser A., 386.
Kansu Province, 8, 11, 22, 24, 25, 28,
30, 31-38, 104, 105, 465, 523,
525, 529, 434, 553.
,, Area and Population, 32.
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 33.
,, Climate, 35; Geology, 33.
,, Orography, 33-34.
,, Hydrography, 35-36.
,, Fauna and Flora, 36.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 36.
,, People and Language, 36.
„ Cities and Principal Centres,

37-38.
,, Industry and Commerce, 38.
,, Highways of Communication,
38.
Kaoliang or Sorghum, 83, 142, 149,

492.
Kaolin (Kaoling), 70, 143.
Kaoti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.
,, first sacrificed to Confucius,

451.
,, defeated by the Huns, 451.
Kaoti, Emperor (Ts'i), 454.
Kaotsu, Emperor (T'ang), 456.
Kaotsung, Emperor (T'ang), 456.
Kaotsung, Emperor (S. Sung), 458.
,, his character, 458.

,, summoned the Mongols

against the Kin Tar-
tars, 458.
Kaoyiu Lake (Kiangsu), 156.
Karakoram Mts., 525, 526, 527, 541.

,, Pass (to Ladak), 526.

Kara-koshum Lake, 527.
Kara-muren R. (Hwang-ho), 28.
(Amur R.), 489.

INDEX.

683

Kara-Nor (Lake), 530. ,

Karashar or Yenk'i Fu, 524, 531 , 534.
Karaussu-Nor (Lake), 511.
Kargalyk (Chinese Turkestan), 531.
Kashgar or Shufu hsien, 362, 363,

523, 524, 530-531, 533, 5.34.
Kashgar Daria, 528.
Kashgaria or Chinese Turkestan,
523-537.
,, Mahomedan revolt in,

362-363, 465.
Kaufman K. E., 236.
Kaulen, 508.
Keane A. H,, 521.
Kelung( Formosa) bombarded by the

French, 467.
Kemchik River, 511 .
Kentai Mts., 511, 513.
Kerosene oil, found in Szechw'an,
403.
,, imported into China,

411, 413, 647.
Kerulen River, 490, 513.
Kerval, 64.
Kesson, 387.
Ketels M., 422.

Keupangtze Junction ( Shanhai-
kwan-Newchwang Line), 431, 503.
Khailar or Hailar, 495, 503.
Khamar-Doban Mts., 511.
Khamba-Jong (Tibet), 551, 554.
Khamil {see Hami).
Khanka or Hsinghai R., 490.

Lake, 491.
Khan-Tengri Peak, 525.
Khchara or Charing Nor (Lake), 25.
Khingnan {see Hsingngan).
Khnora or Oring Nor (Lake), 25.
Khoits (Kalmuck tribe), 520.
Khoja Dynasty (Kashgar), 362.
Khoshoits (Kalmucks), 520.
Khoten or Hwotien, 37, 363, 524, 530.
Khoten Daria, 527, 528.
Ki or Epochs (divisions of early

Chinese history), 444.
Kihngan Fu, 140, 142.
K'i hsien (Shansi), 54.
Kiahsing Fu, 227, 233.
Kiak'ing, Emperor (Tats'ing), 463.
,, refuses to receive Russian

Ambassador, 463.
, . reception of Lord Amherst,

463 ; K'owt'ow refused,
463.
,, prohibits propagation of

Catholic religion, 463.
,, character of, 463.

Kiakhta or Maimai ch'eng, 517, 518,
519.

Kialing-kiang (R.), 35, 96, 105, 109-

110.
Kialu-ho (R.), 59.
Kiating Fu, 106, 109, 112, 114.
Kiatsing, Emperor (Ming), 460.

,, character of, 460.
Kiatze or Cyclic characters, 444.
Kiaying Chow, 203.
Kiayu Pass (Great Wall), 29.
Kiai Chow, 32.
Kiang Chow, 50, 54.
Kiangmen (see Kongmoon).
Kiangnan, 140, 305, 461.

,, Viceroyalty of, 305.

Kiangning Fu or Nanking, 153, 158.

,, origin of name, 461.

Kiangpeh or N. Kiangsu, 23, 56, 60,

101, 162.
Kiangsi Province, 8, 16, 93, 121, 131,
135,139-145,146,175,218,
226, 227, 234, 235.
,, Area and Population, 140.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

141; Climate, 141.
,, Geology, 141 ; Orography,

141.
,, Hydrography, 141-142.
,, Fauna and Flora, 142.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 142-143.
,, People and Language, 143.
, , Cities and Principal Centres,

143-144.
,, Industry and Commerce, 144.
,, Highways of Communic-
ation, 145.
Open Ports, 145.
Kiangsu Province, 8, 9, 13, 16, 79,
86, 91, 93, 99, 139, 140,
146, 153-166, 227.
,, Area and Population, 153.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

154 ; Climate, 155.
,, Geology, 154; Orography, 154-

155.
,, Hydrography, 155-156.
,, Fauna and Flora, 156.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

"Wealth, 157.
,, People and Language, 157-

158.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

158-163.
,, Industry and Commerce, 163.
,, Highways of Communication,

163-164.
,, Open Ports, 164.
,, Coast-line of, 261-271.
,, Great Plain of, 13, 147, 154.

684

INDEX.

Kiaochow, 80, 85, 87, 258-260, 422,

468, 477 (see Ts'ingtao).
Kiaochow Bay, 80, 85, 254, 255, 256,
258-259 ( with-sketch-map ), 421,
477.
Kieh or Kiehkwei, last Emperor of
the Hsia Dynasty, 448.
,, character of, 449.
Kiench'ang Valley, inhabited by

Mantze or Lolos, 112.
Kiench'ang Fu (Kiangsi), 140.
K'ien Chow (Shensi), 39.
Kien Chow (Szechw'an), 109.
Kienchow T'ing (Hunan), 132.
Kienk'i R., 220, 221.
K'ienlung, Emperor (Tats'ing) :

reduces the Miaotze tribes,

462.
wars with Burma; with the

Gurkhas, 462.
subdues Kashgaria, 535.
receives Lord Macartney,

'462.
his policy towards Catholics,

463.
his literary works, 350, 507.
abdicates through filial
piety, 462.
,, his policy and character,
462-463.
Kienning Fu, 218, 220, 225.
K'ients'ing Kung or Palace Hall :
Ministers of Foreign Powers to be
received there, 469.
Kienwen, Emperor (Ming), 460.
,, dethroned by his uncle,

460.
,, enters Buddhist monas-

tery, 460.
Kilborn, 390.

Kin Tartars or Golden Horde, 71 . 458.
,, defeat the K'itans, 458.
,, occupy Chihli and Shansi under

Hweitsung (N. Sung), 458.
,, defeat the N. Sungs, 458.
,, were subdued in turn by the
,, Mongols, 71, 458.
K'in Chow (Kwangtungl, 203, 206,

212.
Kinchow Bay (Liaotung), 491.
Kinchow Fu (Shengking), 487, 501.
Kinhwa Fu, 227, 229, 234.
Kinmen I. (see Quemoy).
Kinniu-tao or Road of the Golden

Ox, 45, 117.
Kinsha-kiang or Golden-sand R.

(Yangtze), 15, 93, 178, 541.
King Chow (Kansu), 32.
Kingchow Fu (Hupeh), 121, 122, 128.

King-fu or Governor of Peking, 74.
King-ho (R.), 38, 42, 44.
Kingmen Chow fHupeh), 121.
Kingsmill T. W., 173, 214, 372, 405,

442, 479, 482.
"Kingti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.

(Liang), 455.
Kingt'ai, Emperor (Ming), 460.
Kingteh chen (Kiangsi), famous for

its porcelain, 144.
Kingtung T'ing (Yunnan), 177.
Kingtze-kwan, 59;
K'ingyang Fu, 32, 37.
K'ingyvien Fu, 195.
Kioh (Shanghai vernacular koh) or
ten-cent piece (Mexican currency),
320.
Kiong Pere S., 371.
Kircher A., 385.
Kirghis tribes, origin of, 516.

,, habitat and character of,516.
Kirin Province (Central Manchuria),

487, 495-496, 504, 505.
Kirin Fu, 487, 495, 504, 506.
K'itans or Eastern Tartars :
,, Tungusic origin of, 451.
,, cause downfall of Sui dyn-
asty, 455.
,, defeated under Empress Wu
Heu (T'ang), 456; under
Chwangtsung ( Posterior
T'ang), 457; under Kwoh-
wei (Posterior Han), 457.
,, successful under T'aitsu (N.
Sung), 457; under T'ai-
tsung (N. Sung), 457.
,, settle in Liaotung, 457-458.
,, finally vanquished by the Kin
Tartars, 458.
Kitao or Ningpo Point, 273.
Kittysols or Paper umbrellas, 234.
Kiukiang Fu (Kiangsi), 101, 140, 143,
145,414,421,467,650,655.
,, distance from Shanghai, 101.
,, trade of. 143, 414, 421, 650,
655.
Kiuling (Kiangsi), Sanatorium of,144.
Kiulung or Min-shan (Mts.), 11, 40-

41, 107.
Kiiin or Provinces, 453.

,, or Feudal Principalities, 453.
K'iung Chow (Szechw'an), 106.
K'iungchow Fu (Hainan), 202, 207,
211, 212, 282, 421, 655.
trade of, 421,655.
,, dialect spoken, 207.

(see Hainan andHoihow).
Kiunki Ch'u or Grand Council, 296-
297.

INDEX.

685

Kiut'iao-shan (Mt.), 107, 122.

Knollys H . 480.

Kobdo River or Kobdo-gol, 511.

Kobdo Town, 518.

Koeroes (de) C 557.

Iv'ohkias (see Hakkas).

Ivo-ho (R.), 148.

Kolao Hwei or Old Fellows' Society,

467.
Kohlao or Cabinet Elders, 297.
Kongmoon or Kiangmen, 212, 327,

421, 655.
Korea, compelled to pay tribute to
China, 455.
,, subdued and divided into 5
Provinces (T'ang dynasty),
456.
,, Chinese officials appointed to

govern, 426.
,, Japanese invade it under
"Wanlih, and settle at Fu-
san (Fushan), 461.
,, China-Japan war for supre-
macy over, 467-468, 477.
,, independence of, demanded

by Japan, 468.
,, Anglo- Japanese Convention
guarantees integrity of , 470.
,, Catholic Church in, 358.
,, Chinese in, 478.
,, Trade of, 410, 646.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654.
Koreans, Tungusic origin of, 451,493.
Kosogol, Lake, 511.
Kovalevski, 522.

Kowhsing, British transport, incid-
ent of, 468.
Kowloon (Kiulung) extension acquir-
ed, 285, 464, 477.
,, added to Hongkong, 213.
,, administration of, 286.
,, trade of, 421, 655.
K'owt'ow ceremony, refused by
Russia, 463; by Lord
Amherst, 463.
,, finally suppressed, 469-470,
K' ow-wai or Region beyond the Great

Wall, 29.
KozlofP. K., 521, 536, 556.
Kranz P., 380.
Krausse A., 338, 371, 423, 442, 481,

484, 508.
Kreitner (Von), 46.
Kropotkin, Prince, 6, 521.
Kubilhans or reembodied gentry

(Tibet), 547.
Kublai-Khan or Sitchen (Shitsu) :
, , founds the Yiien dynasty, 459.

,, fixes Capital at Peking, 459.
-,, extends Imperial Canal to

■fientsin, 459.
,, fails in expedition against

Japan, 459.
,, intolerant towards Taoism,
459.
Kucha or K'uch'e Chow (Chinese

Turkestan), 524, 531, 534.
Kuch'eng or K'it'ai hsien, 531, 5.32.
Kuchow T'ing (Kweichow), 189.
K'uchow Fu (Chekiang), 227, 229,

234-235.
K'ufeu hsien (Shantung) birth-place

of Confucius, 87.
K'ii-ho (R.), 110.

Kujen or M. A. graduate, 355, 368.
Kuku-Khoto or Kweihwa ch'eng

(Shansi), 52, 53, 532.
Kuku-Nor or Ts'inghai, 25, 543.

Region of, 520, 538, 543.
Kulangsu Island (Fokien), 224, 279.
Kuldja or Hi Fu, 474, 524, 532, 534.
Treaty of, 474.
,, Russian postal-station at,
532.
Kulon or Hulon Lake, 491.
Kulu-shan (Mt.), 67.
K'uenfei or Boxers, 468.

,, also called Ihwok'ilen (Pat-
riotic I'ists), 468,
K'uenlun Mts., 11, 33, 40, 57, 80, 92,

107, 525, 528, 539-541.
Kumbum Lamasery (Kansu), 38.
Kung, Prince, brother to Hsienfung :
,. negotiates with England and

France, 464, 475.
,, President of the "Waiwu Pu
or Foreign Office, 464, 465.
,, helps Empresses-Regent, 464.
,, degraded and restored, 466.
,, finally deposed, 466.
Kungch'ang Fu, 32, 38, 41.
Kungpeh (.see Lappa).
Kungshui or Kan R., 142.
Kungsu or Residence of Chinese

Official not holding seal, 313.
Kungt'an, 111.

Kungti, Emperor (S. Sung), 458.
,, carried prisoner to Peking
by the Mongols, 458.
Kungti, last Emperor of the Tsiii

dynasty, 454.
K'ungt'ung Island (near Chefoo), 246,
255, 256. »
,, first ' lighthouse erected

on, 246, 255.
,, ceded to France, 256.

Kupei-k'ow Pass, 78.

686

INDEX.

Kupfer C. F., 237, 382.

Kuren or Monastery (Urga), 517.

Kurile Islands, 240.

Kurkara-usu, 524.

Ivurla, 529, 534.

Kuropatkin, General. 508, 536.

Kurosiwo Current (on the coast of

Japan), 240.
K'urun or Urga (see Urga).
Kuyiien Chow (Kansu), 32.
Kwanch'eng Chow, 496.
Kwan-nei (within Great Wall), 29.
Kw'anch'engtze, 432, 498, 503.

(see Ch'angchun Fu).
Kwangchow Fu or Canton ( see

Canton).
Kwangchow-wan or Ivwangchow
Bay, 211, 213, 281, 289-290,
468, 477.
,, leased to France, 213, 290,

468, 477.
,, description of (with sketch-
map), 290-291.
,, administration of, 291.
Kwangnan (old Empire of Annam),

202.
Kwangnan Fu, 175, 197.
Kwangning-shan (Mt.), 489.
Kwangp'ing Fu (Chihli), 67.
Kwangsi Province, 8, 9, 12, 17, 18,
19, 131, 135, 137, 168, 170,
172, 184, 190, 194-201, 203,
206,348,475.
,, Area and Population, 195.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

196 ; Climate, 196.
,, Geology, 196 ; Orography, 196.
,, Hydrography, 196-198.
,, Fauna and Flora, 198.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 198.
,, People and Language, 198-

199.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

199-200.
,, Industry and Commerce, 200.
,, Highways of Communication,
200.
Open Ports, 200-201.
Kwangsi Chow (Yunnan), 177.
Kwangsin Fu (Kiangsi), 140.
Kwangsu, Emperor (Tats'ing) glor-
iously reigning, 396,466-
471.
,, meaning of name, 4(>().
„ Empress-Dowager Tz'ehsi,
Regent during minority
of, 467.
,, conflict with France, 407.

,, war with Japan, 467-468.

,, marriage of, 467.

,, first audience granted to

Foreign Ministers, 467.
,, reform period, 468.
,, compelled to abdicate, 468.
,, Empress-Dowager resumes

regency, 468.
,, Boxer uprising, 468-469.
,, period of reorganisation
(administrative, military,
judicial, educational), 471.
,, old style examinations ab-
olished, 471.
,, Opium Edict, 471.
,, Constitutional Government
promised, 461.
Kwangteh Chow, 146.
Ivwangtung Province, 8, 10, 19, 80,
131,133,135,137,140,168,
170,186,194, 195, 202-216,
218,219,222, 223, 281-292,
302, 303, 304,329,340,343,
402, 408, 417, 457, 473.
Area and Population, 202.
Aspect and Characteristics,

203 ; Climate, 204.
Geology, 203 ; Orography,

203-204.
Hydrography, 204-206.
Fauna and Flora, 206.
Agricultural and Mineral

^Wealth, 206.
People and Language, 207.
Cities and Principal Cen-
tres, 207-211.
Plan of Canton, 208.
Industry and Commerce,

211.
Highways of Communica-
tion, 211-212.
Railway Lines, 212, 432,

433.
Open Ports, 212, 213.
Coast-line of, 281-292.
Kwang Wuti, first Emperor of Later
Han, 452.
,, character of, 452.
Kwangyuen hsien, 110.
Kwei hsien (Kwangsi), 197.
Kweichow Province, 8, 12, 17, 18,
19, 99, 110, 111, 133, 136,
168, 170, 174, 175, 182,
184-193,195,196,200,345.
,, Area and Population, 184.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

185; Climate, 186.
,, Geology, 185; Orography,
185.

INDEX.

687

Hydrography, 186-187.
Fauna and Flora, 187.
Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 187.
People and Language, 188.
Cities and Principal Cen-
tres, 188-189.
Industry and Commerce,

190.
Highways of Communica-
tion, 190.
Historical Note, 191.
Kw'eichow Fu or Kw'ei Fu ( Sze-

chw'an), 95, 115.
Ivweihwa ch'eng or the Blue City,

52, 53, 55, 516 (see Kuku Khoto).
Kwei-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 195, 197,

200.
Kweilin Fu (Kwangsi), 195, 199.
Kweiling Pass, 12.
Kweishun Chow, l'J5.
Kweiteh Fu (Honan), 56, 63.
Kweiting hsien, 190.
Kweiyang Fu (Kweichow), 184, 187,

188, 189, 190.
Kwohwei, Founder of the Posterior

Chow dynasty, 457.
Kwolos (monkey-nosed savages) or

Lolos (see Lolos, Mantze).
Kyi or Lhasa River, 544, 551.
liyzil Art (Pass). 526.

Labbe P.. 506.

Lacquer ware, 209.

Ladak, 526, 549, 554.

Ladrone Islands or Laowanshan

(S.W. of Lantao), 282.
Lagiobo Pass, 34.

Laichow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84, 86.
Lakes of China Proper, 10, 36, 59,
70, 82, 97, 98, 124, 133-134,
142, 148-149, 156, 179-180,
231 (see Hydrography).
,, of Manchuria, 491.
,, of Mongolia, 511, 512, 513,
514.
of Turkestan , 527-528 .
,, of Tibet, 543.
Lama or Tibetan Buddhist Monk,
53, 112, 116, 516, 517, 539.
,, numerous at Lhasa, 548.
,, divided into Red and Yellow
Caps, 516, 547.
Lama, Dalai, of Tibet, 517, 548, 552.
,, resides at the Potala Monas-
tery (Lhasa), 548, 552.
,, flees to Urga (Mongolia) at ap-
proach of British Expedition
to Lhasa, 548, 554.

Lama, Panshen or Tashi, 548, 550.
,, resides at the Tashilum bo Mon-
astery (Shigatze), 548, 550.
,, visits India, 548.
, , appointed by Peking to succeed
the Dalai Lama, 555.
Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism, 516,

547-548, 552.
Lama-miao or Dolon-Nor, 77.
Lamaseries, 52, 53, 516, 550-551.
Lamairesse, 381.

Lamko or Linkao Lighthouse, 284.
Lamma Archipelago or Nanya, 282.
Lamocks or Tungp'§ng-tao, 283.
Lampa (Kwangtung), 473.
Lamprey, 405.
Lanchow Fu (Kansu), 32, 33, 36, 37,

533.
Landon P., 556.
Lank'i hsien, 229, 234.
Lanoye (de), 507.
Lantao I. or Tasilshan, 282.
Lants'ang-kiang or Mekong, 94, 179.
Landstorms, Continental, in the

North of the China seas, 245.
Land-tax, in grain, 308, 321-322.

in silver, 308, ,321.
Lane-Pool S., 481.
Lang, Captain, organized Chinese

navy, 467.
Lang H., 16(1.

Langson, French repulse at, 467.
Langt'ai T'ing, 190.
Language, Chinese, 347-350.
,, pictorial origin of, 349.
,, structure of, 349.
,, characteristics and peculia-
rities of, 349.
,, written, various forms of,

347.
,, spoken, divided into nu-
merous dialects, 347, 348,
360.
,, Kwanhwa or Mandarin

dialect, 347-348.
,, Books for learning, 373-377.
Laoho-k'ow (Hupeh), 123, 124, 128-

129.
Laokai, 10, 183.
Lao-ling, Mt. (Kansu), 34.
Lao-shan Mt. (Shantung), 80.
Laoshan Bay, 254.
Laos States, 181.

Laotze, Founder of Taoism , 3.52, 449.
Lappa I. or Kungpeh, 211,213, 281,

289.
Lapparent (de), 6.
Laughans. 20.
Launay A., 173, 213, 352, 386, 507,

688

INDEX.

Laur, 481.

Lavisse et Rambault, 520.
Laws of China, codified by Hungwu,
460, 461.
„ Will of the Emperor is law,

294.
,, Ministry of Justice recently

establised, 299.
,, Ministry of Justice, Censorate
and Grand Court of Revi-
sion, exercise general super-
vision over the adminis-
tration of Criminal Law, 300-
301.
,, Viceroys and Governors con-
trol administration of in the
Provinces, 303.
,, Sub-prefect or District Magis-
trate administers the laws
within his jurisdiction, 308.
,, Put'ing or Police Sub-prefect
tries all cases brought before
his bench, 311.
,, paternal and domestic, 310,311.
Lay G. T., 371, 373.
Lay H. X., first Inspector-General of

Customs, 325, 465.
Lazarists or Vincentiaii Missionaries

in China, 355, 356, 552.
Lead, 60, 83, 149, 180, 187, 207, 222,

493, 529.
Leaman C, 374.
Leavenworth C. S., 480, 483, 508.
Leboucq, 87, 371, 405.
LecVere, 0, l(i9, 171, 191, 404.
Le Compte, L.. 371, 374, ,385, 4'il.
Lee S. K., 392.
Legations, Siege of the, in Peking,

469.
Legendary History, 442, 444-445.
LegendreD-- A. F.. 103,118,271,399.
Legge Dr J., 375, 379, ,384, 390, 482.
Leh, Capital of Ladak, 526, 549,

554.
Lei-ho (R.), 133, 136, 137, 212.
Leichow Fu, 202, 212.
Leitsu taught to rear silkworms, 444.
Leiyang hsien, 132, 136.
Leprince-Ringuet. (i, 46, 63, 404.
Leroy. Pere H.. 87, 386.
Leroy-BeauUeu P., 20, 336,370,442,

484, 508.
Lesdain (de). 520.
Lesserteur. 193.
Lewis R. E., 392.

Lhasa, Capita! of Tibet, 517, 539,
543,544,546,548, 549,550,
.'551-552, 553, 554.
,, description of, 551-552.

, , residence of Dalai Lama, 548,

552.
,, monasteries of, 548, 552.

,, Rritish Expedition to, 546,

552, 564.
,, , Dalai Lama withdraws to
Urga (Mongoha), 548, 550,
554, 555.
,, Anglo-Tibetan convention

of, 555.
,, visited by Friar Odoric; the

Jesuits Grueber, Desideri
and Freyre ; the Lazarists
Hue and Gabet.
Li or Chinese mile, 642.
Li, the 1^ part of a tael, 316.
Li, Si or Sai tribe (Hainan), 207, 344,

345.
Li Fongpao. 165.
Li-ho (R.), 135.

Li Hungchang, 150, 464-466, 469, 470,
476.
,, appointed Governor of
Kiangsu, 465.
dismisses Burge\'ine; enga-
ges General Gordon, 465.
,, executes T'aip'ing chiefs,
despite promise to the
contrary, 465.
,, erects monument to mem-
ory of Ward, 465.
, , chief adviser to the Regen-
cy under Kwangsu, 466.
,, signs the Chefoo Agree-
ment, 476.
, , negotiates with the Powers
after the Boxer uprising,
469.
death of, 470,
Li Matow (Chinese name of the Jesuit
Missionarj', Matthew Ricci), 354.
Lichi orPersimmon(Diospyrus kaki),

18, 198, 221, 393, 398.
Lifan Yuun or Board for the Admin-
istration of Vassal countries, 298.
IJkiang Fu (Yunnan), 177.
Likin or Inland transit dues, 115,
322, 323, 470.
,, serious hindrance to trade,

,323.
,, China agrees to suppress it on
compensation of 1 A surtax
to the 5% import duty, 323,
470.
Liling hsien, 145.
Limin or Black-haired race ( name

of the Chinese ), 338.
Lip'ing Fu (Kweichow), 184.
Lipo hsien, 187.

INDEX.

689

Li Pu or Board of Civil Appoint-
ments, 299.
or Board of Riles, 299.
Lishimin. General, 456 (see Tai-

tsung, Emperor).
U-shui (R.), 133.
Lisu tribe or Lisus (Yunnan), 181,

Mo.
Li T-aipeli, famous Poet of the T'ang

dynasty, 117.
Lit'ang S/ecliwan), H«, 117.
Litsung, Emperor ^S. Sung), 45)S.
Li Tzech'eng i rebel), captures Pe-
king Ming), 401, 500.

,, virtual ruler of China, 461.
causes downfall of Ming dyn-
asty, 4t)l,

,, his overthrow. 401, 500.
Liyvien or Kaotsu Emperor, 'I'ang

dynasty,, 455,450.
Liang or Tael \ see Tael;.
]..iangchow Eu Kansu), 32, 37, 38.
Liang dynasty ( short-lived), 455.

,, Posterior or Heu-Liang, 457.
Lianghu (two-lake region : Hunan

and Hupeh), 120.
Liang-kiang or two Kiangs iKiangsi,

Kiangnan), 139, 153, 158, ;«02, 305.
Liang-kwangortwoKwangs(Kwang-

si. Kwangtung), I'.l'i, 302, 305.
Liang-Tao or Provincial Grain Inten-

dant, 303, 306.
Liao Chow (Shansi), 50.
Liao-ho or Liao R., 251, 488, 4!»0-
4ai, 497. 'i<»8, 501.
,, Plain, 488.
Liao Kingdom (Capital first at Liao-
yang, afterwards at Peking) :

,. founded bv the Kin Tartars,
458.

,. defeats the .\. Sungs, 458.

[see Kin or Golden Horde).
Liaosi-ho W'est-Liao R.i or Shara-

muren, 491.
Liaotung Peninsula, 468, 470, 480,

489.
Liaoyang Chow, 458,401,41)7-498,506.
LUbert, 213.
Lietard. 372.
Lien Chow, 202, 205.
Lienchow Fu, 202, 206.
Lienchow-kiang (R.), 212.
Lien-kiang (R.), 198, 200.
Lienkiang hsien, 225.
Lienshan T'ing, 203.
Liu Chiy ilen , Founder of the Posterior

Han dynasty, 457.
Liuchow Fu, 195, 199-200.
Liu-kiang (R.j, 172, 173, 186, 189,197.

Liuk'iu Islands, 240, 241.
Liukung 1. (VVeihaiweii, 257.
Liupang, Founder of the Former

Han, 451 (see Kaoti).
Liusung dynasty (.see Sung).
Liuyii, Founder of the Liusung dyn-
asty, 4.54.
Lighthouses on the Coast of China,

240-249, 251, 254. 255-256, 258,

263, 273, 275, 278, 283.
Urn. 376.

Lindesay Brine, 480.
Linkao or Lamko Lighthouse, 284.
Linkiang Fu, 140, 141.
Linngan Fu, 175, 183.
Lints'ing, 429.
Lints'ing Chow, 80, 84.
Lingwang, Emperor (Chow), 87.
Literary Chancellors or Provincial

Examiners. 303, 367, 504.
Literary Doctor, institution of. 455.
Literati, 145, 351, 355, 450.

,, doctrine of, 351.

,, rigid attachment to antiquitv.
450.

,. oppose reforms of Shi Hwang-
ti, 450.

,, attend funeral of Ricci, 355.
Literature of the Chinese, 350, 364.
368, 450, 451, 456, 459,460,
461, 462.

,, divisions of, 350.

,, its character, 347, 349.
Little A., 64, 88. 89, 103, 119, 165.

166. 192, 214, 236, 237, 405, 423.

442, 508, 522, 537, 556.
Littledale (1. R.. 536, 556.
Litton. 118.
Living Buddhas or Avatars, 38, 510,

540, 547, 548.
Ljungstedt, Sir A.. 386.
Lob-Nor Lake, 527, 5,35.-
Lobscheid \V., 376.
Lobsters, not found in China, 17.
Loch G. G., 480.
Lockhart W., 372, 390.
Lockinan J., 385.

Locks (Chah) on the Grand Canal, 429,

Loess lands or Hwangt'u ( Yellow

earth), 10, 22, 26, 28, 31. 33,

34, 40, 41-42, 47, 49, 50, 51,

07, 09, 80, 91, 147, 154, 535.

,, found especially in the N.
region, 91.

,, formation of, 22, 09.

,, extent of, 31, 50.

,, depth of in Shansi, 50.

,, sketch-map of loess plateau
(Shansi), 49.

45

690

INDEX.

Logan Jack R., 118, 192.

Loh-ho (R.), 27, 41, 43, 5».
,, Valley, 60, 61, 63.

Lohkiashan Lighthouse (Chekiang),
273.

Lohp'ing hsien (Kiangsi), 143.

Lohyang (Honan), 447,449,451.452,
453, 455.

Lolos or Kwolos ; aboriginal tribes),
106, na, 116, 181, 183, 188,
313, 340, 342-343, 363.
Aryan origin of, 342.
habitat of, 106, 116, 181, 188.
Szechw'an Lolos called Man-

tze, 342.
language of, 342-343.
joined in the Panthay rebel-
lion, 363.
despised by the Chinese, 342.

Long-haired rebels (Ch'angmao) or
T'aip'ings, 464 (see T'aip'ings).

Longjumeau (Andrew of), 354.

Long White Mountain or Ch'ang-
peh-shan, 489, 491, 506.

Loquat or Medlar, 35, 398.

,, Cantonese origin of word, 398.
,, called in Chinese p'ip'a (Shang-
hai dialect, bibo), 398.

Losingt'ah or Pagoda Anchorage,
223.

Loting Chow, 203.

Lotus-born One (Tibet), 547.

Louvet, 386.

Lovett, 388.

Lu Chow, 106, 109, 110, 114.

Lu-kiang or Salween R., 16, 179.

Lungan Fu (Shansi), 48.

Lu Pikin family (dealers in rice-
spirit), 408.

Lu-shan (Mt.), 143.

Lushan hsien, 60, 63.

Luts'un (salt lake), 52.

Luhk'i-k'ow (Hupeh), 130.

Luhngan Chow, 146, 149.

Luhying or Army of the Green Stan-
dard, 330.

Luchow Fu (Nganhwei) , 146, 148, 151.

Lii Shih, Queen-Regent during mino-
rity of Hweiti (Later Han), 451.

Liishun-k'ow or Port Arthur, 491,
499-500.

Lukshun Depression (Chinese Tur-
kestan), 526.

LungchowT'ing(Kwangsi), 173,198,
199, 200, 477.

Lung-kiang (R.), 221.

Lungkin (Hupeh), 129.

Lungmen defile (Honan), 61.

Lungngan Fu, 105, 113.

Lungt'an (Szechw'an), 111.
Lungtan-shan (Dragon-gall Mt.), 229. '
Lungyen Chow (Fokien), 218.
Lwan-ho ;R.), 69, 70.
Lyall L. A., 237.
Lynch G., 508.
Lyon W., 392.
Lyster T., 480.

Macao or Xgaomen, 204, 211, 213,
249, 287-289, (with sketch-
map) 460, 462, 473.
first settlement of, 288, 460,
473.
,, Area and population of, 288.
,, salubrious climate, 289.

Trade with China, 289, 410,
646.
,, final sovereignty of Portugal
over, 288, 473.
Macartney, Lord, Embassy of, 145,
462, 474.
,, treated as tribute-bearer, 462.
474.
Mac Clatchie T.. 375, 380.
Mac Donald, Sir C, 481.
Mac Gillivray, 376.
Macgowan J., 237, 372, 377, 400, 479.
Mac Intosh G., 377.
Mac Tver D., 377.
Mackenzie K. S., 480.
Macklin W. E.. 391.
Maclay R. H., 374.
Maclay and Baldwin, 'ill .
Maclellan J. W.. 294.
Mac Mahon A. R., 373.
Mace or Ts'ien {—■ of Tael), 316.
Machu or Hwang-ho R., 25.
Madrolle, 482, 507.
Magaillans G., 479.
Magpie, 17.

Mahomedans in China, 31, 174, 181,
188, 189, 322, 362-363, 382-
383, 456-457, 465.
found in N. \V., and S. W^.
Provinces, 362,
,, aggregate of, 362.

traded with China, 362.
introduced Western arts and
science into China, 362.
,, rebellions of, in Kansu, 31,
37, 362, 465 ; in Kashgaria,
362-363, 465; in Yunnan,
174, 181, 183, 188, 189,363,
465.
Mahomedanism or Hweihwei-kiao,
362, 494, 533.
,, China tolerant towards, 362.
,, principal Mosques, 362.

INDEX.

691

Maidel E.. 294.
Mailla (de) A. .\r., 47'.».
Maimai ch'eng, 517 {see Urga).
Maize or Indian corn, 18, 42, 198, 492.
Mamoy Arsenal (Foochow). 223.
Manchu or Tats'ing dynasty. Em-
perors of. 461-471.
Army. H28-:^.S0.
,. Language, 49'i, 508.
Manchuria, 5. 75. 251. 270, .H27. 486-
50S.
,, various names given to, 48()-

487.
,, Area, population and divisions
of, 486-488.
Administration of, 486, 488,

504-505.
Aspect and Characteristics,

488.
Climate. 489: Geology. 488.
(Urography, 489:Hvdrographv,

480-41I1: Lakes,''401.
Fauna and Flora, 492.
,, Agricultural and Mineral
Wealth, 492-493.
People and Language, 493-494 .
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
494-500
Industry and Commerce, 501,
,, Highways of Communication,
501.
Railways, 431-432, 503-504

(with sketch-map).
Coast-line, 491-492.
Open Ports, 505-506.
,, Catholics in, 356.
,, Immigration to, 478.
Historical Xote, 50(j.
Manchus, 71, 297, 300, .366,461,493.
,, Tungusic origin of, 451, 493.
invade Liaotung (A.D. 1618),
461.
,, establish Capital at Mukden

(A.D. 1625), 461.
,, attempt to seize Peking (A.D.

1629), 461.
,, called to expel usurper Li

Tzech'eng, 461.
,, refuse to leave, 461,
,, establish Ts'ing dynasty, 461-
471.
Mandarin Language, 347-348, 375-
.376.
,, Varieties of, 348.
,, Books for learning, 375-376.
Mandarins or Officials, 313.
Mango-tree, 198, 398.
Manhao (Yflnnan), 179, 182, 183.
Manifold C. C. 103, 108, 192.

MantzeorSzechw'an Lolos, 112,339,

342 [xcc Lolosl.
Manwvne o?- Manwein (Yunnan),

466.'
Maple-tree, 221.
Maralbashi (Turkestan), 534.
Marble. Marble quarries, 42. 84, 86,

157, 187, 209, 515.
Marcillac (de), 441.
Marco Polo, his Travels to China. 71,

223, 459, 472, 535.
Margary. murdered at Manwvne, 182,

466, 47(i.
Marguerye (de) R., 404.
Marignoli, John of. Papal Legate to

Peking, 472. "
Maritime Customs, Imperial, 325-

328.
Markham ,/., 89,
Markham ('. R.. 555.
Marshall T. W., 384.
Marsham J., 374.
Martin A., 30, 385.
Martin D-- E.. 401.
Martin R. M.. 335.
Martin W.. 378, 379, 381, 383, 389,

391, 480, 481.
Martins R. F., 371.
Marts open to Foreign Trade, 326-

327, 554.
Mas (de) S., 482.
Masu or Double Island, 281.
Matches, 182, 190, 200, 209, 223, 41 1 ,

501, 647.
Mateer C. W.. 375, .391.
Mats and Matting, 206, 209, 210, 223,
233, 2,34, 235, 412, 498, 648.

,, export of, 412, 648.
Mayers F. \V.. 215, 335, 338, 485,

508, 522, 537.
Meadows T., 214, 374.
Mears W. P., 381.
Mecca, 362.

Medicines, 61, 113, 114, 158, 182, 232,
233, 234, 412, 648.
,, export of, 412, 648.
Medhurst W. H.. 386, 390, 400, 442,

484.
M.ejov. 536.
Mekong R. or Lants'ang-kiang, 16,

94, 179, 180, 182, 183, 544.
Melons, 36, 37, 529.
Mimoires concernant les Chinois, 6,

338, 373, 375, ,379.
, Memorandum on the Missionary

Question, 466.
Mencius or Mengtze, Writings of,

65, 444, 449.
Mergen, 495, 501.

692

Index.

Merit, titles of honour for, 315,
,, hereditary rewards for, .314.
,, decorations for, 315, 31(i.
.\/esn,v \y.. .338.
Metchnikoff, 30, 102.
MetraJ. 404.
Meyners d'Estrey. 118.
Mei Chow (Szechw'an), 10(i.
Mei-kiang (R.), 200.
Meikwan {Phim-tree barrier), 212.
Meiling Pass (Kiangsi), 13, 145, 210.

Range, 205.
Menghwa T'ing, 177,
Mengkiat'un, 498.
M^ngtze (Yiinnan), 181,183,326,477.

Trade of, 421, 655, 656,
Men Chow (Szechw'an), lOR.
Meu dialect (Hainan), 207.
Mexican Dollar, 320.
Mexico, Trade with China, 409, 656.
Miaotao Is., 241, 249, 251, 253-254.
Miaotze (shoots, sons of the soil) or
Yaohu (Jackals), 4, 1.35, 181,
188, 189, 191, 207, .313, 340,
343.
,, habitat of, 135, 181, 188, 207,
340; dialect of, 135.
divisions of, 188. 343.
,, rebelled against China, 188,
462; government of, 313.
Michels, 375.

Michie A., 166, 215, 216, 236, 237,
294, 335, 338, 387, 389, 423, 441,
481, 508, 522.
Middle Dog or Tungk'iienshan Light-
house, 278.
Middle Kingdom or Chungkwoh

(name of China), 6, 57.
Mien Chow (Szechw'an), 106.
Mientien or Burma, 175.
Mienyang Chow, 125.
Military Examinations, 369, 370.

Schools, 369, 505.
Millet, 18, 37, 70, 83, 149, 394, 395,

492, 529.
Millet spirit, 395.
Milne-Edwards. 20.
Milne W. C, 237, 358, 387, 388.
Minche Province (Chekiang and Fo-

kien), 217, 302.
Min Chow (Kansu), 38.
Miner L.. .390.

Minerals, Mineral Wealth of China
Proper, .30, 402-403.
Chekiang, 231; Chihli, 70.
,, Fokien, 222; Honan, 60.

Hunan, 134-135; Hupeh, 125.
,, Kansu, 30; Kiangsi, U3.
,, Kiangsu, 157; Kwangsi, 198,

,, Kwangtung, 206-207: Kwei-

chow, 187.
,, Nganhwei, 149; Shansi, 52.
,, Shantung, 83; Shensi, 42.
,, Szechw'an, 111-112: Yunnan.
180.
Minerals of the Dependencies :
Manchuria, 493.
Mongolia, 515.
Turkestan, 528-529.
,, Tibet, 545.
Ming Dynasty, 71, 112, 150-151, 158,
184, 201, 355, 446, 460-461,
506.
,, founded by Hungwu, 150-151.
184, 201, 460.
Emperors of, 158, 460-461.
,, chai-acter of. 461.
Mingti, Emperor (Later Han), 352,
,363, 452.
,, introduced Buddhism, 352, 452.
Mingti, Emperor (Liusung), 454.
Mingtsung, Emperor (Posterior
T'ang), 457.
,, printing invented under his
reign, 457.
Mining in China, 402-403.

Special regulations adopted
by Government, 403.
Ministere de la Guerre, 87, 102.
Ministries, The Ten (formerly Six)

or Boards, 299.
Min-kiang or Ch'engtu R., 93, 96,

105, 109, 113.
Min-kiang or Foochow River, 19, 170,
218,219, 220,221, 222, 225,
276, 278.
Sketch-map of, 220.
,, Bar of, 278.
Min-shan or Laoling (Mt.), 11, 34,

41, 107, 122.
Mints, 113, 320, 404, 497.
Mirs Bay or Tap'enghai, 281.
Missionaries, Missions to China, 354,
356, 357, 359, 360, 361,384-
390, 461, 462, 464, 465,469.
,, R. Catholic, Statistics of, 356,

357.
,, Protestant, 359-361, 657-658.
Mission (yercais-Courtelleniont, 191.
Mission l.ynnnaise. 118, 137, 165,

191, 192,213, 214, 399, 404.
Missions Beiges de Mnngolie, Journal

des, 40, 520.
Alissions Catholiqiies. Journal des.

192, 213, 235, ,386, 387.
Missions en Chine et au Congo. 386.
Missions-Etrangeres. Annales de la

SocidU des. 173, 193, 213, 386.

INDiEX.

693

.V/)'s.siO)is. lUustrated CathnUc (Lon-
don), H8T.
i/oerman 7'.. 'i(l(l.
.Mogex [del. '(8(i.
-Mohkan-shan, Siuiatorium of ;t'ht'-

kiang), 238.
Moidrei/ (del Pere ./.. Uili, 2".I3.
Moidrev (de) Tardif, 'iT(i.
Mokwri or Evil Spirits. Worship of,

353.
MoUendnif I'oii P. (i.. 88. 37'i, 508.
Momein or Tens^vueh YiinnanK

183.
Mongolia or the Mongkii Country, 5.
7. 11, 14. 2(i. 30, 31, 32' 35.
3(1, ,39. -'i8, 53. ()C, 487. 41t0,
4i»l, 509-522, 523. 531, 5'i8.
Area and Population. 50!l.
Administration, 519.
Aspect and Characteristics,

510.
Climate, 51 4-51 5; Geology,510.
Orographv and Hydrography,

511-514.'
Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth. 515.
People and Language, 515-

516.
Cities and Principal Centres,

517-518.
Industry and Commerce, 518.
Highways of Communication,
518-519; Army, 520.
Mongols, 42, 52, 71, 74, 77, 451, 458,
459-460, 493, 495, 515-516,
517, 518, 519, 520, 532.
,, descend from Huns, 451.
,, various tribes of, 515-516.
,, defeat the Kin Tartars, 458.
,, refuse to withdraw from N.

China, 458.
,, establish the Yilen dynasty,
459.
dethroned by ChuYiJenchang
(Ming), 459.
,. character of, 459-4(i0.
,, language of, 42, 516-517.
,, religion, 516.
Mnnier Williams Sir. 382.
Monkeys in China, 17, 111. 1V.I, 187,

198, 206, 231, 515, 544.
Mannier. 20, 88, 102, 481.
Monod, Wit.

Monsoons, 15, 82, 243-245.
Montercorvino, John of, 354, 472.
Montgomery P.. 377.
Montgomery Martin R.. 378, 389,

399, 400.
Montigny (de) M. C, 422.

Moral Characteri.stics of the Chinese,

341-342.
.Mnriak. 555.
.\[orrison R.. 358, 373, 37(i, 377, 387,

'r82, 555.
Mnr-se li. R.. 33(5, 645, 662.
Morsiehi \V.. 387.
.Uor.ser. 535.

.Moslem, Moslems {.see Mahomedan),
.Mosos orMusus (branch of the Miao-

tze tribe). 181, 345.
Mmde A . !•:., 237. 380, 387.
Mountain, Long White or Ch'ang-

peh-shan, 489, 504, 506.
Mountains of China (.see Orography!,
Mourei/ C. 555.
Muhliiig Mt., 122.
Muirhead W.. 387.
Mukden or Fungt'ien Fu, 461, 462,
470, 487, 488, 497, 501, 503,
504, 505.

,, home of the Manchu or Ta-
ts'ing dynasty, 461, 497.

,, description of, 497.

,, Imperial tombs at, 497.
Mulberry-tree, 18, 42, 157, 394, .395,

397.
Municipal Councils at Treaty Ports,

266-267.
Mura vieff , negotiated treaty of Aigun ,

474-475.
Muret M.. 424.
Murray A.. 480.
Murray's China. 64, 88, 118, 138,165,

192, 193, 213, 214, 216, 236, 237, 335,

374, 378, ,386, 405, 422, 483, 484.
Murui-usu (Yangtze R.), 93.
Mushrooms (found in Hupeh), 125.
Music, invented by Hwangti, 444.
Musk, ,38, 114, 127, 182, 408, 545, 553.
Mussels, 83.
Mussulman Revolts, 31, 183, 362-

363, 523, 532.
Mussulmans, 362-363 {see Mahome-

dans).
Mutan-ho or Peony R., 490.
Muz-Art Pass (T'ien-shan), 526.
Mythological Period, 442-44'i.

Xahk'i hsien, 110.
Xamao or .Nanngao L, 281,
Names given to China, 7, 57, 339.
Namti N'alley (Yunnan), 183.
Xan-Chihli or Southern Chihli. 66

(.see Kiangnani.
Nanch'ang Fu, 140, 142, 143, 434.
Xanch'ao (Nganhwei). 448.
iNanchow I., 290.
Nanchow T'ing, 132.

694

INDEX.

Nan-hai or South-China Sea, 241.
Nanhaitze nr Imperial hunting

ground, 74.
Nanhsiung Chow, 202, 205, 211.
Nan Hwaijen (Chinese name of F.

Verbiest), 355.
Nank'ang Fu, 140, 144.
Nank'ishan Is., 275.
Nank'iao (vulgo N(?ghino), 476.
Nanking nr Kiangning Fu, 101, 139,
151, 153, 154, 157, 158,163,
164, 302, 305, 324, 326, ,329,
333, .334, 354, 458, 459,. 460,
401, 462, 463, 464, 474, 475,
655.
,, Capital of China under the

Ming dynasty, 158, 460.
,, residence of the Liangkiang

Viceroy, 139, 153, 302.
,, description of, 158.
,, taken by the T'aip'ings, 158,

464.
,, Treaty of, 463, 474, 475.
Trade of, 158, 421, 655.
,, Railway to Shanghai, 324, 432-
433.
Xankishan Is., 275.
Nank'ow Pass, 433.
Nankwan Bay (Fokien), 276.
Xanling or Nan-shan (iVIts.), 92, 168.
Xanngan Fu, 140, 142, 212.
Nanngao I. {see Xamao).
Xanning Fu, 172, 195, 197, 199,200,

434, 468.
Nan-shan Range (Kansu), 33, 525,

529, 539.
Xant'ai I. (Fokien), 222, 223.
Nanwang, 429.
Xanya or Lamma Is., 282.
Nanyang Fu, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63.
Napier, Lord, appointed Superinten-
dent of Trade, 474.
,, China refuses to receive him, 474.
,, dies at Macao, 474.
Narzounof, 555.
Naval Schools, 334, 339.
Navigation on the Yangtse, 99-100.

,, on other large rivers, 427.
Navy, Chinese, ,333-3.34.
Nei-ch'^ng or Tartar City (Peking),

71-72 (with plan).
Neikoh or Imperial Chancery, 297.
Xei Mongku or Inner Mongolia, 519,
Nepal (Nepaul), 462, 553, 554.
Nerchinsk, Treaty of, 462, 474.
Nestorian Missionaries enter China,
43, 354, 456, 457.
Tablet at Singan Fu(A.D,781},
354, 457.

Nevius J. L., 378, 379, 382, 388.
New China, Forecast of, 471.
Newchwang or Yingk'ow, 326, 421,
491, 492, 498, 499, 500, 503,
504, 505.
Trade of, 421, 492, 498-499,

655, 656.
Railways to, 431, 432, 503.
yey Elias, .30, 441.
Xgaikiun-ho nr Argun R., 490.
Nganhai (Fokien), 223.
Nganhwa hsien, 134.
Nganhwei Province, 8, 16, 19. 90, 91,
93, 99, 121, 1.39, 140, 146-
152, 153, 156, 234, 459.
Area and Population, 146.
Aspect and Characteristics,

146-147 ; Climate, 147.
Geology, 147 : Orography, 147.
Hydrography, 148-149.
Fauna and Flora, l'i9.
.Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 149.
People and Language, 149-150.
Cities and Principal Centres,

150-151.
Industry and Commerce, 151.
Highways of Communication,

151-152.
Open Ports, 152.
Jsgank'ing Fu, 101. 146, 150, 151,

152, 252.
Nganluh Fu, 121, 124, 1.30.
Nganpien, 110.
Nganshun Fu, 184, 189, 190.
Ngansi Chow (Kansu), 32, 529.
Ngantung(Antung), 327,470,492,505.
Ngaofei rebellion, 463.
Ngaomfen (see Macao).
Xgari or Western Tibet, 545, 549.

,, principal towns of, 549.
Ngeu-kiang or Wu-kiang R., 230,

234, 235.
Ngomei or Omei-shan (Mt.), 109,

117-118.
Nickel (found in Shen^l), 42.
Nicolaievsk, 490.
Nienhao or Reign Title, 296.
Nimrod Bay or Siangshan-kiang, 274.
Ninghsia Fu, 25, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38.
Ninghwak'i R., 220.
Ningkwoh Fu, 146.
Ningpo Fu, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232,
233, 235, 271, 275, 326, 421,
460, 655 ; dialect of, 232.
,, Portuguese at, 460.
,, Trade of, 233, 275, 421, 655.
Xingpo Point or Kitao, 273.
Ningtu Chow, 140.

INDEX.

695

Ninguta (Kirin), 491, 496, 506.
Xingwu Fu, 48.
Xingyilen Fu, 106, 116.
Niulan-ho (R.), 178.
Niushan-tao or Turnabout Light-
house, 278.
Xiut'u-shan (Mt.), 34.
Nivet Point, 290.
Xonni or Xuen-kiang R., 488, 490,

496.
Xorman F. M.. 214, 293.
Xorman H.. 166, 193, 215, 216, 293,

336, 338, 485.
Sorth-China Herald. 380, 383, 422.
Norway, Treaty with China, 475,
Trade with China, 410, 646.

,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653.

,, Traders and Trading Houses,
420, 654.
.Nuns, Buddhist, 353.
Xurhach'ih, settles in Liaotung, 461.

,, captures Mukden, 461.

,, defeats the Chinese Army, 461.
Xyang-chu River, 550.

Oak-tree, leaves of, eaten by wild silk-
worm, 83, 397, 492.
Oases (in Turkestan), 529, 534.
Obruchef, 521, 536.
Observatory, Hongkong, 285.

Sicawei, 162, 355.
Ockseu or Taokweisil Lighthouse,

278.
Odontius L.. 380,.
Odoric, Friar, 472, 552.
Officials, nine degrees of established,
444.
,, insignia of, 314.
Ogawa, .508.
Ohsson (d') C, 520.
Oil, native, how obtained, 395.
Okhotsk, Sea of, 240.
Oksu or Aksu, 524, 531.
Oldenberg, 381.

Olen-Darba Pass fS. Altai), 511.
Oliphant L., 480.
Oliphant X., 481.
Omei Mt. or Ngoraei-shan, 109, 117-

118.
Onager or "Wild-ass, 17, 515, 544.
Onon River, 513.

Opium, Cultivation of native, 36, 37,
38, 42, 44, 52, 60, 62, 83, 111,
113, 114, 115, 149, 182, 187,
189, 190, 198, 221, 225, 231,
323-324, 395, 396, 492.
,, estimated amount produced,
234.

,, number smoking, 396.

,, Revenue derived from, 321.

,, Foreign Trade in, 410, 411, 414,
646, 650.

,, Various kinds imported, 'il4,
650,

,, Importation into the principal
Ports, 414, 650.

,, Edict suppressing, 396-397,471.
Oranges, 18, HI, 134, 234, 235, 398.
Ordos Country, 26, 509, 514.

,, Plateau, 25, 26, 40, 513, 514.
Orgo (see Urga).
Origin of the Chinese people, 4, 338.

Books on, 370-371.
Oring-nor Lake, 25.
Oi-khon River, 511.
Orleans (d'). Prince Henri. 191, 192,

535.
Ullone fd'). 338, 378, 382, 383, 391.
Orlov, 507.

Orphanage (T'ientsin) destroyed, 465.
Osborne, Captain, 465.
Ouchterlony, Sir J., 480.
Ouigurs, (Huns), 450.
Oustalet. 20.
Owen G.. 378.
Oxenhain. 20.
Oysters, 83, 231.

Pacific Ocean, orl'aip'ing-yang, 239,
241.

Pagoda Anchorage or Losingt'ah,
221, 223, 226, 279.
,, Island, 279.

Pahk'i or Country of the Eight Ban-
ners (Manchuria), 486-487.

Pahlik'iao, Battle of, 475.

Pahsheng or Council of the Gentry
(Ch'ungk'ing), 112.

Pahtah-ho (R.), 170, 172, 179.

P'aiwei or Ancestral tablet, 353.

Pakhoi or Peh-hai, 198, 210-211, 212,
291-292, 421, 655.
Trade of,21 0,291-292, 421, 655.

Pakngai or Pohai, 172-173, 197.

Palaces at Peking, 74, 329.

Palatre, P'ere G., 165, 386.

Paleologue, 404.

Palisade, The, or Liuch'cng, 504.

Palladius, 384.

Palm-tree, 18, 180, 187, 198, 206, 393,
397.

Palmer, 293.

Palmer. G. B., 337,

Palti Lake or Yamdok-tso, Yum-tso,
543, 544.

Pamirs, 472, 525.

P'ankeng, Emperor (Yin), 448.

696

INDEX.

P'anku or the Chinese Adam, 443.

Pangkung Lake, 543.

Pangpan or Deputy-Assistant Judge,
311.

Panshen Lama {see Lama).

Panthay rebellion {sec Mahomedan).

Panther, 149, 180, 198, 492.

Pao or T'u (M^ard), 309.

Paoch'ang or Tipao (Rural Cons-
table), 309.

Paok'ing Fu (Hunan), 131.

Paoning Fu !Szech\v'aii), 106, 110,
112, 116.

Paoteh Chow, 50.

Paoting Fu (Chihli), 05, 05, 75, 78.

Papaw-tree, 198.

Paper, materials for making, 395.
,, manufacturing centres, 54, 110,

144, 151, 189, 190, 210, 222,
225.

,, import of, 411, 647.
Paracels or 1's'ihchow Is., 283.
Park, Imperial hunting. 74.
Park W. H.. 401.
Parker E. H., 88, 118, 137, 105, 213.

215, 192, 236, 335, 338, 370, 378, 380,

391, 400, 423, 441, 480, 484, 507,

521, 537.
Parker Islands or Pahkohlieh-tao,

273.
Pass, Chehling, 12. 1 37, 212 ; Kalgan.
29.

,, Kiayfl, 29; Kweiling, 12.

,, Lagiobo, 33-34: Meiling, 13,

145, 212.

,, Xanyang Fu, 03; Shanghai-
kwan, 2'J.

,, Sinyang Chow, 122.

,, Ytomen, 29, 515; Yiiling, 13,
Passes of the Great Wall, 29.
Passes in Turkestan. 526,
Pat'ang or Bat'ang (see Bat'ang),
Paternal Authority, 311.
Patung, 96,
Pauli D., 338,
Pauthier, 6, 373, 374, 378, 381, 383,

479.
Pavie A., 555.

Peach, 18, 37, 83, 157, 187, 198, 398.
Peak, Hongkong, 285.
Pear, Pear-tree, 18, 36, 37, 83, 398,493.
Pearl I. or Ylih-tao, 261.
Pearl or West River (see West R.).
Pedro Blanco or T'aising-tsan, 282,
Peh-ho R, (in Chihli), 15, 19, 23, 51,
62, 69-70, 75, 78, 129, 250,
251, 252,

,, Sketch-map of Lower, 250,

,, Bar at mouth of, 252.

Peh-ho R, (in Honan), 59, 124.
Peh-hwa or Colloquial Cantonese,

207,
Peh-kiang R, (Kwangtung), 172, 173,

202, 203, 204-205, 210, 211, 212,
Pehkishan Is., 275,
Pehlien-k'iao or White Lily Society,

459, 463,
Pehliu hsien, 198,
Pehluh-tung or Grotto of the White

Deer, 145.
Pehmatung (Kweichow), 187.
Pehmeh Lake, 82.

Pehp'ing-yang or Arctic Ocean, 239.
Pehseh T'ing, 172, 195, 197, 200.
Peh-shan Mt., 489, 490, 525, 529.
Peh-shui (Yangtze R.), 93, 110.
Pehtaiho (Chihli), 77.
Peht'ang, Port of, 252,
Peht'ang Cathedral Peking), 73, 469.
Pehting or Dodd I,, 278,
Pehtseng (Kweichow), 186.
Pehtsienshan or Bonham I., 273,
Peh Wang or White Prince, 345,
Pehyushan Lighthouse, 249, 275,
Pei-Chihli (Peh-Chihli), 60,
Pei-liii or Forest of Slabs (Singan

Fu), 43,
Peisson Z.. 381.

Peking or Shunt'ien Fu, 60, 08, 71-
75, 77, 78, 86, 129, 203, 329,
330, 331, 354, 355, 363, 365,
3(i7. 369, 458-459, 400, 461,
462, 463, 464, 468, 469, 472,
473, 474, 475, 477, 506, 549,
550, 555, 559-560,
,, Approaches to (sketch-map).

68,
,, Description and Plan of, 71-75.
,, Ministries and Boards, 74, 279-

301.
,, Railway to Hank'ow, 102. 431.
,, assieged by Boxers, 469.
Pelacot (del 481.
PeUiot P.. 481, 535.
Pemberton R., 557.
Penal Code, mitigated bj" Wenti,
451.
., completed under the Han
dynasty, 452 ; the Ming
dynasty, 460.
Pine-Siefert, 370.
Peony R. or Hurka (see Hurka).
Percival, 102.
Perestrello, Raphael, 473.
Persia, Persian, 472, 414-650.
Persimmon or Lichi, 18, 198, 221,
393, 398.
I Pescadores Islands, 245, 468.

INDEX.

697

PetiUon, Pere C, 377.
Petunao)-Sinch'eng(Kirin Province),

496, 501.
Pfister. Pere I... 386.
Phari or Phari-jung (Tibet), 551.
Pheasant, 17.
Philip. 424.
Philip R.. 387.

Philips G.. 236, 423, 482, 483.
Phonetic, 350.
Physical Characteristics of the

Chinese, 340-341.
Piaokioh or Cape Good Hope Light-
house, 283.
Pichon, 191.
Picul or Shih, 234, 414, 415, 416, 417,

643, 650, 652.
Piece-goods, Import of, 410, 413,

647, 649.
Pieper, 88.
Pierre. Pere A.. 105.
Pigott F. T., 485.
Pihtsieh hsien, 189, 190.
Pila. 88.

Pilcher L. W., 391.
Pilten Lake, 491.
Pine-apple, 6, 198, 206, 398.
Ping Chow, 39, 44.
P'inghsiang hsien (Hunan), 135.
P'ingliang Fu, 32, 45.
Pingloh Fu, 195.

P'ingshan hsien, 94, 95, 100, 113.
P'ingsi Wang (title given to Wu

Sankwei;, 461.
Pingti, last Emperor of S. Sung, 458.
P'ingting Chow, 50, 54.
P'ingyang Fu, (Shansi), 48, 51, 53,

55, 444.
P'ingyang hsien (Chekiang), 231.
P'ingyao hsien, 54.
P'ingyueh Chow, 185.
Pinon R.. 20, 165, 214, 422, 441, 448.
Piolet. Pere J. B.. 386.
Pip'a or Biwa (vulgo bibo), 35, 398

(see Loquatj.
Pir or Buir Lake, 4'Jl.
Piracy, Pirates on Coast of China,

266, 459, 460, 461-462, 463.
Piry A. T., 375, 442, 661.
Pisani. 386, 387.
Pisciculture in China, 17, 398.
Piton C, 215, .H73, 387.
Plains of China, 13-14, 25, 113.
Plan-Carpin. 521.
Plants of China (.sec Flora).

,, cultivated for food, 394-395.

,, utilized in industry, 395-397.
Plateau.\ or Tablelands of China,
11-12, 13, 21,40,41,49,50,

92, 98, 174, 178, 181, 185,
186, 190, 196.
,, of the Dependencies, 509, 511,
512, 513, 514, 525, 539-541.
Platli. 507.

Play fair G. ^J .. 335, 372, 482.
Plum-tree, Plums, 18, 36, 83, 187,

198, 398, 493.
Poh (Honan), 447, 448.
Poh Chow, 151.

Poh-hai, 239, 241, 251, 253, 489.
Pohseh [see Pehseh T'ing).
Pohshan hsien (Shantung), 83, 84,86.
Poletti P., 376.
Police, 299, 311, 312.
Pol Korigan. 371, 405.
Pollard S., 192.
Pongee or wild-silk tissue, 83, 190,

415, 651.
Ponies, Kweichow, 187, 398.
,, Mongolian, 77, 518, 534.
,, Szechw'an, 111, 398.
Ponteves (de), 481.
P'ook'ow (P'uk'ow), 151.
P'ootung (East of the Hwangp'oo),
266, 271.
Point, 97, 261, 263.
Poppy-plant or Opium poppy, 36,
37, 42, 60, 83, 113, 149, 187, 189,
198, 221, 231, 395, 396-397, 492,
(see Opium).
Population of China, Statistics of,
5, 8, 345-346. (see each Pro-
vince).
,, of the Open Ports, 420-421,
646-647.
Porcelain, manufacture of, 43, 91,
141, 144, 209, 210, 404.
export of, 412, 532, 648.
Port, Establishment of, 249.
Port Arthur or Lilshun-k'ow, 467,

468, 470, 477, 492, 499-500, 503.
Ports of Call, 130, 152, 212.
Ports, Treaty or Open, List of, 326-

327, 420-421, 654-655.
Portugal, relations with China, 460,
473, 475.
Macao ceded to, 213, 287-289.
(see JMacao).
,, Population at Shanghai, 207.
,, 'Irade with China, 410, 646.
Post-Office, Imperial Chinese, 325,
435-437, 661-552.
,, Statistics of Establishments
and Work, 435, 437, 661.
Postal Highways or Government

Courier Roads, 426-427.
Postal Service via Kalgan (Russian),
519.

46

698

INDEX.

Potala or Dalai Lama's Palace (Lha-
sa), 552.

Potanin, 46, 512, 536.

Pourias, Mgr., 191, 386.

P'oyang Lake (Kiangsi), 16, 91, 97,
141, 142, 143, 145.

Pozdneef, 521.

Pratt A. E., 507, 556.

Prandi, 385.

Praya-Grande (Macao), 289.

Pre-chinese Races, 339, 340, 342-345.

Prefect, Authority and Duties of, 307.

Prefectures or Fus, 306-308.
,, List of, 558-639.

Prejevalski N., 46, 521, 536, 555.

Prejevalski Mts., 541.

Primare (de), Pere J. M., 385.

Preston T. J., 138.

Primorsk, Province of, 487.

Prinsep H. T., 555.

Printing from blocks invented under
Mingtsung (A. D. 932.), 457.

Protestant Missions to China, 358-
361.
,, Statistics of, 359, 360-361, 657-
658.

Protet, Admiral, 476.

Provinces of China, Names of, 8, 304.
,, Territorial divisions of, 306-
309.

Provincial Government, 301-303, 305-
313.
,, Army or Luhying, 330-331,

333.
,, Examiners or Hsiohcheng,
367.

Pryer W. B., 166.

P'uchow Fu, (Shansi), 48, 55.

P'ueul Fu (Yunnan), 177, 183.
,, Tea, 180, 395.

Puini, Carlo, 556.

Pumpelly R., 6, 9, 405.

P'ungan T'ing (Kweichow), 185.

Put'ing or Police Sub-prefect, 311.

Putnam Weale, 423, 485, 508.

P'utsun, Prince, chosen as Heir-
apparent, 468; degraded, 468.

P'utu-ho (R.), 180.

Pyevtsoff, 521.

Quemoy or Kinmen Island, 278.
Queue, origin of, 461.
Quicksilver, 187, 190, 403, 545.

Rabot C, 555.
Raboinn, Pere P., 377.
Race, Chinese, origin of, 339.
Races, Aboriginal, inhabiting China,
313, 339-340, 342-345, 371-373.

Radicals or Key-words in the Chinese

language, 350.
Railways in China, 29, 55, 61, 62, 63,
70, 73, 75, 84, 86, 117, 127,
159, 179, 183, 212, 430-435.

,, completed, projected, 431-434.

,, in Manchuria(with plan), 502-
504.
Raisins, 52, 83, 532.
Raja, Darma, (Bhutan), 554.

„ Deb, 554.
Ramie fibre (Boehmeria nivea), 111,

206, 395.
Rank, Insignia of Official, 314.
Rapids, Han-ho; 41, 123.

,, Hwang-ho,24;Kan-kiang,142.

, , Peh-kiang, 205; Si-kiang, 197 .

,, Tze-kiang, 133; Wu-kiang,
111.
Yangtze, 95, 96, 99, 100, 117,
128.

,, Yuh-kiang, 197 ; Yilen-kiang,
186.
Raquez, 165, 193, 214.
Rathouis, Pere C, 400.
Ratzel, 20.
Raulin, 20.

Ravenstein E. G., 508.
Raverty H. G., 536.
Rawling C. G., 556.
Reau, 423.

Reclus E., 20, 506, 520, 535.
Recorder, Chinese, 370, 379, 380, 381,

388, 390, 392, and passim.
Red Basin, 106, 107, 109.
Re-exports, 412-413, 649.
Reform Edicts, 468, 477.
Regent's Sword or Laotieh-shan, 253.
Reid G., 481.
Reid J. M., 388.
Religions in China, 350-363.

Books on, 377-390.
Reinusat. 375, 536.
Rennie D. F., 480.
Repository, Chinese, 371, and passim.
Reptiles found in China, 17, 142, 198,

206, 515.
Retail Trade of China, 407.
Revenue of China, Extent of, 321.

,, Sources of, 321-324.
Review, China, 215, 216, 380, 383,

385, and passim.
Reville A., 377.
Revolt, T'aip'ing (see T'aip'ing).

Mahomedan, 362-363.
Reinte Frangaise d' Exploration. 192.
Rey, 377.

Reynaud, Mgr.. .385.
Rhinoceros, 198.

INDBX.

699

Rhins (de) et Grenard, 555.
Rho, Fr. James, 355.
Rhododendron, 111, 231.
Rhubarb, 36, 111, 113,394, 544, 553.
Rhys Davids T. W.. 382.
Riault, 404.

Ricci, Fr. Matthew, enters China,
354 ; settles in Peking, 355.
,, wins by science favour of the

Learned, 355.
,, converts Su Kwangk'i, 355.
Riee, 37, 42, 52, 75, 78, 83, 125, 127,
141, 149, 150, 160, 198, 206,
210, 221, 223, 231, 233, 393,
394.395.
,, Import of, 411, 647.
Rice-spirit or Samshu, 233, 408, 498.
Richard T.. 359, 382, 389, 390.
Richthofen. 6, 9, 46, 49. 64, 81, 88, 118,

138, 165, 405.
Rigaudiere (La) or Nanchow L, 290.
Rijnhart S. C. 556.
Rise and Progress of the Chinese
Empire, *43-478.
., Books on, 479-485.
Rites, Board of, or Li Pu, 299.
Rivers of China {see Hydrography).
Road of the Golden Ox, 45, 117.
Roads, Character of Chinese, 425, 427.

,, Government Postal, 426-427.
Robertson D. B., 400.
Roberovski, 536.
Rochechouart (de). 88.
Rocher L., 138, 191, 235, 375.
Rock-crystal, 125, 545.
Rockhill W. W., 46, 63, 483, 521, 556.
Rock-salt, 529.
Rohrbacher, 384, 386.
Roman Catholic Missions, Statistics

of, 356.^57, 384-387.
Roman Empire, Trade of China

with, 472.
Rondot ?f., 422.
Rosny (de) L., 381, 481.
Ross J., 507.
itostftorri! (von), 400.
Rouen (de), R.P. Victor Bemar din.

386.
Roufart, 30.

Round L or Weichow, 262.
Rousset, 46, 63, 137, 216, 235.
Rouvier, 191.
Roux^ 191.
Roy J. J., 386.
Royal Asiatic Society, North-China

Branch, 2\dr, 214, and passim.
Rubruquis, "William of, 354.
Rudock or Lotok'oh (W.Tibet), 549.
Rugged Is. or Yaagsban, 273.

Ruggieri Fr., enters China, 461.

Russel C, 508.

Russia, Relations with China, 462,

463, 465, 474-475, 476-477.
,, occupies and retrocedes Hi, 465,

476, 477, 533.
,, protests against occupation of

Manchuria by Japan, 468,

499.
, , carries Siberian railway through

N. Manchuria, 468.
,, leases Port Arthur, 468, 477,499.
,, occupies Manchuria during

Boxer crisis, 470.
,, war with Japan, 470,486,500.
,, transfers Port Arthur and ad-
joining territory to Japan,

470.
,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
,, Consumption of tea, 417, 652.
,, Trading Houses and Traders in

China, 420, 654.
,, Population at Shanghai, 266.
, , Shipping and To nnage , 41 8 , 653 .
,, Postal Service via Kiakhta, 519.
Ryder C. H.. 192, 556.

Sacred Edict of Yungcheng, 462.

,, Mountains, 13.
Sacrifice at the tomb of Confucius,

451.
Sacrificial Court or T'aich'ang Sze

(Peking), 301.
Saddle Is. or Mangan-tao, 273.
.Sai, Si or Li tribe, 344-345.
Sainte Foi (de) C. 385.
Sairam-Nor Lake, 528.
Sair-Usu (Mongolia), 518.
Sakhalin-ula or Am.ur R., 489.

,, Village, 494.
Sakya-Muni, 547.
Salle (de la) G., 507.
Salmon, excellent caught in Sungari

R., 492.

Salt, 42, 62, 75, 91, 111, 112, 114, 115,

157, 163, 180, 207, 222, 231, 322,

40>3, 515, 518, 545, 553.

Mines, 180; Wells, 1 1 2, 114, 115.

extracted from sea- water, 157,

163, 207, 222, 231.
Comptroller, 303, 306.
Government monopoly of, 75,

163, 322.
Tax, 321, 322.
Salt Lake or Luts'un, 52.
Salween R. or Lu-kiang, 16, 179.
Samsa (Sansha) Bay (with plan),
2i7e, 277.
,, Islamds, 277-278.

700:

INDEX.

Samshu (Saiichao=t]irice distilled)

or Rice-spirit, 498 {see Rice-spirit,

"Vodka").
Samsui (Sanshui), 210, 212.

,, Trade of, 421, 655.
Sancian or S' John's I., 282.
San Hwang o'r the Three Founders

of the Empire, 444.
San-kiao or the Three Doctrines

(Religions), 350.
Sankioh, 173, 186, 189.
San-kwoh or the Three Kingdoms,

453.
Sanmfin Bay, 274, 275.
Sanscrit, 548.
Sanshih-shan (three-stone Mt.) or

Sharp Peak, 224.
Sanshui hsien, 204, 205, 210.
Sansing, 490, 496.
Santuao (Santungao), 226, 278.

,, Trade of, 421, 655.
Sandstone, 3, 57 (see Geology).
Sangkan-ho or Yen-ho, Yungting-ho

(R.), 70.
Sangkeu-k'ow Bay, 254.
Sarat Chandra Das., 556.
Savage Landor A. H., 556.
Sayan or Saiansk Mts., 511, 512.
Schall Von Bell, Fr. A. or Tang

Johwang (Jesuit Missionary), 355,

362.
Schaeffer K. £,., 215, 373.
Schefer. 481.
Schmidt C, 166, 385.
Schools, Grades of, 368.

,, Government, 369.

,, Private, 369-370.
Schrceeter, 213.
Schumacher,- 173.
Schuyler E., 536.
Sculfort, 336.

Seas of the China Coast, 239-242.
Secret Societies, 459.
Secretaries or Siaokiunki (Peking
Boards), 297.

,, or Shiy6 (Provincial), 311.
Secretary for Foreign Affairs (Tibet)

or Its'ing, 545, 546.
Selbi River, 517.
Selenga River, 511.
Semedo A., 385.
Semipalatinsk, 509.
Senart, 535.

Sera Monastery (Lhasa), 552.
Sesamum, 18, 70, 113, 127, 158, 412,

492, 648.
Settle E., 480.
Settlements, Foreign, in China, 75,

1 27, 150, 159, 1 60-1 62, 209, 222, 223,

266-267, 474, 496, 497 (see Treaty
or Open Ports).
Seymour, Admiral, 469.
Shamanism, 353, 494, 516.
Shameen (Shamien), 209.
Shamo (Gobi Desert), 508.
Shan-Alan Mt., 489.
Shan or Pai-i Tribes, 188, 199,

343.
Shanhaikwan, 77, 252, 431, 487, 504.

Pass, 29.
Shansi Province, 3, 8, 11, 13, 15,
18, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30,
39, 42, 47, 48-55, 56, 62, 66,
67.
,, Area and Population, 8, 48.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,
50; Climate, 51.
Geology, 49, 50 (with sketch-
map of loess plateau) .
,, Orography, 50; Hydrography,

51 ; Fauna and Flora, 52.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

^Vealth, 52.
,, People and Language, 52.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

52-54.
,, Industry and Commerce, 54.
,, Highways of Communication,

44-55.
,, Historical .Note, 55.
Shantan Mts., 33.
Shant'eu or Swatow (see Swatow).
Shantung Province, 3, 8, 9, 13, 16,
18, 22, 26, 27, 56, 64, 66,
79-87, 105, 253-260.
,, Area and Population, 8, 79.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

80; Climate, 82.
,, Geology, 80-81 (with sketch-
map).
,, Orography, 80; Hydrography,

82; Fauna and Flora, 83.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

AVealth, 83.
,, People and Language, 83.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

83-86.
,, Industry and Commerce, 86.
, , Highways of Communication ,

86; Open Ports, 87.
,, Coast-line, 253-260 (with
sketch-maps of Chefoo,
Weihaiwei and Kiaochow
Bays).
,, Historical Notes, 87.
Shang Chow, 39.
Shang Dynasty, 446, 448.
,, Cause of downfall, 448.

INDEX.

701

Shanghai, 14, 15, 85, 86, 91, 98, 101,
127, 143,155, 157,159, 160-
162, 163, 164,232,235,261,
263, 266-271, 275, 318, 320,
327, 334, 348, 355, 359, 369,
414, 416,421, 437,438,650.

Historical sketch of, 266.

Description of, 160-162 {with
plan), 266-271.

River of, 155, 261, 263, 264,
266, 270, 660-661.

Foreign population, 271.

Industries and Manufactures,

268, 404.
Trade and Commerce, 162,268-

269, 416, 417, 419, 421, 655.
Shipping and Tonnage, 269-

271.
Distance of river-ports from,

101.
Dialect, books for learning,
348, 377.
Shangsze T'ing, 195.
Shangtu (Chihli), 77.
ShaochovvFu(Kwangtung), 202, 205,

206, 210, 211.
Shaohao, Emperor, 444.

,, established the nine grades
of Officials, 444.
Shaohsiang-shan (Hills), 159-160.
Shaohsing Fu (Chekiang), 227, 230,

232, 233, 272, 476.
Shaoti, Emperor (Liusung), 454.
Shaowu Fu (Fokien), 218.
Shaowuk'i R., 220.
■ Shara-Muren (Liao-ho), 488, 491 , 513,
Sharp Peak or Sanshihshan, 224, 439.
Shashi (Shasi), 1 28, 130, 134, 327, 656.

,, Trade of, 421, 655.
Shasho I. (Chekiang), 249.
Shaio R,, 536.

Shaweishan Lighthouse, 263.
Shayang (Hupeh), 124.
Sheffield D., 380.
Shek'i chen (Honan), 62.
She-shan (vulgo Zosai) 160.
Shen Chow (Chihli), 67.
Shen Chow (Honan), 56, 63.
Shen-kan (Shensi and Kansu), 31,

37, 302. .
Shennung, Emperor, 444.
Shensi Province, 3, 8, 13, 19, 22, 30,
31, 32, 34, 39-46,47,48, 105,
121, 123, 130.
,, Area and Population, 8, 39.
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 39-

40; Climate, 41.
,, Geology, 40; Orography, 40-41.
,, Hydrography, 41-42.

,, Fauna and Flora, 42.

,, .Agricultural and Mineral

AVealth, 42.
,, People and Language, 42.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

43-44.
, , Industry and Commerce, 44-45.
,, Highways of Communication,
45.
Sh^ntsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.
ShSng or Provinces, 7, 301,459,461.
Sh^ngking, Province of (Manchuria),
487.
,, Cities and Towns of, 497-501.
Shi Hwangti, 29, 43, 450.
Shigatse (Tibet), 550.
Shilka R., 490, 513.
Shimonoseki Treaty, 468.
Shinan Fu (Hupeh), 121.
Shitsu, first Emperor of the Yuen
dynasty, 428, 459.
,, persecuted Taoism, 459.
,, failed in expedition against
Japan, 459.
Shih-ho (R.), 02.
Shih Kingt'ang, Emperor (Posterior

Tsin), 457.
Shih K'ofah, 461.
Shih Pu 0)- Ten Boards, 299.
Shihchu T'ing, 100.
Shihlung (Kwangtung), 210.
Shihpah-t'an (Eighteen rapids), 142.
Shihpeishan or Breaker Point, 283.
Shihp'oo (Shihp'u) T'ing, 274, 275.
Shihpuhtsui, Coal-mine of, 54.
Shihtao-k'ow Bay, 254.
Shihts'ien Fu, 184, 187.
Shishiklik Pass (Pamirs), 526.
Shohp'ing Fu (Shansi), 48, 55.
Sholtagh, 520.
Shrimp, 17, 83.

Sliufu hsien or Kashgar (see Kashgar) .
Shuh Kingdom, 340, 453.
Shuhshan Bay, 254.
Shuichow Fu, 140.
Shuik'ow (Fokien), 221.
Shuleh Fu (Turkestan), 524.
Shun, Emperor, 87, 339, 444, 445,
448.
,, Prince, 406, 467.
Shunchi, first Emperor of the Ta-

ts'ing dynasty, 461.
Shunk'ing Fu (Szechw'an), 106, 110,

116, 117.
Shunning Fu (Yiinnan), 17-7.
Shunteh Fu (Chihli), 67.
Shunti, last Emperor of the Yilen

or Mongol dynasty, 459.
Shunt'ien Fu or Peking (see Peking).

702

INDEX.

Siakas (Silk'ias) or Suk'ohs, 222.
Siam, trade with China, 4tO, 646.

„ Chinese in, 478.
Siang-kiang (R.), 97, 120, 131, 132-

133i 135, 197.
Siangshan-kiang or Nimrod Bay,

274-275.
Siangt'an hsien, 133, 134, 135, 136,

137.
Siangyang Fu (Hupeh), 59, 121, 123,

124, 129, 130, 455, 458.
Siangyin hsien, 133, 136.
Siaokweishan or Steep I., 273.
Siaosin, Emperor (Yin), 448.
Siao Taoch'eng or Kaoti, 454.
Siaots'ing-ho (R.), 82.
Siaowut'ai-shan, 67,
Siaoyen or Wuti (Emperor), 454-455.
Siberia, 187, 490.
Siberian Railway, 468.
Sicawei College, Industrial Scliool,
369.
,, Observatory, 162, 243, 246,
355.
Sifans (Aboriginal tribes), 106, 112,

339, 345.
Sih Chow (Shansi), 50.
Sihsiang hsien (Shensi), 44.
Sihu or "West Lake, 232.
Si-kiang or West R., 15, 170, 196-

197, 204-205, 209.
Sik'ing-shan (Mt.), 34, 35, 92.
Singan Fu, 34, 39 43, 44, 45, 61. 451,
456, 469.
Monument, 43, 354, 457, 472,
Sining Fu (Kansu), 32, 37, 38, 547,

548.
Sining-ho (R.), 25, 35.
Sip'ing hsien, 63.
Siwantze, 515.

Silk, where found, 42, 43, 54, 60, 62,
S3, 84, 91, 111, 114, 116, 127,
129, 141, 144, 151, 158, 159,
162, 163, 189, 190, 209, 210,
222, 223, 225, 397-398, 498, 530,
534.
,, Export of, 127, 160, 209, 415-416,
651 ; Filatures, 404.
Silkworm, 18, 159, 180, 206, 207, 394,
397, 416, 444, 534 (see Mulberry).
Silsby J. A., 377.
Silver, 36, 60, 83, 111, 135,136, 149,

180, 198, 206, 222, 303, 493.
Sinhsiang hsien, 63,
Sinkiang or Chinese Turkestan (see

Turkestan).
Sinmin Fu (Sh^ngking), 487, 491.
Sint'an or Sinlungt'an, 96.
Sdnyang Chow, 59, 62, 63, 12a, 148.

Sirr H. C, 371, 373, 377, 385, 399,

400.
Sis or Sais (Hainan), 207.
Sites M. L., 391.
Siuwu hsien, 59.

Skins, 44, 53, 54, 75, 78, 113, 114, 498,
501, 532, 545.
,, Export of, 412, 648.
Smith A. H., 371, 390, 391, 399, 481.
Smith G., 383, 387.
Smith S. P.. 336.
Smith W. L., 441.
Soap Factory, 144, 163.
Soapstone, 84.
Sodium Carbonate. 53.
Songkoi or Red R., 98, 179.
Sonnerat M., 482.
Soochow Creek or Woosung R., 98,

266.
Soochow Fu (Kiangsu), 153, 156, 159,
164, 271, 458, 465.
Trade of, 421, 655.
Soothill W. E., 376.
Sorghum or Kaoliang, 60, 71, 83, 149.
492.
., Distilleries of, 495, 496, 501.
Soulie, 520, 522.

Spain, Relations with China, 461,
473, 476.
,, Trade with Amoy, 473.
,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
,, Trade with China, 41 0-, 646.
,, Traders and Trading Houses

in China, 346, 420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,653.
Spanish Dollar or Carolus, 319.
Specht. 535.
Speer W., 482.
Spence Hardy R., 382.
Spheres of Interest, Policy of, 468.
Spirits, Worship of, 353, 494.
Star-aniseed, 198, 200, 210.
Staunton, Sir G. 2\, 335, 484, 536.
Staunton I. or Sushan-tao, 255.
Steamship Companies tracing on the
Yangtze, 100-101, 44«i.
,, Sailing to or from China, 439-
440.
Steel-works, 91, 127, 404.
Steep I. or Siaokweishan, 273.
Stein M. A., 536.
Stent G., 376.

Stepanof, massacre of, 474.
Stewart-Lockhart. 373.
Stock E., 388.

Stoneware, 75, 209, 495, 553.
Stooke G. E., 103.
Stove-beds or K'angs, 23, 91.
Strachey H., 555.

INDEX.

703

Strauss 1... 399, 405.
Strawberries, 36,187.
Straw-braid, where produced, 86,
114, 257.
Export of, 257, 412, 648.
Straw-shoes, 44.
Stuhlmann P., 138.
Style, Aacient and Literary, H'l".
Sub-prefectures ; Districts) or Hsiens,
307, 308, 309, 311, 312.
. , Administrati\'e Bureau of,'M 1 .
List of, 558-585, 591-639.
Successor to Throne, 296.
Su Chow (Kansu), 32, 33, 37.
Suh Chow (Nganhwei), 151.
Suchow Fu (Kiangsu , 86, 153, 156,
163, 164.
,, or Suifu (Szechw'ani, 93, 94,
96, 98, 100, 106, 110, 114,
117.
Suenhwa Fu (Chihli), 66, 77, 78.
Suess, 6, 535.

Sugar, 111 , 114, 115, 1 1 6, 150, 200, 225.

,, Import of, 127, 136, 144, 151,

160, 223, 232, 233, 234, 411,

498, 501, 532, 534, 647.

,, Export and re-export, 397, 412-

413, 532, 648-649.

Sugar-cane or Kanchc, 18, 113, 180,

198, 206, 221, 224, 231, 394, 397.
Sugar refinery, 211, 286, 397, 404.
Sui dynasty (short-lived), 455.
Sukiahwei (see Sicawei).
Su Kwangki (Paul), Hanlin Doctor

converted by Fr. Ricci, 355, 400.
Sulphur, 53, 54, 135, 187, 528.
Sumatra, Kerosene from, 411, 647.
Summer Palace or Yuenming-yiien,

74.
Summers J., 480.
Sunchow Fu i'Kwangsi), 172, 195.
Sung dynasty or Liusung, 454.
Sung dynasty, Xorthern, 144,457-458.
Southern, 235, 458.
,, general character of, 459.
Sungari or Milky R., 490, 'i92. 493,

495, 496.
Sungaria, 524, 525, 531-532.
Sungkiang Fu iKiangsu), 153, 155,
159-160, 465.
Dialect of, 198, .H48.
,, Books for learning, 377.
Sunglo tea jXganhwei;, 149.
Sungp'an T'ing, 106, 109, 113.
Sung-shan (Honan), 13, 57, 61.
Sungtao 'I'ing, 185.
Supremacy, Universal, ussumed by

China, 463, 471.
Sutlej River, 544.

Sutras or Buddhist Literature, 452,

472.
Sutsung, Emperor (r'ang), 456.
Sijyung-ho (R,), 110.
Suyung T'lng, 106, 110.
Sven Hedin. 40, 535, 536, 556.
Svnboda, 235.

Swatow or Shant'eu (Kwangtung),
206, 210, 211, 212, 284,291.
Trade of, 421, 655.
,, Dialect of, 207, 348, 376.
,, Bay and Lighthouses, 281,
283.
Sweden, Relations with China, 474,
475.
,, Trade with China, 410, 646.
, , Traders and 'Trading Houses,

420, 654.
,, Shipping and Tonnage, 418,
653-654.
Sioinhoe R., 20, 215, 373, 480.
Sycee or Ingots of uncoined silver

(Bullion), 317.
Syria or Tats'in, 472.
Syro-Uigur origin of Mongol Alph-
abet, 516.
Szech'eng Fu (Kwangsi), 195.
Sze Chow (Nganhwei), 146.
Szechow Fu (Kweichow), 184.
Szechw'an Province, 3,4,8, 9, 12, 13,
14,18, 41, 44, 91,94,95,99,
101, 102, 104-119, 131, 175,
184, 186, 187, 188, 191.
,, Area and Population, 8, 105.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

106; Climate, 109.
,, Geology, 106-107; Orography,
107-109 (with sketch-map).
Hydrography, 109-110.
,, Fauna and Flora, 111.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 111-112.
,, People and Language, 112.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,
112-116 (with plan of
Ch'ungk'ing).
,, Industry and Commerce, 116.
,, Highways of Communication,

116-117.
,, (Jpen Ports, 117.
,, Historical iXotes, 117-118.
Szechw'an Alps, 107, 112.
Sze Machao (General of Wei King-
dom), 453.
,, Makwang, 458.
,, Mats'ien, 453.
,, May^n (Founder of W. Tsini,
453.
Szeniao (Esmok), 182, 183, 477.

704

INDEX.

,, Trade of, 421, 655.
Szenan Fu (Kweichow), 184, 186.
Szengen Fu (Kwangsi), 195.
Szeshui hsien (Honan), 60.
Sze-Tao or Four High Officials, 306.

Tablelands {see Plateaux).
Tablet, Nestorian, 43, 354.
Tach'ih or Gutzlaff I., 263.
Tael or Chinese ounce-weight, 316.

,, Various kinds of, 317-318.

,, Gold equivalent of Haikwan
(1870-1906), 319.
T'ahch'^ngT'ing or Tarbagatai, 524.
T'ai Chow (Shansi), 50.
T'aichow Bay, 274.
T'aichow Fu (Chekiang), 227, 230,

275.
T'aihang-shan (Mt.), 57.
T'aihu or Great Lake, 91, 97, 98, 155,

156, 159, 231.
T'aihu hsien, 151.
T'aingan Fu (Shantung), 79, 86.
Taipa Island, 288.
T'aip'ing Canal (connecting P'oyang

Lake with Yangtze-kiang) , 134.
T'aip'ing Fu (Kwangsi), 195.

,, (Nganhwei), 146, 150.
T'aip'ing Rebellion, 30, 47, 84, 139,

143, 144, 149, 158, 159, 217, 228,

231 , 232, 322, 345, 404, 463, 464-465,

475-476.
T'aip'ing-yang or Pacific Ocean, 239.
Tairen or Dalny, 470, 492, 500-501,505.
T'ai-shan (Shantung), 13, 79,80, 87.
T'aitan 1. (Fokien), 278.
T'aits'ang Chow, 154.
T'aits'ing-chen or Pedro Blanco, 282.
T'aitsu, Emperor (Posterior Liang),

457.
T'aitsu, Kao Hwaugti or T'ienming

(Liao Tartars), 506,
T'aitsu, Wen Hwangti or T'ientsung

(Liao Tartars), 506.
T'aitsung, Emperor (T'ang), 456.

,, crushed Turcomans, 456.

,, failed against Tibet, Korea, 456.

,, admired Confucius, 456.

,, Xestorians settle in China, 456-
457.

,, Mahomedans enter China, 456-
457.
Taitsung, Emperor (T'ang), 456.
T'aitsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 457-

458; unsuccessful aganst K'itans,

457; honoured descendants of Con-
fucius, 458.
T'aiwan or Formosa, ceded to Japan,

468.

T'aiytten Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 52-53,

55; Missionaries massacred at, 469;

Railway to, 433.
Ta-kiang (Yangtze-kiang), 93.
Takioht'eu (Takiohtau), 286.
Takla-makan Desert, 530.
Taku, Taku Forts, 78, 252, 464, 469,

477.
Talai T'ing (Manchuria), 488.
Talien, Talienwan, 470, 477, 491, 500-

501 {see Dalny, Tairen).
Tali Fu (Yunnan), 177, 179, 181, 183,

345, 363; Massacre of 363.
Talki Pass (Hi), 526.
Tallow-tree or Kilentze-shu, 18, 111,

187, 231, 394, 397.
Taming Fu (Chihli), 67.
T'ang dynasty, 344, 354, 455, 456-457.
,, founded by Liyiien, 455.
,, Emperors of, 456.
,, general character of, 457.
T'ang-jen(MenofT'ang=Cantonese),

457.
T'ang Johwang (Chinese name of

Fr. Adam Schall), 355.
Tangut, Tanguts or Fantze (N. E.

Tibet), 36, 458, 520, 547 {see Hsia

Kingdom).
T'an-kiang (R.), 59, 124, 129.
T'ang-ho (R.), 59, 62, 124.
Tangla Pass, 551.

T'angku (at mouth of Peh-ho), 431.
Tanyang hsien, 467.
Tao or Province (T'ang dynasty),

456, 471.
Tao divisions or Circuits, 306.
Taot'ai, 307.
T'ao-ho (R.), 25, 35.
Taoism (doctrine of the Right Way),

350, 351, 352, 459.
Taok'ow chen, 59, 63, 432.
Taokwang, Emperor (Tats'ing), 463.

,, hated Foreigners, 463.

,, first war with England, 463.

,, character of, 463.
T'aouan Fu (Shtogking), 487.
Tapa-shan or K'iut'iao-shan (Mt.),

95, 106, 107, 122.
Tapeh-shan (Mt.), 40.
Tap'finghai or Mirs Bay, 281, 284.
Tap'ingtu (Kweichow), 110, 186.
Tarbagatai or T'ahch'eng T'ing, 474,

524.
Tarchendo (see Tatsienlu).
Tarim River, 527, 528, 529.
Tartar, Tartars, 460, 451, 453, 454,
459, 461, 515.

,, Fish-skin, 493, 496.

,, Kin, 71, 458,

INDSX.

705

„ K'itan, 451, 455, 456, 457, 458.
,, T'oba (Wei Kingdom), 453,

454, 455.
,, Northern Mongols so called,
515.
Tartar City (Peking), 71.
Tartar-General or Tsiangkiln, 320,
504, 505, 533.
,, abolished in Manchuria, 486,

505.
,, Garrisons, 329, 330.
Tasagtu-Bogdo (S. Altai), 511,
Tasha or Grand sand-bank (at mouth

of Yangtze R.), 262.
Tash-Davan Pass (K'uenlun), 526.
Tashik'iao Junction, 503.
Tashi Lama (see Lama).
Tashilumbo Monastery, 550.
Tasmania, 239.
Tasushan or Lantao I., 282.
Tating Fu, 184, 190.
Tatsienlu or Tarchendo , 107 , 1 1 3-11 4,

117.
Tats'in (Syria), 472.
Tats'ing or Manchu dynasty, 355,
461-471, 506.
,, Events and Rulers of, 461-471.
Tatsung Lake (Kiangsu), 156.
Tatu-ho (R.) 109.
Tat'ung (Nganhwei), 152.
Tat'ung Fu (Shansi), 48, 51, 53.
Tat'ung-ho, 25, 34, 35.
Tat'ung Mountains, 34, 35.
Taw^n-ho (R.), 82, 429.
Tax, Taxes, various kinds of, 321-
324.
,, Inland on Foreign imports or
Likin, 470 (see Likin).
Taxation, attempts to change method

of, 458.
Taylor G., 373.

Tayu-ling (Mts), 92, 219, 228, 232.
Tchang (Chang), Pere M., 479.
Tchang Tche-tong (Chang Chitung,

Viceroy of Hukwang), 390, 391.

Tea, cultivation of, 91, 111, 113, 120,

127, 132, 134, 141, 143, 144,

146, 149, 180, 182, 187, 206,

221 , 225, 231, 232-233, 395-396.

,, origin of word, 226.

,, general beverage of Chinese,

395.
,, Various kinds of, 396,416,651.
,, chief export places, 395, 417.
,, Value of export, 412, 41G, 648,

651.
,, Quantity of export, 416, 417,
652.
Tea-merchants (Fang family), 408.

Teh Chow (Shantung), 86.
Tehchow or Sugar-loaf Lighthouse,

283.
Tehk'ing Chow (Kwangtung), 212.
Tehngan Fu (Hupeh), 121,
Telegraphs, Imperial, of China, 437-
438.
,, other Lines and Companies,
438-439.
Temple of Heaven, 73, 74.

,, of Ancestors or Tz'et'ang, 353,
,, of Agriculture, 73, 74.
Temple, Sir R., 423, 485,
Temur or Ch'engtsung, Emperor,

(Yuen), 459,
T^ngchow Fu (Shantung), 79, 83, 84,

86, 87, 255, 256.
Tenghiz Lake or Bagrach-Kul, 528.
Tengri-nor Lake, 543.
T'^ngyiieh T'ing or Momein, 182,

183; Trade of, 421, 655.
Tenney CD., 391.
Terek-Davan (Pass), 526, 534.
Terrien de Lacouperie, 336, 370, 479.
Territorial divisions of China, Statis-
tics of, 312.
Tes River (Mongolia), 511.
Tewchews (Hoklos so called in the

Straits), 344,
Textile Plants, 395.
Thelwall A, S., 401.
Thomas St., 354.
Thomson J., 399, 400.
Thomson and Johnson, 388.
Thornton T.. 479.

Tibet, Bodgul or Sitsang, 93, 104,
105, 182, 117, 456, 462, 523,
538-557.
,, Area and Population, S38.
,, General Aspect, 539; Climate,

541-542; Geology, 539.
,, Orography, 539-541 (with

sketch-plan).
,, Hydrography, 542-544 (with

sketch-map); Lakes, 543.
,, Fauna and Flora, 544.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 544-545.
,, People and Races, 547.
,, Towns and Principal Centres,

549-553.
,, Industry and Commerce, 553.
,, Highways of Communication,

553-554.
,, Open Trade-marts, 554.
,, Government and Administra-
tive divisions, 545-547.
,, Kingdom of Tibet,545-546.
,, ,, Kuku-JNfor, 547.

47

706

INDBX.

,, Religion, 547-548; Language,

548-549.
,, Taxation,tribute, currency, 549.
,, Armj, 549; British Expedition

to Lhasa, 839, 554-55S.
,, Anglo-Tibetan Convention, 555.
Tibetan, Tibetans, 106, 1 1 2, 182, 456,

547, 548, 550, 551, 552.
Tibetan Plateau, 94.
Tides or Haich'ao (sea-flow), 249,
252, 255, 263-264, 272, 273,
278-280, 283, 291.
,, importance of for navigation,
249.
where highest, 249.
peculiarities of on coast of

Tongking, 249.
at Taku Bar, 252.
at Stauntoh I. (Shantung), 255.
at mouth of Yangtze and at

Shanghai, 263-264.
in Hangchow Bay, 272.
on coast of Chfikiang, 273.
at Foochow (Pagoda Anchor-
age), 278-280.
on coast of Kwangtung, 283.
at Kwangchow-wan, 291.
Tifehling (Manchuria), 506.
T'ienchu-kiao or Roman Catholic

Religion, 353-354.
Tieuhu Lake (Yunnan), 179-180.
T'ienming or T'aitsu Kao Hwangti

(Liao Tartars), 506.
T'ienmuh-shan (Heaven's Eye Mt.),

229.
T'iensha-ling Pass, 45.
T'ien-shan or Celestial Mts., 33, 477,
510, 524-525, 526, 528, 531.
,, Nanlu or Circuit S. of the

T'ien-shan, 521.
,, PehluorCircuitN.oftheT'ien-
shan, 524.
T'ient'ai-shan (Mt.), 228.
T'ientsin Fu, 62, 66, 69, 70, 75, 76,
78, 86, 252, 260, 464,465, 469,
479, 477.
,, Description and sketch-map

of, 75-76.
,, Massacre of, 465, 476,
,, Treaties of, 464, 468.
,, Railway to Peking, 430-431;
Shanhaikwan, 431 ; Ch^n-
kiang, 434.
,, Trade of, 421, 655.
T'ientsung or T'aitsung "W§n

Hwangti (Liao Tartars), 506.
Tiessen, 6, 20.

Tiger I. or Hushan (Ningpo), 273.
,, (at mouth of Pearl R.), 286.

Tiger Head Bay or Hut'eu, 277.
Titsingh, Isaac, 473.
Tih-hwa Fu or Urumtsi, 524.
Ti-hwang or cumfrey (Honan), 61.
Tillot M., 336, 405, 422.
Timber, 111, 129, 134, 150, 182, 188,

190, 200, 223, 225, 234, 235, 491,

518.
Time-zones of the- China Coast, 292.
Tin, 60, 180, 182, 207, 211,233,403,

412, 648.
Tin-ware, 44, 233.
Ting, Admiral, 467.
Ting Chow (Chihli), 67.
T'ingchow Fu (Fokien), 218.
Tinghai T'ing (Chusan Is.), 228, 234,

273, 474.
Tipao (Chinese Bailiff or Rural Cons-
table), 309.

,, character and duties of, 310.
Title of Reign or Nienhao, 296.
Titles of Honour for Merit or Fung-

ts6ng, 315.
T'oba Tartars, 454 (see AVei King-
dom).
Tobacco, cultivation of, 37, 38, 42, 52,
86,113,114,116,127,134,144,
180, 182, 1 87, 206, 209, 223, 394,
492, 495, 496.

,, Export of, 412, 648.
Tohar, Pere J., 64, 383, 390.
Tola or Urga River, 511, 517.
Toleration, Edict of, 463, 464, 475.
Tomsk, Province of, 509.
Tonga or Friendly Is., 240.
Tongking, 172, 174, 181, 460, 467.

,, Vassal of China (Ming), 460.

,, annexed by France, 467, 477.

,, boundary delimited, 477.
Tongking, Gulf of, 16, 249.
Tour (de), Francisco, 552.
Tower Hill, Beacon of, 255.
Townships or Sze, 309.
Trade of China, domestic, 407-408.
(see Industry and Commerce
for each Province).

,, Foreign, 408-422, 64S-656.

,, Statistical Tables of Exports
and Imports,41 0-41 7, 646-652.

,, Books and Publications on,
422-424.
Trade-routes to Western countries,

534-535.
Trans-Altai Mts., 525.
Transbaikal Province, Transbaikalia,

487, 509.
Transit Dues (see Likin).
Transmigration of Souls, 353.
Trappists in China, 357.

IMOBI.

707

Travellers, Famous, to and from

China, 472.
Treasurer, Provincial or Fant'ai,306.
Treaties with China, 463, 464, 468,
470, 474, 475, 476.

,, Aigun, 474; Kuldja, 460, 474.

,, Livadia and St. Petersburgh,
467,476-477; Nerchinsk, 474.

,, Nanking, 359, 463, 464, 474, 475.

,, T'ientsin, 464, 466.

,, Shimonoseki, 468, 499.

,, Commercial with G. Britain,
the U. States and Japan, 470,
477; with Portugal, 477-478.
Treaty or Open Ports, List of, 326-

327.
Trees of China, 18, 397-398 (.see Flora).
Tribes (see Aboriginal Races).

,, Manchu, 493.

,, Mongol, 519-520.

,, Tibetan, 547.
Tribute (see Tax, Taxation).

,, Fleet, 430.

,, Rice, 330 ; Taot'ai, 430.

,, from Tibet, 549.
Tsaidam, 513, 538, 542, 553.
Tsangpo or Brahmaputra R., 544.
Ts'angwu "Wang, Emperor (Liu-
sung), 454.
Ts'aochow Fu (Shantung), 79.
Ts'aofeitien or Shalutien I., 251.
Ts'aoyun Tsungtuh or Director-
General of Grain Transport, 430.
Tschepe, Pere A., 89, 165, 479.
Tsehchow Fu (Shansil, 48, 51, 54, 55.
Tseng Kwohfan, subdues Mussulman

revolt, 363.
Tsdng, Marquis, 477.
Tstog-shui or Peh-kiang (R.), 205.
Ts'i dynasty (short-lived), 454.
Ts'i, Feudal State, conquered by

Ts'in, 450.
Tsitsihar, 495.

Tsiao-kiang or T'aichow R., 230.
Ts'ien (Mace) or 35 of Tael, 316 (see

Cash).
Ts'ienkieng hsien (Kwangsi), 197.
Ts'ient'ang-kiang or Hangchow R.,

170, 227, 229-230, 232, 234, 235, 272.
Ts'in Chow (Kansu), 32, 38.
Ts'in Chow (Shansi), 50.
Ts'in dynasty (B. C. 249-206), 339,

344, 450-451.
Tsin dynasty (A.D. 265-420), 453-454.
Ts'in-ho (R.), 27, 51, 59.
Ts'inlin Mts, 26, 40, 41, 42, 45, 92.
Ts'in State (Feudal), 117, 450.

,, Name given to China, 7.
Tsinshi or L. L. D. Graduate, 365.

Ts'in Shi Hwangti, 340, 450,451.

Ts'inwang-tao, 78, 252.
,, Trade of, 421, 655.

Ts'ingchow Fu (Shantung), 79, 84.

Ts'inghai or Kuku-NorLake,25,543.

Ts'ingho hsien, 162-163.

Tsingho T'ing (Sinkiang), 524.

Ts'inghwa ch^n (Honan), 61.

Ts'ingkiangp'oo, 162, 164,428,429.

Ts'ingk'ow, Port of, 261.

Ts'ingp'u hsien, 465.

Ts'ingshui (R.), 133.

Ts'ingshui Lake, 82.

Ts'ingsil Island, 279.

Ts'ingtao (Green I), 85 (with sketch-
plan of Port), 86, 87, 258-260 (with
plan of Kiao Chow Bay), 421-422,
468, 477 (see Kiao Chow).

Ts'ingyuen-ho (R.), 70.

Tso-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 197,198.

Tsop'oo (Tsop'u) or Chap'u, 272.

Tso Tsungt'ang, 31, 45, 363, 535.

Ts'uenchow Fu (Fokien), 218, 223,
226, 460, 473.
,, Bay of, 277.

Tsungli YamSn, 296, 298, 469.

Ts'ungming (Ch'ungming) I., 97,
157-158, 262, 263, 271.

Tsunhwa Chow (Chihli), 67.

Tsuni Fu (Kweichow), 184, 189,190.

Tsushima Channel, 470.

T'uhai-ho (R.), 82.

T'umto River, 491.

Tungan, Tungani revolt, 362-363.

Tungch'ang Fu (Shantung), 79.

T'ungch'eng hsien, 151.

T'ungchi, Emperor (Tats'ing), 464-
466.

T'ung Chow (Chihli), 69, 74, 78.

T'ung Chow (Kiangsu), 154, 162.

T'ungchow Fu (Shensj), 39, 43, 55.

Tungchow Kiiin, abdication of, 450.

T'ungchw'an Fu (Szechw'an), 106,
110, 116.

Tungchw'an Fu (Yunnan), 175, 181,
183.

Tunghaks or Tungkiaos, 467.

Tung-hai or Eastern China Sea, 241,.

Tunghai or Amphitrite I., 290.

Tunghwui-ho (R.), 71.

Tungkas or Tungkias (boat-popul-
ation. Canton), 207, 222.

Tungkadoo (Suburb of native city,
Shanghai), 760.

Tung-kiang (R.), 172, 173, 204, 205-
206.

Tungkiangtze (Shtogking), 506.

T'ungkiohtze or Ten-cash piece, 320,

Tungku, 78, 252.

708

INDEX.

Tungk'iienshan or Middle Dog Light-
house, 278.
T'ungkwan hsien, 43, 45, 55.

,, Pass, 26, 27, 39.
T'ungngan hsien, 224.
Tungsan Sheng or the Three Eastern

Provinces (Manchuria), 486.
Tungshi or Village Elder, 309.

,, Duties of, 310.
Tungting or Chapel I., 278.
Tungt'ing Lake, 91, 94, 97, 121,131,

133-134.
Tunguses(Tartars),451, 493,494, 506.
,, Ancestorsof theManchus, 451,
493, 506.
Tungyung I. and Lighthouse, 278.
Turbets (Mongol tribe), 520.
Turcomans, 456.
Turfan, 524, 531, 534.
Turfan-Daria or Turfan R., 528.
Turguts (Mongol tribe), 515, 520.
Turkestan, Chinese, or the New
Dominion (Sinkiang), 4, 5,
32, 38, 338, 362, 465, 472,
474, 509, 523-537.
,, Various names given to, 522.
,, Area and Population, 5, 523.
,, Administration of, 533-534.
,, Aspect and Characteristics,

524-525.
,, Climate, 526-527; Geology,525.
,, Orography, 525 ; Depressions,

Passes, 526.
,, Hydrography, 527-528.
,, Fauna and Flora, 528.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 528-529.
,, Regions and Chief Towns, 529-

533.
,, Industry and Commerce, 534.
,, Highways of Communication,

534-535.
,, People and Races, 533.
,, Religion, 533; Language (with

specimen of writing), 533.
,, Historical iS'ote, 535.
Turkis, 36, 515.
Turks, Hunnish origin of, 451.
Turley R. T., 507, 508.
Turnabout or Niushan-tao Light-
house, 278.
Turner J. A., 216, 389.
Turner F. S., 400.
Turner S., 555.

Tuscarora Depression (East of Ja-
pan), 239-240.
Tussah or wild silk, 492.
Tuyiin Fu (Kweichow), 184, 190.
Typhoons (Paofung), 245-246,285, 291.

, , Hongkong often visited by, 285.
Tze Chow (Szechw'an), 106.
Tze-ho (R.), 70.
Tze-kiang (R.), 133.
Tzekin ch'eng or Red Forbidden

City (Peking), 71.
Tzeliu-tsing (salt-well), 112, 114.
Tz'ehsi, Empress-Dowager, 464, 466,

468 (see T'ungchi, Kwangsu).

Ubsa-Nor Lake, 511.

Uch-Turfan or TVushih T'ing, 524,

528, 531.
Ulan-Muren or Tat'ung-ho, 25, 35.
Uliasut'ai (Mongolia), 518.
Ulukem River, 511.
Umbrellas, Paper, or Kittysols, 158,

223, 234.
United-States, Relations with China,
470, 474, 477.

,, Trade with China, 409, 411,
646; Kerosene, 411, 647.

,, Tea, 417, 652.

,, Trading Houses and Traders
in China, 420, 64f .

,, Shipping andTonnage, 41 8,653.

,, Population at Shanghai, 267.
University, Aurora (Sicawei), .369.

,, Peking, 367, 369.

,, conducted by Protestants, 369.
Ural-Altai language, 516.
Urat country, 514.
Urga or K'urun (Mongolia), 53, 78,
514, 515, 516, 517, 548, 550,
554.

,, River or Tola, 511.
Urumtsi or Tih-hwa Fu, 363, 524,

526, 531, 532, 533, 534.
Ussuri River, 475, 489, 490.
Uyfalvy, 536.

Vale J., 118.

A'alignani, Fr. A., enters China, 461.
Vallee-Poussin (de la), 381.
^'^alley, Chumbi, 551.

,, Han-ho, 104, 125; Hwai-ho, 90.

,, Kan-kiang, 140, 145; Lei-ho,
137, Namti, 183.

,, Songkoi, 98; Yangtze, 57, 90-
92, 99.
Van Hraam, 473.
Vannutelli, 237.
Variites Sinologiques, 335, 338.
Varnish, varnish-tree (T'ungtzeshu),

45, 111, 187, 190, 231, 394, .397.
Vaulserre (de). 102, 191.
Vay de Vaya, 508.
Venault, 507.
Venioukov, 500.

INDEX.

7or

Verbiest Fr. or Nan Hwaijen (Jesuit

Astronomer at Peking), 355.
Verrolles, 506.
Vial, Pere, 191.

Viceroys in China, 301, 303, 305.
Vigneron, 118, 386.
Village or hsiang, 641.

,, Elder, 309-310 (see Tungshi).
Villard (de) A., 102.
Vincentians (see Lazarists).
Vine-tree or P'ut'ao-shu, 398.
Vineyards, 493.
Vitale et de Sercey, 522.
Vladimir, 481.
Vladivostock, 468, 475, 490.
"Vodka" or millet-spirit, 495, 496.

(see Sorghum).
Voisin M., 399.
Volcanic action, 3, 53, 154.
Volcano I. or Sushan (Chekiang),

273.
Voyron, General, 481.

Waddel L. A.. 382, 556.
Wade, Sir T., 375, 476.
Waglan or Hunglan I., 283.
W^aiwu Pu or Ministry of Foreign

Affairs, 298, 464, 469.
Wai-ch'eng or Chinese City (Peking),

72.
Wall, Great, 28-29, 55, 69, 450, 459,

460.
Walnut, 18, 36, 398, 492.
Wan hsien (Szechw'an), 95, 115, 435,

470.
Wanlih, Emperor (Ming), 461.
Wang Chungyu, 390.
Wang Mang (Usurper at close of

Later Han), 452.
Wang Nganshih (Social reformer),

458.
Wanghsia, Treaty of (United States),

475.
Wanshow-k'iao (Bridge of ten thou-
sand years, Foochow), 222.
War, Wars, first with England, 463.

,, second with England, 464, 475-
476.

,, with France, 467, 477.

,, with Japan, 467-468, 477.
Ward, military leader, 159, 465, 476.
Ware J., 380.
Wameck G., 387.
^Vater-buffalo, 17, 111, 114, 157, 198,

394, 398.
Water-lily, 232.

Waterways, 427-430 (see Hydrogra-
phy)-
Wathen W. H., 536.

Waiters T., 380.

"Wax-insect, wax-tree, vegetable-wax,

45, 111, 114, 116, 182, 187.
Weale, Putnam, 423, 485, 508.
Webster J., 390.
"Weddel, Capitain, 474.
Weihaiwei, 85, 87, 257-258 (with
plan), 468, 477.

, , leased to Great Britain, 87, 468,
477.

,, description of, 257-258.
"Wei-ho (Shensi), 26, 35, 39, 41-42, 44.
(Honan), 59,61, 62,63,69,82.
^Vei hsien (Shantung), 83, 85-86,87.
^Veihwui Fu (Honan), 56, 59, 63.
Wei-i or Outer Barbarians (Forei-
gners thus called by Emperor

Taokwang), 463.
Wei Kingdom (T'oba Tartars), 453,

454.
Weinan hsien (Shensi), 44.
^Vei-shan (Mt.), 68-69.

,, Lake (Shantung), 82.
Welby M. S., 566.
Wells, Salt [see Salt).
WSnchang or Literary Essay, 365.
Wen Ching, 389.

W^nchow Fu (Ch^kiang), 225, 227,
230, 232, 234, 235, 275, 476.

,, Trade of, 234, 421, 655.

,, Dialect, books for learning, 232,
348, 377.
W^nchow Bay, 274.
Wen-ho (R.), 429.
Wensuh Fu or Aksu, 524.
Wenti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.

,, Emperor (Liusung), 454.

,, Emperor (Sui), 455.
Wen AVang (Chow), 449.
Werner, 387.
'West River or Si-kiang, 15, 186-187,

196-197, 204-205, 206.
WeurZesse G., 292', 404, 481.
Whangpoa or Hwampu (Hwangpu),
209, 212, 213, 287.

,, Treaty of, with France, 475.
Wheat, 37, 180, 187, 206, 221, 231,

394, 528, 529, 544.
Wheelbarrow for travelling, 102, 527.
AVhite Dog I., 278.
White Lily Society or Pehlien-kiaO,

459, 463.
Wholesale Trade of China, carried

on by Guilds, 407-408.
Wieger, Pere L., 6, 479.
Wig ham, 508.
Wilcox M. C, 236.
Williams, Wells, 6, 64, 88, 118, 138,

165, 173, and passim.

710

mpKX.

Williamson A., 30, 63, 88, 4Q&, 441,

507, 521.
Wilson A., 481, 556.
Wine, 395, 445 ; its use forbidden

in early times, 445.
Windt (de), 521.
Wingate A. \Y., 138, 507, 521.
Winterhotham, 88, 118, 138, 165, 192

213, 236, and passim.
Wolff, 521.
Wolseley G. J„ 480.
Wood, Lieutenant, 389.
Waodbridge S. I., 138.
"Wood-oil, 187, 268.
"Wool, sheep, 38, 7&, 78, 113, 114,
268, 412, 648.

,, camel, 75, 78.
"Woollen Goods, 54, 136, 158, 182, 190,

200, 209, 210, 232, 223, 268, 285-286,

287, 410, 413, 530, 550,553, 646,
"Woosung Railway, 430, 432.

,, Bars, 264r265, 270, 659-660.
"Worship of Ancestors, 353, 494.

,, of Heaven and parth, 353, 378,
379.

,, of Evil spirits, 353, 548.

,, of Mountains and Rivers, 353,
494.
"Wuch'ang Fti (Hupeh), 120, 121, 125

(with sketch-plan).
AVuch'ang T'ing (Manchuria), 487.
WuchowFu(Kwangsi), 172, 195,197,
200, 327.

,, Trade of, 421, 655.
"Wuchw'an hsien (Kweichow), 187.
"Wuhsueh (Hupeh), 130.
"Wuhu hsien (Nganhwei), 91, 101,
150, 151, 151, 461.

,, Trade of, 150, 421, 655, 656.
Wu-kiang (Crow River), 186, 191.
"Wii Kingdom, 159, 340, 453.
"Wu Sankwei (called in Manchus),

461, 462, 506.
"Wushih T'ing (see Ucli-Turfan).
"Wusih hsien (Kiangsu), 159, 467.
"Wutai or the Five Ephemeral Dy-
nasties, 457.
"Wut'ai-shan (Mt.), 50, 52.
"Wutang-shan (Mt.), 122.
"Wuti, Emperor (Former Han), 451.

,, defeats Huns, 451.

,, added Fokien, Kwangtung, Sze-
chw'an and Liaotung to
Crown, 451.
"Wuti, Emperor (Tsin), 453.

,, defeats W^u Kingdom, 453.

,, his end, 453.
"Wuti, Emperor (Liusung), 454.
Wuti, Emperor (Liang), 45S.

,, defeated at Swngyang, 455,
,, enters Buddhist mojigistery,
455.

"Wuti, Emperor (Ch'en), 455.

"VN^uting Chow (Yunnan), 177.
,, Fu (Shantung), 79.

Wuting Pass, 41, 45, 107,

"Wutsung, Emperor (T'ang), 354,456.
,, persecuted Buddhism, 456.
,, banished Nestorians, 354.

"Wu Wang, Founder of Chow dy-
nasty, 448, 449.

Wylie A., 383, 388, 507.

Xavier, St. Francis, dies at Sancian,
282, 354.

YachowFu(Szechw'an), 105,109, 114.
Ya-ho (R.), 109.
Yahluh-kiang(YaluR.), 490,491, 503.

,, Naval battle of, 468.
Yalung-kiang(R.), 95, 105, 109,178.
Yak or grunting ox of Tibet, 17,

111, 114, 528, 544, 553, 554.
Yakub Beg, 535.
Yamdok Tso or Yumtso (Lake Palti) ,

543.
Yamfin, 75, 313.
Yangcheng-shan, 57.
Yangchow Fu (Kiangsu), 94, 153,

155, 163, 455.
Yangi-hissar or YingkihshaeulT'ing,

524, 531.
Yangkiang T'ing, 203.
Yangkien, Founder of the Sui

dynasty, 455.
Yang Kingdom, 94.
Yangkingpang Creek (Shanghai), 266.
Yangti, Emperor (Sui), 455.
Yangtze-kiang, IS, 92, 93-100, 101-
103, 120, 123, 154,155,262-263.

,, rise and course of, 15, 93-99.

,, various names of, 93-94.

,, rapids, 95, 96, 99, 100, 128.

,, drainage area of, 99.

,, channels at mouth of, 262-263.

,, Navigation of, 99-100.

,, Steamboat Companies trading
on, 110, 440.
Yangtze Cape, 261.

,, Sand-bank or Tasta, 262.

,, Valley, 57, 90, 93, 99, 101.
Yang Yuhk'o (General), 363.
Yanianghsiai or Anungkoy, 286.
Yao, Emperor, 53, 55, 339, 444-445,

448.
Yao tribe or Yaahus (Jackals), 135,

207, 232, 344.
Yap (Caroline Is.), 439.

INDEX.

7H

Yarkand or Soch'e Fu, 362, 476, 524,

527, 528, 530, 531, 535.
Yarn, Foreign, import of, 413, 444,

649.
Yatung or Nadong (Tibet), 551.
Yellow Caps (Tibet), 547.

,, earth (see Loes lands).

,, River 0?- Hwang-ho (sec Hwang-
ho); Race, 341.

,j Sea or Hwang-hai, 240, 241.
Yench'feng hsien, 63.
Yenchow Fu, 79, 86, 87.
Yenesei R., 511.
Yen-bo (Yungting-ho, Sangkan-ho)

River, 70.
Y6nki Fu (sec Katashar).
Yanking or Peking, 71.
Yenmen Kwan or Pass, 29, 55.
Yenngan Fu (Shensi), 39.
Yent'ai or Chefoo, 84, 85, 256.
Yent'ai mines (SMngking), 503.
Yenti, one of the Five Sovereigns,

444.
Yen W. W., 392.
YSn Wang or Prince of Yen (see

Yungloh).
Yin dynasty, 448.
Ying Chow Fu, 146, 149, 151.
Yingkihshaeul T'ing {see Yangi-

hissat).
Yingk'ow T'ing (see Newchwang).
Yin-shan (Mt.), 509, 513.
Yingtsung, Emperor (N. Sung), 458.
Yiuyang Chow, 106.
Yohchow Fu (Hunan), 131, 132, 136,

137 ; Trade of, 421, 655.
Young, 387.

Young China, Education of, 370.
Younghusband, Sir F., 508, 537, 557.
Yu, Emperor, the Great, 445.
Yu-ho (R.), 59.
Yah or Pearl Island, 261.
Yu-Hsien, 469.
Yuh-kiang (R.), 170-172, 197.
Yuhlin Chow (Kwangsi), 195, 198.
Yulin Fu (Shensi), 39, 44.
Yuhmen or Jadestone Gate, 529.
Yu Wang, Emperor (Chow), 449.
Yueh Kingdom, 340.
YUenchow Fu, 131, 135, 137.
Yuen-kiang (R.), 97, 111, 133.
Yuenming-yiien or Summer Palace,

74, 475.
Yuen or Mongol dynasty, 428, 459.
460 ; Emperors of, 459.
general character of, 459-460.

Yuen Shik'ai, 333.
Yiienyang Fu (Hupeh), 121, 124.
Yule. 522.
Yule H., 384, 482.
Yiln-ho (see Grand Canal).
Yilnkwei (Yunnan , Kweichow) , Vice-
royalty of, 174, 303.
Yilnnan Province, 4, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15,
16, 98, 99, 101, 105, 174-183,
184, 190, 195, 200, 313, ,340,
345, 362-363, 465.
,, Area and Population, 175.
,, Aspect and Characteristics, 177,
,, Climate, 178 ; Geology, 177.
,, Otography, 178 (with sketch-
plan); Hydrography, 178-179.
Lakes, 179-180.
,, Fauna and Flora, 180.
,, Agricultural and Mineral

Wealth, 180.
,, Cities and Principal Centres,

181-182.
,, Industry and Commerce, 182.
,, Highways of Communication,

182-183 : Open Marts, 183.
,, Historical Note, 183.
Ytinnan Fu, 175, 181.
Yungch'ang Fu, 177, 183.
Yuiigch'^ng, Emperor (tats'ing),
462.
,, hostile to Christianity, 462.
,, hated Foreigners, 462.
Yungch'eng Bay (Shantung), 254.
Yungchow Fu (Hunan), 131.
Yungch'un Chow (Fokien), 218.
Yung-kiang or Ningpo R., 198, 230.
Yungloh, Emperor (Ming), 71, 460.
Yungpeh T'ing, 95, 177.
Yungp'ing Fu, 66, 70, 77, 78.
Yungshun Fu, 131.
Yungsui T'ing, 132.
Yungting-ho_(R.), 70.
Yungtseh hsien, 63.

Zaitun, 223, 472 (see Ts'uenchow Fu,

Fokien).
Zebu or humped ox, 17, 143, 157.
Zi (Su), P'ere E., 390.
Zikas or Silkias (savage tribe of Ch^-

kiang), 232.
Zikawei (see Sicawei).
Zilling-tso Lake, 543.
Zinc, 125, 135, 180, 187, 403.
Zoology (see Fauna).
Zosai (Sh^-shan), 160.
Zottoli, Pere A., 375.

COREIGBNDA.

Page 4 line 1 4 for way

22 , , inhabitants of China
the first Chinese in-
habitants
25,317,820
alluvion
whith
ihe
bear
gerboa
pit-coat
1830

Leangchow
P'ingleang
Estingol
Minchow
Soeiteh
Chang Chow
Chenchow Fu
Shenchow Fu
Leao dynasty

1341

removed

Pushan

Hsiichow

K'weichow "Fu

Timere quired

Aseries

500

Hingi Fu

tabacco

Tengyueh

Musulman

N. E.

Kweicohw

N. W.

Hwahsing

Leaotung

Leao-ho

E

entranc

1 ) 1 1 1

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8 ,

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M

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!, 30 ,

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,, 31 ,

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» » ff )

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, 15 ,,

,, 264 ,

, 31 ,,

,, 275 ,

, 21 ,,

read away.

Chinese'Settlers.
Aboriginal races

of China.
25,316,820.
alluvium .
with,
the
boar
jerboa
pit-coal.
1850

Liangchow.
P'ingliang.
Etsingol.
Min Chow.
Suiteh.
Shang Chow.
Ch'enchow Fu
Shen Chow
Liao Tartars or

K'ltans
1368.

resolved to remove
Pohshan
Slichow.
Kw'eichow Fu
Time required
A series.
3,500
Hsing-i Fu
tobacco.
T'engyiieh.
Mussulman.
N. W.
Kweichow
N. E.
Hsinghwa
Liaotung
Liao-ho.
W.
entrance.

CORHIGBNDA.

713

Page 295 line 1 for economical read economic

, 299 ,

1 18 ,

, Yiichw'an ^

, Yiuchw'an ^

, 302 ,

, 6 ,

, Leangkiang

Liangkiang.

> 11 5

1 20 ,

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Lianghu

I 11 1

1 27 ,

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Liangkwang.

, 303 ,

1 34 ,

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<, Liang Tao

. 316 ,

1 12 ,

, Leang ,

, Liang

,341 ,

, 22 ,

, precison ,

, precision

, 354 ,

, 33 ,

, 1557

, 1575.

, 355 ,

1 17 1

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, Ch'ungcheng

1 364 ,

, 29 ,

, developped ,

developed.

, 395 ,

1 35 ,

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, Ceylon

1 412 ,

1 12 ,

, 2,210,688

, 6,210,688.

) ■) i J

1 28 ,

, tobaco ,

, tobacco.

1 429 ,

1 29 ,

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weirs

1 436 ,

1 14 ,

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, Tariffs III. IV. V.

1 449 ,

1 39 ,

1 922

, 722

1 454 ,

, 22 ,

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1 463 ,

1 17 ,

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, Wai-i.

1 470 ,

1 32 ,

, February 8 ,

February 2

, 489 ,

1 5 ,

, Hingngan ,

, Hsingngan

1 490 ,

, 5 ,

, Kerulun ,

, Kerulen

, 503 ,

1 35 ,

, Russo-Japan

, Russo-Japan war

1 504 ,

1 10 ,

, Shanghaikwan

Shanhaikwan

, 518 ,

1 10 ,

, Ulnasut'ai ,

Uliasut'ai

1 520 ,

, 23 ,

, evry

every

, 530 ,

1 19 ,

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Hwotien Fu

1 25 ,

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, Soch'e.

, 559 ,

1 15 ,

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Yuh-hwan

J ? J >

1 16 ,

, Territorial Intendancies ,

Intendancies.

, 560 ,

1 1 1

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, Tsunhwa

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1 19 1

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, Peh-hsiang ;fg

1 T > 5

, 36 ,

, 23 districts

, 21 districts.

T M '

, 37 ,

, 3 dependent ,

5 dependent

, 568 ,

, 11 1

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, P'engtseh

, 571 ,

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, Wengyiien.

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1 10 ,

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, Wengngan.

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1 574 ,

1 12 1

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, Ts'uentsiao

1 575 ,

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Wuchai.

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1 577 ,

1 42 ,

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, Yao c.

1 584 ,

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, Ch'ohkiangj^^

1 622 ,

1 33 ,

, Shihts'ien h

, Shihts'ien F.

Printed and published by the T'ubbwei Press, Shanghai. China.